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: i a A Library of | 
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Knowledge 


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Fi V3 


ERIE CANAL 


Erie, Battle of Lake, an important 
naval engagement of the war of 1812 
fought near the western extremity of 
Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 1813, between an 
American squadron of two large and 
seven small vessels, under Commodore 
Perry, and a British squadron of six ves- 
sels under Commodore Barclay. The 
Lawrence, flagship of Commodore Perry, 
on which the British fire has been con- 
centrated, was nearly sinking when Perry 
transferred his flag to the Niagara. On 
the blue pennant were transcribed the 
words of Captain Lawrence, “Don’t give 
up the ship.” The engagement lasted 
four hours, ending in a complete victory 
for Commodore Perry. One hundred 
years later, the Niagara was raised from 
its resting place on the bottom of the lake. 

Erie Gana a barge canal, 387 m. 
long, connecting Buffalo, on Lake Erie, 
with Albany on the Hudson River. This 
canal was begun in 1817 and opened for 
towboats in 1825. Its depth of four feet 
was subsequently increased to seven; 
and the original investment, of $7,602,- 
000, to $52,540,800. Plans for increas- 
ing the depth five feet having been ap- 
proved, some $75,000,000 was appropri- 
ated by the State of New York in 1903, 
and was finished and ready for operation 
in 1917, at a cost of about $150,000,000, 
thus opening the canal to barges having 
a net tonnage capacity of 2000 tons each. 

The Erie Canal is the longest canal in 
the world. It was the first great public 
work undertaken in the United States, 
and because portions of it were neces- 
sarily cut through the solid rock, but 


without the appliances available in our 


day, its completion was a national 


achievement that reflected special credit 


upon the State of New York and upon 


its governor, De Witt Clinton, prime 


mover in this great enterprise. By re- 
ducing the time required for the trans- 
portation of freight between Buffalo and 
Albany from 20 days to 10, and the 
charges from $100 to $10 per ton, the 


_ completion of the Erie Canal gave a mar- 


velous impetus to the development of the 
great West and assured for New York 
City that commercial and financial su- 


EROSION 


premacy which she has so long retained. 
Erie, Lake, next to the smallest of 
the Great Lakes. Its waters wash, Ohio, 


‘Pennsylvania and New York upon the 


south and the Province of Ontario upon 
the north. It is 250 m. long, 60 m. 
broad at its widest part and its area is 
nearly 10,000 sq. m. Lake Erie is the 
shallowest of the lakes and is, in conse- 
quence, subject to sudden and severe 
storms. It lies 564 ft. above sea level, 
or 330 ft. above Lake Ontario, with 
which it is connected by the Niagara 
River, with its famous falls; the Wel- 
land Canal (See WELLAND CANAL) car- 
ries lake traffic to Lake Erie, and the 
Erie Canal (See Erte CANAL) connects 
the lake with the Hudson River. Buf- 
falo, Erie, Toledo, Cleveland and San- 
dusky are the principal American ports, 
and Port Colborne, Port Dover, Port 
Stanley and Rondeau are the chief Cana- 
dian ports. 
E’ris, in myths, the Greek name for 
the goddess of discord. See DiscorptA. 
Eritrea, A’ri tre’ a, or Erythrea, Er’- 
yth re’ a, an Italian possession of Africa, 
upon the Red Sea and bordered by 
Egypt, Abyssinia and the Somali Coast. 
It is made up of a series of Italian col- 
onies located both upon the mainland and 
upon islands. Physically the country is. 
a part of the fertile Abyssinian high- 
lands, with rich soil and healthful cli- 
mate. Near the coast tropical condi- 
tions prevail. The natives practice a 
primitive form of agriculture and raise 
tobacco, cotton, vegetables and tropical 
fruits. Large herds of cattle are raised 
and the pearl fisheries are also a source 
of revenue. Asmara is the capital. The 
population numbers about 45,000, most 
of whom are of nomadic habits. 
Ermine, Er’ min. See WEASEL. 
Ero’sion, the wearing away of the 
earth’s surface, generally caused by rain, 
streams, waves, icé and wind. The 
acids and other chemical constituents of 
rain water aid in decomposing the rocks 
or in breaking them up into fine par- 
ticles, which the water carries to lower 
levels; thus slopes are*-worn down and 
angular cliffs become rounded. The 


84 969 


ERSKINE 


channels cut by rivers and streams fol- 
low the path of the softest rocks and 
soils and thus are winding and irregular, 
especially if the stream is a slowly-mov- 
ing one. Rapidly-flowing torrents often 
cut deep, vertical-walled valleys known 
as canyons (See CANYON). 

On the seashore where the rock is 
soft, the action of the waves often carves 
fantastic figures and hollows out arches 
and caves. Upon the southern shore of 
Lake Superior the Pictured Rocks, rap- 
idly being destroyed by the same power 
that produced them, were hollowed by 
the powerful waves of the lake as it 
was heaped up by the north winds. Not 
far from the region of the Pictured 
Rocks lie also the ancient Black Rocks, 
said to be among the oldest geologic for- 
mations and so hard that the waves have 
been unable to make any impression upon 
them. Glaciers rounded off summits and 
rough peaks by their constant motion in 
passing over them. The action of ice is 
chiefly that of breaking off rocks by 
freezing and thawing until cliffs are 
gradually crumbled away. 

Erskine, Ur’ skin, Thomas, Lorp 
(1750-1823), an eminent Scottish law- 
yer, lord chancellor of England. His 
father, the tenth Earl of Buchan, was 
in straightened circumstances and could 
not gratify the son’s desire for a college 
education. After serving for several 
years in the navy and in the army, spend- 
ing his leisure time in wide reading, Er- 
skine gave up his commission in 1775 
and studied law. Three years later he 
was admitted to the bar. In his first 
case he delivered a speech of remarkable 
eloquence and ability which at once as- 
sured his success and fortune. In later 
cases he gave the death-blow to the doc- 
trine of constructive treason and ren- 
dered great service to the cause of per- 
sonal liberty. In many of his noted 
cases, including his defense of Thomas 
Paine for publishing the second part of 
The Rights of Man, he displayed great 
skill and courage. He was elected to 
the House of Commons in 1783, where 
he served until 1806, when he became 
lord chancellor and was elevated to the 


ESCANABA 


peerage. His political career, however, 
did not reproduce the success achieved 
as a forensic advocate, and he died in 
comparative obscurity and poverty. 

Er’ ysip’elas, a bacterial disease af- 
fecting the skin and immediate under- 
lying tissues. In a large proportion of 
cases it affects the face and head. It 
causes acute inflammation, puffiness and 
sometimes gangrene. It is accompanied 
by fevér, headache, nausea and some- 
times delirium. The poisons occasionally 
wander into the joints and cause rheu- 
matism. It is highly contagious. Iron 
and quinine are thought to be the best 
tonics to be used in a treatment of 
erysipelas. Nutritious and_ digestible 
foods, milk, cod-liver oil and something 
in the form of a stimulant should also be 
given. 

Er’ythre’a. See ERITREA. 

E”sarhad’don, King of Assyria, son 
and successor of Sennacherib. He came 
to the throne in 680 B. C. He fought 
against his brothers, who had killed Sen- 
nacherib, engaged in a conflict with the 
Chaldeans, and in 672 B. C. reduced 
Egypt to the condition of an Assyrian 
province. 

E’sau, the eldest son of Isaac and 
Rebekah, and twin brother of Jacob. It 
is recorded of him that he was a skillful 
hunter, of a roving and restless disposi- 
tion, full of animal spirits. The story of 
his disposal of his birthright for a mess 
of pottage and subsequent quarrel and 
reconciliation with Jacob is one of the 
familiar narratives of the book of Gen- 
esis. After the death of Isaac, Esau 
removed to Mt. Seir, where he became 
the progenitor of the Edomites. 

Escanaba, Es’ka naw’ ba, Mich, a 
city and the county seat of Delta Co., 
about 73 m. s.e. of Marquette and 115 
m. n.e. of Green Bay, on Little Bay de 
Noquette, an inlet of Green Bay, Lake 
Michigan, and on the Chicago & North 
Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul and other railroads. With a good 
harbor and several large, well-equipped 
docks, the town is an important shipping 
point. Its trade is chiefly in iron ore, 
fish, lumber flooring, coal, furniture and 


970 


ESDRAELON 


woodenware. There is an ore plant lo- 
cated here and also a tie-preserving plant. 
Water power is derived from the Esca- 
naba River. Escanaba has a _ water 
frontage of eight miles, and the fine 
boating and fishing and picturesque scen- 
ery make it a popular summer resort. 
The town was settled in 1863, was incor- 
porated as a village in 1883 and in the 
same year chartered as a city. Popula- 
tion in 1920, 13,103. 

Esdraelon, Es’dra e'lon, or Plain of 
Jezreel, a plain of central Palestine, 
extending from Jenin on the south to the 
hills of Nazareth on the north, and from 
Gilboa on the east to Carmel on the west. 
It is drained by the River Kishon. In 
Biblical times the plain was invaded by 
the Canaanites, the Midianites, by the 
Philistines and by the Syrians, and was 
the great battleground of the Israelites 
in their repelling of the many invasions 
of their land. 

Esdras, Ez’ dras, Books of, certain 
‘books of the Apocrypha (See Apoc- 
RYPHA). They are generally divided 
into the First Book of Esdras and the 
Second Book of Esdras. The first book 
seems to be a compilation of narratives 
by various authors; the first chapter is a 
repetition of the last two chapters of 
Second Chronicles, with some variations 
of the text, and the rest of the book is 
a transcript of portions of Ezra and Ne- 
hemiah. The Second Book consists of 
angelic revelations and a series of visions 
concerning the mysteries of the moral 
world and the final triumph of righteous- 
ness. 

Es’kimo, a race of North American 
Indians living on the Arctic coast of 
North America, from Alaska to Green- 
land, and on the islands to the north. A 
few live across Bering Strait on the 
Asiatic coast. The Eskimos call them- 
selves Innuit, or “the people; our name 
for the race is a corruption of an Ojib- 
way word meaning “eaters of raw 
flesh.” 

As a people the Eskimos are generally 
short, although some of the men are six 
feet in height. They are muscular, with 
fat, good-humored faces that are apt to 


ESKIMO DOG 


be rather flat; the hair is coarse and 
black and is generally either fastened in 
a loose knot or left hanging. Men and 
women dress much after the same fash- 
ion in coats and trousers made of the 
skins of the seal, reindeer or bear; the 
coat has a hood at the top, which may be 
drawn over the head or is used by the 
mother for carrying her child. 

The Eskimos are not at all cleanly in 
their habits, and as they seldom wash, 
their skin is coated thickly with smoke, 
oil and filth. Their summer homes are 
tents of skin built much like tepees, 
while in winter they are burrowed half 
underground and protected at the top by 
walls of turf, ice and snow, stones or 
even bones. A basin of oil with a moss 
wick serves as a lamp and a stove, and 
the only furniture is a bench, which may 
be used as a table, bed or chair. Since 
cultivation of the soil is generally im- 
possible, the food of the Eskimo is 
chiefly derived by fishing and hunting, 
and the seal and reindeer supply not only 
the greater part of their food and cloth- 
ing but their other necessities and con- 
veniences as well. Sometimes berries 
and roots form an agreeable change in 
their diet. 

Much interest has recently been 
aroused by Stefanssen’s report, in 1912, 
of the discovery of blond Eskimos about 
Victoria Land and Coronation Gulf 
north of Canada. Two villages were 
found there in which there was but one 
individual who had seen any people other 
than those of his own tribe. 

Eskimo Dog, a wolflike species of 
dogs found in Arctic regions of Asia and 
North America and of great use to the 
natives who train them to draw their 
sledges and to aid them in the hunt. 
They are no doubt partially descended 
from wolves, if they are not, as some 
claim, merely half-civilized wolves. 
They are broad-chested dogs with strong 
shoulders, short, erect ears, a long, sharp 
muzzle and a straight bushy tail. The 
hair is woolly and exceedingly thick and 
warm; .in’ color it ‘is./ grayish, ° black, 
brown or white. Tne Eskimo dog is 
remarkable for its endurance; a sledge 


971 


ESPARTO 


team of five will pull a heavily-laden 
sledge an average of 60 m. per day, and 
the only care required by the dogs is 
that they be supplied with food of fish 
and meat. They are cunning hunters, 
but cannot learn to leave sheep or domes- 
tic animals unharmed. Since the rapid 
settlement of Alaska, the introduction of 
other breeds of dogs and the heavy work 
reyuired of dogs, an Alaskan variety of 
Eskimo dog has appeared, somewhat less 
wolflike than the original of the species. 

Espar’to, a valuable member of the 
Grass Family, growing sparingly in the 
United States. Its most common habitat 
is the Mediterranean countries, chiefly 
Spain and Algeria. Esparto grows in 
tufts or bunches from six inches to three 
feet in diameter, and has sage-green, 
hairy leaves, which when young are used 
for fodder for cattle. The long, flat, 
rushlike leaves resemble our feather 
grass and grow to a height of five feet, 
but when the plant ripens and is dried 
they become somewhat inflated. The 
plants grow in beds ten feet or more in 
diameter, in any sunny place where the 
soil is dry and sandy. It may be raised 
from seed, but requires 10 or 15 years 
to attain its growth. After a few years 
of growth the stem and leaves become 
tough and are then used for their fiber. 

In Spain, on account of its lightness 
and toughness, esparto has long been 
used in the making of cordage and float- 
ing cables. It has also been employed 
for some time in the manufacture of 
matting. 
years the French discovered that it could 
be used in the manufacture of paper, and 
now it is being employed extensively for 
that purpose in the United States, Eng- 
land and France. For this purpose it is 
pulled during the summer, dried in the 
sun and packed in bales to be exported. 
See PAPER. 

Recently it has been acclimated to the 
United States, where it grows, in scat- 
tered localities, from Maine to Minne- 
sota. Investigations are being made to 
discover whether the slag left after burn- 
ing the vegetable matter can be used in 
the manufacture of glass, as esparto, like 


During comparatively recent 


ESSEX, EARLS OF 


all grasses, contains a large per cent of 
silica. 


Esperanto, Es"pe rahn'to, an in= 


vented language formed by Dr. L. L. 
Zamenhof, a Russian of Warsaw, and 
designed to become an international aux- 
iliary language; it is not intended to re- 
place any languages now in use. The 
words are chiefly of Latin origin but are 
to some extent derived from all lan- 
guages. Spelling is entirely phonetic 
and the grammar has no exceptions to 
its rules. The vocabulary has about 
2500 root words. 

The first book of Esperanto was pub- 
lished in 1887 and the language is now 
familiar to many people. The first Es- 
peranto society of the United States was 
organized at Boston in 1905, and now 
many local societies as well as a national 
association known as the Esperanto As- 
sociation of North America are in op- 
eration. Already Esperanto has a large 
literature and many periodicals. Inter- 
national congresses have been held at 
Boulogne, Geneva, Cambridge, Dresden, 
Barcelona, Washington and Antwerp. 

Essex, Earls of, a line of earls prob- 
ably beginning with Geoffrey de Mande- 


ville about 1139, The title passed by 


marriage to the Bohuns, Earls of Her- 


-ford, in the 13th century and became ex- 


tinct in 1373. It was afterwards held by 
the Duke of Gloucester, son of Edward 
III and husband of Eleanor de Bohun, 
and thereafter by his descendants, the 
Bourchiers, until 1540. Thomas Crom- 
well held the title for a short time before 
his execution in 1540, when it: passed to 
William Parr through his wife, the 
daughter of the last Bourchier earl; and 
then to the famous family of Devereux, 
the first of whom, Walter Devereux 
(1541-1576), was related to the Bour- 
chiers. 


Essex, Ropert DEVEREUX (1567-1601), 


second earl of this line, graduated at 
Cambridge in 1581, distinguished himself 
in an expedition against Holland and 
then took his place at court, where he 
became the chief favorite of Queen Eliz- 
abeth after the death of Leicester. He 
was loaded with honors and given com- 


972 


bane 


ESSEX, THE 


mand of several English expeditions. 
But he quarreled with the Queen; and 
for acting contrary to instructions as 
lord lieutenant of Ireland during an in- 
surrection, and for other ill-advised con- 
duct, he was tried for treason, his former 
friend Francis Bacon acting as prose- 
cutor, and was condemned and executed. 

Essex, Ropert DEVEREUX (1591-1646), 
third earl of this line, was the son of 
the preceding. He was educated at Eton 
and Oxford and became one of the com- 
panions of the Prince of Wales, after- 
watd Charles I, As’ early as 1626 he 
joined the side of Parliament in its op- 
position to Charles, and when the Civil 
War broke out in 1642 he was appointed 


' to the chief command of the Parlia- 


mentary army. As the war advanced he 
manifested hesitation in pushing success 
to the limit and in fighting against the 
King in person. Having also become 
entangled with the House of Commons 
over. the matter of military appoint- 
ments, he resigned his commission. 
Hs’sex, The, a famous frigate of the 
American navy. Under Captain Porter 
it went to South American waters, where 
it captured a convoy from the British 
frigate Minerva, and, Aug. 13, 1812, was 
attacked by the British. sloop Alert, 
which it took after a single broadside. 
It then cruised for over a year in the 
Pacific Ocean, capturing British whal- 
ing vessels valued at more than $2,500,- 
O00, besides hundreds of seamen. In 
February, 1814, however, it was block- 


_aded by the British men-of-war, Phebe 


and Cherub, in the harbor of Valparaiso, 
South America, and in attempting to run 
the blockade was attacked, March 28. 
The battle which took place was one of 
the most desperate of the War of 1812 
and one of the most remarkable in naval 
history, fully two-thirds of the Amer- 
icans being killed or wounded before 
Captain Porter surrendered. 

Esthonia. A section of country lying 
between the Gulf of Finland and Latvia, 
and Russia and the Baltic Sea. It in- 


cludes the old Russian province of Es- 


thonia and northern Livonia. It is the 
country of the Esths, a Finno-Ugrian 


ESTHER 


people, closely akin to the Finns whom 


they resemble in language, and mental 
and physical traits. Their present loca- 
tion suggests that they have been forced 
out of more favored sections in Russia. 
Their country was long ruled by the Ger- 
man religious order of the Brothers of 
the Sword, as a consequence a large part 
of the land is in the possession of Ger- 
man families, and old Esthonia was 
known as one of the German provinces 
of Russia. Owing to its strategical loca- 
tion, various Scandinavian countries con- 
tended for its possession. 


Esthonia passed finally under the con- 
trol of Russia by the Treaty of Nassau 
in 1721. It remained a Russian province 
until the close of the World War. But 
the Esthonians are not a Slavic people, 
and when the Russian government was 
overthrown in 1917 Esthonia declared 
its independence. Area estimated about 
10,000 sq. mi. 

See Brest-Litovsk. 

Estate, originally the legal term for 
one’s common law interest in his land, 
but now extended to include all the prop- 
erty which one leaves to be divided at 
his death. Common-law estates are di- 
vided into two classes, free-hold estates 
and estates of less than free hold. A 
free-hold estate in fee simple may be dis- 
posed of by the owner at will. If held 
in fee-tail, it is limited to certain heirs 
and cannot be disposed of by the posses- 
sor except by the consent of these heirs. 
In the United States fee-tails are gen- 
erally abolished. See ENTAIL. 

Esther, Fs’ ter, a book of the Old 
Testament which contains an episode in 
the history of those Israelites who re- - 
mained in captivity after the return of 
their countrymen to Jerusalem. The 
scene of the narrative is the royal city 
of Susa; the events occur in the reign 
of Ahasuerus, King of Persia, 485-465 
B. C. The courage and loyalty of Queen 
Esther is the theme of this, one of the 
many charming narratives of Hebrew lit- 
erature. The book is written in He- 
brew, though additions in Greek have. 
been made. The authorship, which is 


973 


ESTUARY 


unknown, has been attributed to Mor- 
decai, kinsman of Esther, and to Ezra. 
See Bipie, subhead The Old Testament. 

Es’tuary, the enlarged channel at the 
mouth of a river, or an arm of the sea 
narrowing inwards at a river’s mouth in 
which there is considerable tidal disturb- 
ance. An estuary is usually formed by 
the submergence of the land at the 
mouth of a stream, which is further worn 
away by erosive action of the tides and 
waves. Estuaries are usually obstructed 
by shifting bars which interfere with 
navigation. At high tide the force of 
the waves causes the sand and mud 
brought down by the river to be depos- 
ited some distance from the sea; while 
at ebb tide a large part of this deposit is 
carried out to form a bar some distance 
beyond. Consitlerable turbidity of the 
waters is the result of this oscillation. 
In some estuaries the tides move rapidly 
against the current of the stream, caus- 
ing what is known as a “bore,” a phe- 
nomenon common in the Bay of Fundy. 

Etch’ing, the process of engraving 
metal plates by means of an acid. A 
clean plate is covered with a composi- 
tion of Egyptian asphaltum, virgin wax 
and Burgundian pitch, known as an 
etching ground, which protects the sur- 
face during the action of the acid. The 
figure or design is cut through this cov- 
ering with tools called etching needles; 
afterwards the plate is placed in a weak 
solution of nitric acid, which eats or bites 
the figure in the plate. Etching is often 
combined with engraving to produce fine 
effects. See ENGRAVING; ZINC ETCHING. 

Ete’sian Winds, the north and north- 
east winds which blow over southern 
Europe during the summer season. They 
are thought to be the indraught due to 
the rising of the heated air over the 
Desert of Sahara. These winds are 
strongest in July and August. 

H’ther, or Sulphu’ric Ether, a light, 
easily evaporated liquid composed of car- 
bon, hydrogen and oxygen. It is highly 
inflammable and colorless and has a 
sweetish taste and odor. It is medically 
valuable as an anesthetic and in the 
United States is more generally used 


ETHICS 


than chloroform. It is estimated that 
there is an average of only one death in 
16,000 cases, due to its use. Ether is 
also used in medicines whose object is 
to dissolve fats or resins, since ether is 
a powerful solvent of such compounds. 
Eth’ics (from Greek ethikos, pertain- 
ing to conduct or character), the science 
of human conduct. There are also other 
sciences, however, that deal with con- 
duct: anthropology, ethnology, psychol- 
ogy, political economy, sociology. But 
these describe human activities; ethics 
judges them. Ethics is therefore the 
science that treats of conduct with refer- 
ence to its moral qualities, whether it is 
right or wrong, good or bad. Moreover, 
if we define ethics as a science the term 
should be understood in a sense broad 
enough to include the philosophical basis 
and the practical issues involved. That 
is, ethics is not exclusively a science, but 
partly also a philosophy and an art. 
What are the motives that impel men 
to action? Why does a man choose this 
object of endeavor rather than that? 
What are the ends that men seek in life? 
These questions place before ethics a 
part of its task, the scientific investiga- 
tion and analvsis of the motives that 
actually form the springs of action. 
Without this, ethics is in danger of los- 
ing itself in profitless a priori specula- 
tions. But more than this is involved 
also. Can we determine among these 
motives, or from any source, what end is 
right or best for men to seek, what is 
the highest good, the summum bonum 
of life? Thoughtful men have asked this 
question in all ages. It involves more 
than purely scientific problems, and in- 
cludes philosophical and religious con- 
sideration of permanent moral values. 
There are, and have been since the 
days of the Greeks, two main theories of 
what constitutes the highest good. One 
is known as hedonism. It makes pleas- 
ure or happiness the highest good. Not 
necessarily the pleasure of the senses, or 
the pleasure of today, however; it may 
emphasize also the higher forms of 
pleasure and may even advocate present 
sacrifice for the sake of future happi- 


974 


ETHICS 


ness. Nor is the theory limited exclu- 
sively to individualistic pleasure; in 
modern times it has been extended to 
include the greatest happiness of the 
greatest number, the ethical theory 
known as utilitarianism. 

The other main theory is that the 
highest good is found in virtue or per- 
fection, and its advocates are known as 
Perfectionists. They claim that hedon- 
ism is wrong in calling pleasure the mo- 
tive of action; that pleasure is at best 
no more than the result of right action; 
that a man does not eat his dinner, for 
instance, because there is pleasure in do- 
ing so, but for other reasons, and pleas- 
ure is only incidental; that great num- 
bers of men, as a matter of fact, are 
living their lives without making pleas- 
ure their chief aim. The highest good 
is, rather, in the achievement of that de- 
velopment and self-realization, for the 
individual and the community, the possi- 
bilities of which are inherent in their 
constitution and nature. Just what is 
the content of the highest good may not 
be known in full from the beginning, but 
is discovered more and more in the proc- 
ess of historical evolution. This ethical 
theory has assumed many special forms 
in the course of history, and has re- 
garded the highest good as determined 
in various ways: by the law of God, by 
the requirements of human reason, by 
the ultimate constitution of things, by 
the fundamental human needs or wants 
existing in individual and community 
life, by the growing ideals of humanity 
from age to age. 

In addition to the problem of motives 
and the nature of the summum bonum, 
there arises the other question, Why 
should a man seek the highest good at 
all? Ethics includes, therefore, a con- 
sideration of the problems connected with 
right and wrong, obligation, conscience. 
The most satisfactory conception with 
reference to this aspect of ethics seems 
to be that the feeling of obligation is not 
forced from without, but is a constituent 
element of reason itself. The nature of 
the mind is such that the very perception 
‘of the highest good carries with it a 


ETHNOLOGY 


sense of obligation that this end ought 
to be actualized in life. Conscience is 
not some separate faculty, or sixth sense, 
but is the reason of man dealing with 
questions of moral ends and their attain- 
ment. The ideals of the highest good 
may change from age to age with grow- 
ing knowledge, but conscience is the 
“categorical imperative,” requiring us to 
seek that end which reason has approved 
as best. 

The study of ethics also leads out into 
consideration of the institutions of so- 
ciety, such as the family, business activi- 
ties, the school, the Church, the State, in 
which conduct finds its concrete signifi- 
cance and ripens into character; and: 
where the individual secures that free- 
dom and self-realization which come only 
through the fulfillment of his function in 
the midst of his environment. See 
CYRENAICS; CY NICS; EPICUREANISM; 
STOICISM ; HEDONISM ; UTILITARIANISM ; 
PHILOSOPHY ; ALSTHETICS. 

E’thio’pia, the ancient name for the 
region south of Egypt now included in 
Nubia, Abyssinia, Kordofan and Sen- 
nar. In the Bible it is spoken of as the 
Land of Cush. At one time it must have 
been a powerful country, with Meroe, a 
city whose ruins are still to be seen on 
the Nile, as its capital. The language 
is a Semitic form still used in the Abys- 
sinian Church. The kings of Ethiopia 
frequently ruled over Egypt, but Egypt 
never gained control of Ethiopia. Abys- 
sinia is now frequently called Ethiopia. 

Ethnog’raphy, the science which 
deals with the distribution over the earth 
of races and peoples. It is a branch of 
anthropology and is closely related to 
ethnology. It deals specifically with the 
scientific division of men into races and 
nations. See ANTHROPOLOGY; ETHNOL- 
OGY. | 
Ethnol’ogy, that branch of anthro- 
pology whose unit of study is mankind. 
It treats of man’s development intellectu- 
ally through different stages; his re- 
ligion, customs, government, trade and 
commercial organization, art and lan- 
euage. It takes up the study of man at 
the stage where anthropological investi- 


979 


ETNA 


gation ends. See ANTHROPOLOGY; ETH- 
NOGRAPHY. | 

Et’na, or A®tna, the largest volcano 
in Europe. It is in northern Sicily, close 
by the city of Catania. It rises abruptly 
from the sea to a height of 10,755 ft., 
and has a circumference of 100 m., at the 
base. The top is capped with snow sum- 
mer and winter; halfway down the side 
the mountain is densely wooded; and at 
the base are vineyards and orchards. 
Several small towns are dotted about 
over the lower slopes. A traveler pass- 
ing from the base to the summit journeys 
through several climates—at the base the 


warmth of the Sicilian plain, midway , 


to the top climate corresponding to that 
of the Northern countries and at the top 
perpetual winter. From the summit a 
wonderful view is obtained, embracing 
all of Sicily and a large part of lower 
Italy, the Lipari Islands and Malta. 
Many destructive eruptions from Etna 
have occurred at various times. In the 
12th century 1500 lives were lost and 
almost as many again in 1669, In 1693 
the eruption and the accompanying earth- 
quake destroyed 60,000 lives. Other dis- 
astrous eruptions took place in 1755, 
1832, 1865, 1874, 1879, 1906 and 1907; 
and in 1911 occurred an eruption more 
violent than any of recent times, which 
brought serious damage to the adjacent 
country. 

B’ton College, at Eton, England 
(1440). It was founded by Henry VI 
in the little village on the Thames facing 
Windsor and was first called “The Col- 
lege of the Blessed Mary at Eton be- 
side Windsor.” It was originally a 
school for the poor but is now a popular 
school for the nobility. Students are en- 
tered between the ages of 12 and 14 
years, and the work is largely prepara- 
tory in character. Although the school 
is now housed in well-equipped build- 
ings, one of the original buildings, begun 
in 1441, is still in use. 

Etru’ria, an ancient Italian country 
occupying what is now included in the 
provinces of Latium and Tuscany. Its 
ancient inhabitants are known as Etrus- 
cans. Physically, it was bounded by the 


EUCALYPTUS 


Tiber and the Apennines, while it 
stretched to the Mediterranean on the 
west. It was already inhabited and in a 
high state of civilization at the time of 
the founding of Rome. Under the Tar- 
quins, Rome became mistress of Etruria, 
but later the Tarquins were expelled and 
the Etruscans, under Lars Porsena of 
Clusium, endeavored to establish them- 
selves in Rome. The defeat of the 
Etruscans in the Battle of Lake Regillus 
and the treaty with Carthage were among 
the last notable events of Etruria’s days 
of power. In 309 B. C. Etruria became 
wholly Roman, although for nearly two 
centuries her cities excelled Rome in cul- 
ture and in prosperity. 

Etrus’cans. See ETRURIA. 

Eubea, U be'a, an island of Greece, 
the largest in the group lying in the 
/Egean Sea. Its length is 98 m. and it 
has an average width of 30 m. The 
highest summit of the mountains which 
traverse it is Mt. Delphi, extending to a 
height of about 5725 ft. Grain, figs, wine 
and oil are the chief products of the fer- 
tile soil. The island was once the source 
of the grain supply of ancient Athens, 
and its honey still remains of excellent 
quality. Chalcis, Eretria and Carystus 
are the principal towns. The Abantes 
and Dryopes were the earliest inhabit- 
ants, and after the settlement of the 
island by the Ionians, about 1100 B. C., 
it rose rapidly in importance and soon 
became a center of learning and the seat 
of the Eubcean School of Philosophy. 
After the Persian Wars it was in the pos- 
session of Athens, became independent 
after the Peloponnesian War, and was in 
the possession of the Turks from 1470 
until the Greek Revolution. Since 1830 
it has formed a part of the new Greek 
state. Population, about 59,000. 

Eucalyptus, U’ka lip’tus, a large 
class of splendid trees belonging to the 


‘Myrtle Family and native in Australia. 


They have tall, slender trunks and 
branches which tend to a vertical rather 
than a horizontal position. The leaves 
are long and pointed, generally growing 
in pairs upon the stem and always cov- 
ered with small, resinous spots. The 


976 : 


EUCHRE 


flowers grow in almost stemless clusters 
in the axils of the leaves. These trees 
are chiefly remarkable for their great 
size, as some attain to a height of nearly 
500. ft. These tallest species are gum 
trees and are knowl as the blue gums; 
they are grown in California and the 
Gulf States and produce an oil which is 
used medicinally. Recently it has been 
found that this oil is an effective deodor- 
izer, disinfectant and antiseptic, and, with 
the increased use of these, the produc- 
tion of oil of eucalyptus has increased in 
importance as an industry. Eucalyptus 
wood is light and durable and is used 
in shipbuilding, and for various other 
purposes. 

Euchre, U' ker, a game of cards fh 
two or more persons, in which 24 or 32 
cards are used, all spot cards below the 
7 or the 9 being thrown out. The cards 
are dealt, two to each and then three to 
each, or vice versa, and the dealer then 
turns the top card face-up on the pack 
which remains. If but two are playing, 
and the nondealer holds cards which will 
probably take three tricks, he orders the 
dealer to take up the trump. If not, he 
passes; and then the dealer either takes 
up the trump and discards his least valu- 
able card, or turns the trump down. 
Each, in turn, then has an opportunity to 
make either of the other three suits 
trump. The one who orders up, or takes 
up the trump, or the one who makes it 
must lead. If he wins either three or 
four tricks, he scores one; if he wins 
five, two; otherwise he is euchred, and 
his opponent scores two upon taking 
three tricks. The game is five points, or 
ten if so agreed. 

In the trump suit, the jack, or right 
bower, is high; then the jack of the 
same color, or left bower, the ace, king, 
etc., in order, but in other suits the ace 
is the highest card. In every trick each 
must follow suit if possible. Any trump, 
however, will take any card of another 
suit. When neither will make the trump, 
the deal goes to the opposing player. 
When three or more play single-handed, 
each may agree to help the others against 
the maker ‘of the trump. The game is 


EUGENE 


then known as cut-throat euchre; and, 
if together they win three tricks, each 
scores two. To complicate the game, a 
single card known as the joker, and the 
highest card inthe pack, is sometimes in- 
troduced. Four-handed euchre is gen- 
erally played by partners, either of whom 
may play alone in a given hand if he so 
elects. Should he win’ five ‘tricks; a 
march, he scores four. 

Euclid, U’klid, of Alexandria, a 
Greek mathematician living about 300 
B. C. Because of his work in geometry. 
that branch of mathematics is still fre- 
quently called Euclid. His works include 
13 books on geometry and several less 
important treatises on mathematical sub- 
jects. 

Eudiometer, U"di om’ e ter, a gradu- 
ated glass tube bent like the letter U, in 
which is introduced wires for producing 
electric sparks. The instrument is used 
for analyzing gaseous mixtures and de-_ 
termining their purity, and for this pur- 
pose electricity i is often employed. 

Eugéne, U"zhen', Francois (1663- 
1736), a famous ‘general, commonly 
known as Prince Eugéne of Savoy. He 
was born in Paris. His own desire for 
a military career prevailed over the plan 
of his family, that he enter the Church. 
Because of his mother’s banishment from 
court, by Louis XIV, and his failure to 
obtain a commission in the latter’s 
army, Eugene entered the service of Leo- 
pold of Austria, having acquired a hatred 
of the King of France that time never 
cooled. He first fought against the 
Turks, later took an active part in the ° 
war of the Coalition against Louis, and 
in 1691 became commander of the im- 
perial army in Piedmont. About this - 
time Louis tried to secure him for serv- 
ice, by heavy bribes which he scorned to 
accept. In 1697 he defeated the Turks 
in Hungary in the famous Battle of 
Zenta. In 1701, at the outbreak of the 
War of the Spanish Succession, Eugéne 
was put in command of the army in 
Italy, and later was transferred to Ger- 
many. With Marlborough he won the 
brilliant victory over the French and 
Bavarians, at Blenheim, Aug. 13, 1704. 


977 


EUGENE 


In 1706 he expelled the French from 
Italy; at Oudenarde, in 1708, and at 
Malplaquet, in 1709, he shared in the 
triumphs of Marlborough. After the 
close of the War of the Spanish Succes- 
sion, Eugene again bore a prominent part 
in the war against the Turks, renewed in 
1716. In his later years he was a patron 
of art and literature. 

Eugene, U jeen’, Ore., a city and the 
county seat of Lane Co., 124 m. s.w. of 
Portland, on the Willamette River and 
on the Southern Pacific and other rail- 
roads. It is the commercial focus of the 
fertile farming district comprising the 
Upper Willamette Valley, a region 
famed for its timber and mineral wealth 
(gold and silver). In the city are nu- 
merous industrial plants, including saw 
and planing mills, canneries, flour mills, 
sash, door and blind factories, tanneries, 
machine shops and ironworks, excelsior 
factories and brickyards. Eugene is the 
seat of the Oregon State University, 
opened in 1876. Settled in 1854, the 
place was incorporated ten years later; it 
is at present administered under a char- 
ter of 1893. Population in 1920, 10,593. 

Eugenics, U jen'iks, the science of 
race improvement, whether of plants, 
lower animals or human beings. In re- 
cent years the term has been used more 
especially in the latter sense; Sir Fran- 
cis Galton, who first thus made use of 
the expression, defines it as the “study of 
agencies under social control that may 
improve or impair the racial qualities of 
the future generations either mentally or 
physically.” The fact that there are so 
many feeble-minded, insane, blind, deaf 
or otherwise subnormal children born 
into the world has led to the scientific 
study of the causes and an effort to re- 
move them. To assist in this, Galton has 
made a gift of $250,000 to the Univer- 
sity of London for the establishment of 
a chair of eugenics. At the same time the 
subject excited attention in America and 
the American Breeders’ Association ap- 
pointed a Eugenics Committee, whose 
chairman was Dr. David Starr Jordan. 
The duties of the committee are the col- 
lection of data upon the subject of race 


EUPHRATES 


improvement, research work for the pur- 
pose of enlarging knowledge of the sub- 
ject and, lastly, the disseminating of the 
facts learned. This committee has al- 
ready established a record office, and in 
London a magazine of eugenics is being 
published. 

At present the practical value of the 
study cannot be determined. The work 
is philanthropic in that it aims at the bet- 
terment of all classes; it favors legis- 
lative restrictions of the marriage of 
those physically unfit. Among the most 
readable books on the subject may be 
mentioned J. A. Thompson, Heredity; 
Jordan, The Heredity of Richard Roe; 
Galton, Studies in National Eugenics; 
Pearsons, National Life from the Stand- 
point of Eugenics; Saleeby, Parenthood 
and Race Culture; Burbank, The Train- 
ing of the Human Plant. 

Eugénie-Marie, U”zha"ne'-Mah ree’, 
de Montijo (1826-1920), formerly Em- 
press of the French as wife of Napoleon 
III. She was born at Granada, in Spain, 
the second daughter of the Count of 
Montijo. She possessed great personal 
charm and beauty, and married Louis 
Napoleon in 1853, soon after he was pro- 
claimed emperor. Several times she 
acted as regent in the absence of the 
Emperor. When the war broke out with 
Germany (1870), she was again ap- 
pointed to this position, but was forced 
to flee to England, where she was joined 
by her son and later by her husband. 
The Emperor died in 1873, and her son 
was killed in 1879 while serving as a 
volunteer in the Zulu War. The follow- 
ing year she visited the spot and brought 
the body back to be buried by the side of 
his father. She continued to live in re- 
tirement in England, interested in pass- 
ing events, but taking no part in French 
politics. 

Euphorbia, U for’ bi a. See SPURGE 
FAMILY, 

Euphrates, U fra’ teez, the great river 
of Mesopotamia, forming with its trib- 
utary, the Tigris, the chief river system 
in the western part of the continent. Two 
branches are its source in Armenia: the 
Kara Su, or Western Euphrates, rising 


978 


EUREKA 


northeast of Erzerum and flowing south- 
west until it is joined by the Murad Su; 
the Eastern Euphrates, coming from the 
slope of Ala-Dagh, and joining the Kara 
Su below Seraijik. Its course is then 
among the Anti-Taurus Mountains for 
about 45 m., and it later flows in an unin- 
terrupted course of 1200 m. to the Med- 
iterranean Sea. Along its way it sepa- 
rates Mesopotamia from Syria and the 
Syrian Arabian deserts, and at Kurna 
it is joined by the Tigris River. Its total 
length is more than 1700 m., and the 
estimated area of its basin is 260,000 sq. 
m. Commercially, the river has slight 
importance, for scarcely more than 450 
m. are continuously navigable, owing to 
the shallowness of its water. Histori- 
cally, on the other hand, the Euphrates 
has been foremost among the rivers of 
the world. The early history of the old 
Oriental world empires connects closely 
with the river, for it was then a scene 
of crude but significant means of com- 
merce and travel. The allusions in Jer- 
emuah and writings of other prophets re- 
veal the attitude of the Hebrews to the 
river, which in their dreams represented 
the limit of their territory. It was one 
of the four rivers of Eden, and is re- 
ferred to in the Bible as “the Great 
River,” or “the River.” 

Eure’ka, Cal., a city and the county 
seat of Humboldt Co., 225 m. n.w. of 
San Francisco, on Humboldt Bay and on 
the California Western, the San Fran- 
cisco & North Western and other rail- 
roads. There is a fine harbor and con- 
nection with Pacific-coast ports by regu- 
lar steamship lines. The city is in the 
famous redwood region, and there is an 
extensive trade in red lumber. Other 
important articles of commerce are shin- 
gles, wool, apples, butter and fish. There 
are numerous lumber mills, an iron 
foundry, a tannery, a woolen mill and a 
swiss cheese factory. There is a fine 
courthouse, Carnegie library and a mag- 
nificent tourist hotel. In the vicinity is 
Sequoia Park, a redwood forest of 40 
acres. Settled in 1850, Eureka was in- 
corporated in 1856. Pop. in 1920, 12,193. 

Euripides, U rip’ i deez, (about 480- 


EUROPA 


406 B. C.), a Greek dramatic poet, born 
probably at Salamis. He received a lib- 
eral education, was trained to become an 
athlete, essayed painting and finally, at 
the age of 25, produced his first play, the 
Peliades, and was recognized as a tragic 
poet. Several times during his life he 
competed for the first prize—he won the 
distinction only five times—but he was 
never wholly popular, and was eclipsed 
by Sophocles and Aristophanes, who con- 
formed entirely to the traditions of the 
old school. 

In the representation of human pas- 
sion, lay his greatest strength. He places 
the struggle within the soul of man him- 
self, instead of making it a conflict be- 
tween man and laws divine; in this re- 
spect he touches closely upon modern, 
especially the romantic, tragedy, of 
which he was the precursor. In style his 
works are admirable and have been 
deemed worthy of imitation; in plot they 
are weak and defective, for he often 
presents detached episodes without any 
pretense of securing unity. His pro- 
logues are invariably heavy and mechan- 
ical. He attempted to mold his tragedies 
to suit an age that was witnessing the 
undermining of the popular religion and 
a questioning of the belief in the gods 
and heroes of old. And the power and 
insight he manifested in this transitional 
age caused him to be ranked as one of 
the great tragic poets that Greece has 
produced. He wrote at least 75 pieces, 
of which a great number have been lost. 
His works embrace Alcestis, Androm- 
ache, Hecuba, Electra, Hercules Furens, 
Medea, Hippolytus, Bacche, Iphigenia 
Among the Taurians, Orestes, Troades 
and Phenisse. 

Euro’pa, in Greek mythology, a 
daughter of Agenor, King of Phcenicia, 
and a sister of Cadmus. According to 
legend, Jupiter, attracted by her beauty, 
assumed the form of a white bull and 
carried her on his back to Crete, where 
he resumed his human semblance and 
won her love. She bore him Minos, Sar- 
pedon and Rhadamanthus. Jupiter made 
her presents of the bronze man, Talos, a 
dog which never lost its prey and a spear 


979 


——. 


a ee a I 


EUROPE 


which never missed its mark. Europa 
subsequently became the bride of King 
Asterius of Crete, who adopted her sons. 

Europe, the smallest of the grand di- 
visions. It forms a part of the Conti- 
nent of Eurasia, from which it projects 
to the northwest as a huge peninsula. It 
is in the Eastern Hemisphere and lies 
between 71° 11’ and 36° north latitude 
and between 9° 28’ west and 66° 20’ east 
longitude. The Strait of Gibraltar and 


‘the strait between Sicily and Tunis sep- 


arate it from Africa on the south. 

S1zE. From north to south, from Cape 
North to Cape Matapan, its greatest ex- 
tent is 2400 m.; from east to west, from 
Cape St. Vincent to Ekaterinburg, 3400 
m. The total area of the mainland and 
adjoining islands, including Iceland, 
Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen, is about 
3,850,000 sq. m. Europe is peninsular 
in form, surrounded on three sides by 
the ocean or sea—the Arctic on the north, 
the Atlantic on the west and the Med- 
iterranean Sea on the south. The coast 
line is very irregular. Its length is esti- 
mated at 20,000 m.,.if only the large in- 
dentations are included; the entire shore 
line measures about twice that length. 
Although the size of Europe as a whole 
is comparatively small, its historical and 
political significance is unparalleled 
among the grand divisions of the globe. 

Coast WaterRS, On the north is the 
White Sea; on the west, the North Sea, 
Gulf of Bothnia, Baltic Sea, Gulf of Fin- 
land, Gulf of Riga, English Channel, 
Strait of Dover and the Bay of Biscay ; 
on the south, the Strait of Gibraltar, 
Gulf of Lyons, Gulf of Genoa, Adriatic 
Sea, AXgean Sea, the Dardanelles, Sea of 
Marmora, the Bosporus, Black Sea and 
Sea of Azov; on the east, the Caspian 
Sea. The Ural and Caucasian moun- 
tains, together with the Black and Cas- 
pian seas, form the boundary between 
Europe and Asia. Several important 
peninsulas extend into these waters. 
The Scandinavian Peninsula in the north 
is the largest in Europe. Here also is 
the Peninsula of Jutland. The three 
large peninsulas in the south are the 
Iberian, the Italian and the Balkan. The 


EUROPE 


shores washed by the coast waters are 
widely different, varying from the rock- 
bound and fiord coasts of Scotland and 
Norway and the steep coasts of the Med- 
iterranean to the sandy lowlands of 
Netherlands and Belgium. 

ADJACENT ISLANDS. The islands and 
peninsulas of Europe form about half its 
continental area. Both the Atlantic 
Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea con- 
tain numerous and important islands. In 
the northern seas are Iceland, Nova Zem- 
bla, Zealand, Aland, Gothland, Osel, 
Dago, Spitzbergen, Franz Josef Land, 
Bear Island, Jan Mayen, and, more im- 
portant, the British Isles and the Shet- 
land and Orkney islands. The Mediter- 
ranean group includes the Balearic Isles, 
Sicily, Corsica, Crete, Sardinia, Cyprus 
and minor groups and isles. Surround- 
ing the islands and between them and 
the Continent the sea is shallow, not ex- 
ceeding 700 ft. in depth. Many of the 
islands are extensions of the mountain 
ranges of the Continent. 

PuysicaL FEATuRES. The topography 
of Europe is comparatively simple. The — 
lowlands embrace fully two-thirds of the 
land mass and form a continuation of the 
great Asiatic plain. 

Highlands. There is one extensive 
mountain range in the south, and a sec- 
ondary system in the north. The smaller 
one occupies a large portion of Scandi- 
navia, the northwestern part of Scotland, 
the west of Great Britain and sections of 
Ireland and France. These mountain 
ranges are low and comparatively short, 
often consisting merely of single moun- 
tains or plateaus. The Scandinavian sys- 
tem is the highest; in Germany and 
France are the Jura, Vosges, Bohemian 
Forest, Harz, Black Forest, Erzegebirge, 
Thuringian Forest and Riesengebirge. 
The Ural mountain range is in the east- 
ern part of Europe. It has no connec- 
tion with the western elevations, but is 
the longest mountain range of the Con-- 
tinent. The southern high zone is a 
continuation of the immense range which 
traverses the south-central part of Asia. 
It breaks into Europe through the Cau- 
casian mountain range, and soon forms 


980 


adi} aonf fiavay uj umoys sumo} quvya 


009 Fr 00% T 
S29 39 P1B9S 


> yu Be, 
mo ; 


x AK Vel 
“@ AS 7 


NUOVANG 
4 C 


EUROPE 


the Alpine system. The Alps proper 
constitute the loftiest feature of the 
mass; to them are joined the Carpathian, 
Balkan and Apennine mountains. To 
the west of this group, and practically 
separated from it, are the Pyrenees and 
the Sierra Nevada of southern Spain. 
The Alpine system, due to its frequent 
passes, forms no great impediment to 
commerce, despite the fact that it is the 
highest point in Europe. Vesuvius is 
the only active volcano of the Continent. 
- The islands contain others, such as Etna 
in Sicily and Skaptar Jokull and Hekla 
in Iceland. 

Lowlands. Between these two high- 
lands lies the “great plain” of Europe. 
This area begins at the foot of the Ural 
Mountains, stretches out widely over 
Russia, extending to the Arctic and the 
Baltic seas, and continues along the 
shores of the North Sea and English 
Channel, through northern Germany and 
France to the Pyrenees. There are also 
fairly extensive lowlands enclosed by 
the mountains. Such are the plains of 
Switzerland, between the Jura and the 
Alps, and the river valleys of the Dan- 
ube, Po, Sadne, Rhone and other 
streams. 

Rivers and Lakes. The European 
watershed extends from southwest to 
northeast, from the central Ural Moun- 
tains through the Carpathians and the 
Alps to the Iberian Peninsula. The prin- 
cipal rivers descend from the Alps 
proper. Among the rivers of Russia 
which flow to the south are the Ural, 

Volga, Don, Dnieper and Dniester ; those 
emptying into the northern seas are the 
Dvina, Dtina and Petchora. In western 
Europe the continental area, the British 
Isles, the northern and the three south- 
erm peninsulas have their own river sys- 
tems. The Oder and the Vistula flow 
into the Baltic Sea;: the Rhine, the Elbe 
and the Thames into the North Sea; the 
Seine into the English Channel; the 
Loire, the Guadalquivir, the Tagus and 
the Guadiana into the Atlantic Ocean; 
the Ebro, the Rhone and the Po into the 
Mediterranean Sea; and the Danube 
into the Black Sea. | 


981 


EUROPE 


There are two principal lake areas of 
Europe, the southern and the northern. 
The former, centering around the Alps, 
embraces sheets of water celebrated for 
the beauty of their surrounding scenery. 
Here are found lakes Como, Lugano, 
Maggiore, Iseo, Geneva, Zurich, Garda, 
Constance, Lucerne, Ammer and many 
others. The largest salt-water lake in 
existence is- the Caspian Sea, between 
Europe and Asia. Russia contains lakes 
Onega and Ladoga, the most extensive 
of European fresh-water lakes. In Fin- 
land, Sweden, Norway and the British 
Isles are numerous lakes, many of them 
formed by ancient glaciers. 

GeEoLocy. One of the most interest- 
ing episodes in the geologic history of 
Europe was the advance from time to 
time of ice sheets from the highlands of 
Scandinavia. Smaller ice sheets also de- 
scended from the mountains of the 
southern part, and settled over the inter- 


-vening plains. Deposits of moraine, like 
clay or shingle, remained over vast re- 


gions when the ice disappeared. Also 
numerous lakes were scoured out and 
the course of streams was greatly mod- 
ified. 

The minerals of Europe are varied and 
abundant. Iron ores are richly distrib- 
uted, especially in Great Britain, Ger- 
many, France, Belgium, Norway and 
Sweden. Italy has iron ores, but no coal. 
Likewise in Russia the iron is far re- 
moved, even by rail, from the main 
sources of coal. The most advantageous 
combination of iron and coal deposits be- 
longs to England, and to this reason can 
be traced in large part her industrial 
supremacy. South Italy and Sicily sup- 
ply the bulk of all the sulphur used in 
the industries; Russia, most of the plat- 
inum; Spain and Portugal (among Eu- 
ropean countries), the greatest amount 
of copper; Spain, the most quicksilver 


and (next to the United States) the larg- 


est amount of lead. Large tin mines are 
found in England. In the Scandinavian 
Peninsula are found superior steel-mak- 
ing and rich silver ores. Silver and gold 
are produced in paying quantities 
throughout different parts of the Conti- 


EUROPE 


nent. Salt, granite, limestone and clay 
deposits are also found. 

CLIMATE, Lying principally within 
the temperate and wholly outside the 
tropical zone, Europe enjoys a fairly 
equable climate. Other influences con- 
tribute to producing and maintaining this 
mild temperature. The prevailing winds 
from the Atlantic are warm, and they 
have free access to the greater part of 
the western half of the Continent. The 
Gulf Stream affects the temperature to a 
great extent (See GULF STREAM). The 
average elevation of the land is lower 
than that of any other grand division, 
save Australia; the result is the absence 
of extremes of temperature. An ex- 
tensive coast line represents another in- 
fluence. The rainfall is well distributed, 
diminishing, however, as the distance 
from the Atlantic increases. The east- 
ern part of Europe has a continental, 
rather than a sea climate, the summer 
temperature increasing and the rainfall 
diminishing at a sufficient rate to pro- 
duce steppes but-never deserts. The Alps 
have an ameliorating, influence on the 
north winds in the southern part of Eu- 
rope, and the climate becomes very uni- 
form, while the summers are often dry. 

Prant Lire. Three rather indistinct 
regions of the flora of Europe can be 
distinguished. The first, lying in part 
within the Arctic Circle, consists mainly 
of the Russian tundras, and grows lichen, 
moss, poppy, saxifrage, crowfoot and 
other showy flowers, as well as willows, 
beeches and junipers that become stunted 
in their growth because of being buried 
under winter snows at long intervals. 
The highest elevations of the mountains 
of Europe present a flora somewhat sim- 
ilar to that of the high latitudes of the 
north. In the temperate region forests 
are numerous in the west, and the plant 
life is in no wise unique in respect of 
wealth or type; in the eastern part the 
forest areas yield to the extensive 
_steppes, or treeless plats, scattered with 
shrubs and covered tainly with long, 
coarse grass. The Mediterranean re- 
gion is essentially the fruit and flower 
area. The flora is rich and attractive; 


EUROPE 


the forests contain a large number of 
species; among the fruits the orange, 
lemon and olive are found; of the foli- 
age used for decorative purposes, the 
laurel and the myrtle are most abun- 
dant. 

ANIMAL Lire. The climatic condi- 
tions and the luxuriant vegetation have 
given rise to a richness of European 
fauna; on the other hand, in the densely ~ 
populated areas, native species have 
been crowded out, even to the point of 
becoming wholly extinct. Mammals, 
peculiar to the region in which they are 
found, are the chamois and the marmot 
(in the Alpine mountain region), the 
wolf (in large packs in Poland, Hungary 
and Russia), the lynx, brown bear, 
beaver, reindeer, elk, Grecian ibex, the 
civet and the desman. The large herds 
of cattle formerly seen have practically 
become extinct. Bird life is abundant, 
and many of the species migrate from the 
south; of the numerous insects, the 
butterfly and beetle in particular are dis- 
tinguished because of their numbers. 
Few reptiles are found; frogs of unique 
species exist, as well as newts and tree 
toads. Among the fish, the tunny and 
sole are the ones which are unknown on 
the American side of the Atlantic. The 
northern seas have cod, mackerel, her- 
ring, salmon and other varieties. 

INHABITANTS. Among the inhabitants 
of Europe are those belonging to the 
Celtic, the Teutonic and the Slavonic 
races and the Greek and Latin peoples. 
These are all a part of the Aryan, or 
Indo-European, branch. In addition are 
immigrants of Mongolian stock, such as 
Hungarians, Turks, Finns and Lapps. 
The? Celtie language is spoken in the 
Scotch Highlands, Wales, Ireland and 
Brittany. The Teutonic race includes the 
Germanic branch (Germans, Dutch and 
English) and the Scandinavian branch 
(Danes, Swedes and Norwegians). The 
Slavonians are the Russians, Bohemians, 
Poles, Croatians and Servians. The 
Basques, living in France and Spain at> 
the western extremity of the Pyrenees, 
are still of unknown origin. The reli- 
gions represented are the Roman Cath- 


982 


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EUROPE 


olic Church, the Greek Church, the Prot- 
estant, the Jewish and the Mohammedan. 
The total population of Europe is about 
449,883,542. 

PoLiticAL Divisions. The independ- 
ent states of Europe are either strictly 
limited constitutional kingdoms or re- 
publics of various degrees. The free 
cities of medieval times are represented, 
even the shires of tribal days are seen in 
the still surviving tiny republics. 

History. The history of Europe traces 
back to prehistoric times and embraces 
the history of civilization itself. Cen- 
turies before the dawn of history, Eu- 
rope was the home of numberless tribes 
belonging to different branches of Aryan 
race; though widely scattered ethnic is- 
lands of non-Aryan people—Basques and 
-Lapps—indicate an earlier time of which 
we have no certain knowledge. 

The classical history of Europe is that 
of Greece and Rome which, facing Egypt 
and the Euphrates Valley, caught the 
sunlight of their culture and spread it to 
lands and people subject to their sway, 
thus that section of Europe that formed 
a part of the Roman Empire experienced 
the blessings of organized government, 
Christianity, and the culture of Greece 
and Rome. 

That period terminated when a tidal 
wave of invading people still organized 
in tribal society rolled in on the Western 
Roman Empire and overthrew it. Not 
being able to assimilate at once the cul- 
ture of the classical period they initiated 
the so-called Dark Age of European His- 
tory. During the centuries of this era 
we witness the outlines of the great na- 
tions of Medieval and Modern times tak- 
ing shape. 

The modern history of Europe covers 
the time from the passing of the Dark 
Age to the World War of 1914. This 
period witnessed the solidification, so to 
speak, of the greater nations of Europe 
and the overthrow of the half-fictitious 
Holy Roman Empire founded by Charle- 
magne, and finally the union into one 
really great empire of the many small 
Germanic states of Central Europe. It 
was an age of great intellectual and scien- 


EUSEBIUS PAMPHILI 


tific advance, of capitalism, of individual- 
ism and growth of race consciousness. 
The age of industrialism. But here and 
there outbreaks,—much as the French 
Revolution and the revolutionary upris- 
ing of the 19th century, testified to deep 
seated unrest of the masses of the people, 
not yet recovered the full measure of 
primitive liberty. 

The World War of 1914 was the most 
momentous occurrence in the history of 
Europe. Autocratic government has dis- 
appeared from Europe. Austria-Hun- 
gary has disintegrated into the ethnic 
elements composing it. There has been 
a new grouping of Balkan powers and 
Roumania and Serbia take their place 
among the potentially great states of Eu- 
rope. Turkey is no longer a European 
power. A nation entirely new to history 
(Czecho-Slovakia) has made its appear- 
ance, other new nations are trembling on 
the rise. Finland has resumed its inde- 
pendence and Poland, phoenix like, is 
once more a nation with territory as 
great as it possessed before its first par- 
tition. France and Italy have gained in 
territory in Europe; but Germany has 
suffered the loss of one-sixth of her 
territory in Europe and all her foreign 
colonies. But Europe now faces possi- 
ble changes in social life as momentous 
as those through which the nations of 
Europe struggled in changing from tribal 
to political society. 

Eurydice, U rid'i se, in Greek myths, 
wife of Orpheus. See ORPHEUS. 

Euse’bius Pam/’phili (about 264- 
about 340), a famous writer of Church 
history, born in Palestine. He cared for 
his friend Pamphilus, Bishop of Cesarea, 
during the two years of his imprison- 
ment under the persecution of Diocle- 
tian, and then went to Tyre and later 
into Egypt, where he was imprisoned 
on account of his religion. He was made 
Bishop of Czsarea in 313 and contin- 
ued in this position until his death. He 
is particularly conspicuous for his Ec- 
clesiastical History in ten books, and for 
his connection with the Arian contro- 
versy and the Council of Nice. (See 
NIcENE CREED.) 


983 


EUSTIS 


Eu’stis, James Biddle (1834-1899), an 
American jurist and statesman, born in 
New Orleans. He graduated in law at 
Harvard in 1854 and practiced in New 
Orleans until the outbreak of the Civil 
War, when he entered the Confederate 
army as judge-advocate, serving until 
the close of the war. He was a senator 
in his own state from 1874 to 1876, and 
was twice sent to the United States Sen- 
ate, serving from 1877 to 1879 and from 
1885 to 1891. Eustis was also professor 
of law in the University of Louisiana 
and, later, minister to France. 

Eu’taw Springs, Battle of, an impor- 
tant battle of the American Revolution, 
fought Sept. 8, 1781, about 50 m. north 
of Charleston, S. C., between 2000 Amer- 
icans under Greene and about an equal 
number of British under Stuart. The 
engagement opened at 4 a. m. and for 
a time the Americans had the advantage. 
Later in the day the British took posses- 
sion of the field, which they continued to 
hold. Strategically, however, the Amer- 
icans won a victory, for on the following 
night the enemy retreated to Charleston. 
This battled ended Greene’s remarkable 
Southern campaign, by which he forced 
the English to retire to Charleston, where 
they were confined until the close of 
the war. 

Euter’pe, musical Muse of lyric 
poetry, to whom is credited the invention 
of the flute. She usually appears as 
flower-crowned and surrounded with 
musical instruments. 

Eux’ine. See BLACK SEA. 

Evangel’ical Alli’ance, an association 
of the members of various Protestant de- 
nominations throughout the United 
States and Europe. It was organized in 
London in 1846 for the purpose of secur- 
ing united effort among the Christian 
churches in the extension of the Chris- 
tian faith. The denominations included 
are the Baptist, Independent, Lutheran, 
Methodist, Moravian, Presbyterian, Re- 
formed and a few others. England, 
France, Germany, Ireland, Scotland, 


Switzerland, Sweden and the United © 


States are among the countries repre- 
sented, and there are branches in many 


984 


EVANS 


of the British colonies. International 
conferences are held at intervals from 
two to four years. This organization 
represents the present tendency of the 
various branches of the Christian Church 
to unite on practical forms of religious 
work, and it has done valuable service in 
promoting religious liberty and checking 
religious persecution. 

Evangelical Association, a religious 
denomination formed originally among 
the Pennsylvania Germans. The founder 
of the sect, Jacob Albright, moved by 
the low religious life of the people about 
him, began evangelistic work among 
them about 1790. In 1807 a definite or- 
ganization took place. In _ doctrine, 
methods of worship and government, the 
Evangelical Association closely resembles 
the Methodist Episcopal Church (See 
Mernopists). In 1891 the Church was 
divided, a minority of the members with- 
drawing and organizing the United 
Evangelical Church. Among the activ- 
ities of the Evangelical Association are 
publishing houses, educational institu- 
tions, charitable organizations, a Church 
Extension Society and a Young People’s 
Alliance. The organization has done 
much to promote religious liberty and to 
break down denominational barriers. 

Ev’ans, Augusta Jane. See WILSON, 
AUGUSTA JANE EVANS, 

Evans, Robley Dunglison (1846- 
1912), an American naval officer, born in 
Virginia and educated at Annapolis. 
During the Civil War he participated in 
both attacks upon Ft. Fisher, in the sec- 
ond of which he was severely wounded. 
Reentering the service in 1866, he com- 
manded the Yorktown in the harbor, of 
Valparaiso, Chile, during the’ critical 
time of 1891, and in 1896 was put in 
command of the Jndiana. During the 
Spanish-American War he commanded 
the battleship: Jowa and took an active 
part in the destruction of Cervera’s fleet. 
In 1901 he was promoted rear-admiral. 
He was in command of the United States 
fleet during the first part of its trip 
around the world in President Roose- 
velt’s administration, but resigned when 
the fleet reached San Francisco because 


EVANSTON 


of ill health. He retired from service in 
1908. He wrote A Sailor's Log and 
various magazine articles. He was pop- 
ularly known as “Fighting Bob” Evans. 

Ev’anston, Ill, a city of Cook Co., 
12 m. n. of Chicago, on Lake Michigan 
and on the Chicago & North Western 
and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul 
railroads. There are also elevated and 
electric railroads to Chicago, of which 
~ city it is a popular residential suburb, 
and an electric line to Milwaukee. The 
city is attractively located, with wide and 
beautifully shaded streets and many 
handsome. residences. Evanston is a 
noted educational center, and the city is 
the seat of Northwestern University 
(Methodist Episcopal), coeducational, 
opened in 1855 (See NORTHWESTERN 
University). The Swedish, Danish, 
and Norwegian Theological schools and 
the Cumnock School of Oratory are af- 
filiated with the university. The princi- 
pal manufactures include steel and 
wrought-iron pipe, brick and bakers’ ma- 
chinery. Evanston was the home of 
Frances E. Willard. The place was in- 
corporated as a village in 1872 and a city 
charter was granted in 1892. Popula- 
tion in 1920, 37,234. 

Ev’ ansville, Ind., a city and county 
seat of Vanderburg Co., 1/0 m.:s.w. of 
Indianapolis and 122 m. s.w. of Louis- 
ville, Ky., on the north bank of the Ohio 
River, and on the Chicago & Eastern IIli- 
nois, Illinois Central,. the Louisville & 
Nashville, the Southern, Louisville, Hen- 
derson & St. Louis and the Big Four 
rairoads. The city was formerly an im- 
portant port for the Ohio River steam- 
ers for both passengers and freight. 
Six interurban lines connect with the 
general electric system of the southern 
portion of the state. Evansville is sit- 
uated on a plateau above the river, and 
its numerous railway connections and 
situation in a coal-mining and tobacco- 
growing region, combined with the large 
tonnage of the Ohio River, make it the 
chief commercial and manufacturing cen- 
ter of southern Indiana and the ee 
city of the state. 

PARKS AND BOULEVARDS. Evansville is 


EVAPORATION 


attractively located and contains many 
miles of well-shaded and paved streets 
and many handsome residences. There 
are a number of parks, chief of which 
are Garvin, Cooks, Bayard, Mesker and 
Sunset. 

Pus.ic Buitpincs. Among the prom- 
inent buildings are the courthouse, city 
hall, Elks’ Club, Evans Temperance 
Hall, a monastery, a number of banks, 
substantial business houses and many 
fine churches. 

INsTITuTIONS. The educational in- 
stitutions include three high schools 
and Manual Training School, St. 
Jospeh’s Academy, Willard Library 
and warty Gallery ands pablo cane 
parochial schools. Among the benevo- 
lent and charitable institutions are the 
Southern Indiana Hospital for the in- 
sane, a home for the aged, the United 
States Marine and St. Mary’s hospitals. 

Inpustries. The prosperity of Evans- 
ville is chiefly derived from trade and 
manufacture. The city is one of the 
largest hardwood lumber markets in the 
country and has an important shipping 
trade in agricultural products, pork, corn, 
coal, wheat, dried fruits, packed meats, 
limestone, flour and tobacco. There are 
also extensive manufactories of stoves 
and heaters, furniture, machinery, sad- 
dlery and harness, planing and sawmill 
products, cotton and woolen goods, rail- 
way cars, cigars, soft drinks, leather, 
brick and tile, pottery, terra cotta, fire- 
clay products and agricultural imple- 
ments. Evansville is the cheapest soft- 
coal market in the world, there being five 
mines within the corporate limits of the 
city and, within a radius of 50 m., ap- 
proximately 60 mines. 

History. Evansville was laid out as 
a town in 1817 and named in honor of 
Robert Morgan Evans, one of its found- 
ers and an officer in the War of 1812. 
The place soon became a thriving com- 
mercial port with a large river trade. 
The town was incorporated in 1819 and 
city charter granted in 1847. Population 
in. 1920,'U. S. Census, 85,264. 

Evap”ora’tion, the process of slowly 
changing a substance, especially a liquid, 


36 985 


- EVARTS 

to a vapor. It takes place without the 
formation of bubbles. Evaporation 1s con- 
stantly taking place and is the cause of 
much of the drying of walks and build- 
ings after a rain, the drying of clothes 
and the disappearance of the dew and of 
snow. The moisture is taken up into 
the air where it rises far above the earth, 
partially condenses and then descends 
again in rain. As heat is required to ef- 
fect evaporation, so evaporation lowers 
the temperature of surrounding objects. 
Evaporation takes place more quickly at 
higher temperatures and also with a 
greater amount of exposed surface. The 
less water vapor the air contains, the 
greater will be the amount of evapora- 
tion. The characteristic odors given off 
by iron, copper and brass are by some 
believed to be due to an insensible evap- 
oration of these substances. 

EBULLITION. When a liquid is heated 
so hot that bubbles of vapor are formed 
within the body of the liquid, it is said 
to be at the boiling point. The formation 
of vapor bubbles within the liquid is 
called ebullition. See BoILING PoINT; 
CALORIMETRY. 

SUBLIMATION. When a substance 
passes directly from the solid to the 
vapor state without passing through the 
liquid state, it is said to sublime, and the 
process is called sublimation. The most 
common example is the disappearance of 
frost without wetting the surface on 
which it has been deposited. 

Ev’arts, William Maxwell (1818- 
1901), an eminent American lawyer and 
orator, born in Boston. He graduated at 
Yale in 1837, was admitted to the bar 
in 1841 and soon established a high repu- 
tation for learning and ability. From 
1851 to 1853 he was district attorney of 
New York City. In 1868 he was chief 
counsel for President Johnson in his im- 
peachment trial, and after the trial served 
as attorney-general until the end of 
_Johnson’s administration. He was coun- 
sel for the United States in the Alabama 
Claims case in 1872. In 1877 he was 
counsel for Hayes in the Hayes-Tilden 
contest, and became secretary of state in 
Hayes’s cabinet. He was United States 


EVENING SCHOOLS 


senator from 1885 to 1891. Evarts 
ranks as one of the most eminent law- 
yers that America has produced, and 
he conducted a large number of prair- 
inent and important cases. He was a 
brilliant orator and delivered many nota- 
ble addresses, among them a eulogy on 
Chief Justice Chase, the Centennial ora-, 
tion at Philadelphia in 1876, and the ad- 
dress at the unveiling of Bartholdi’s 
Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. 

Ev’eleth, Minn., a city of St. Louis 
Co., about 71 m. n.w. of Duluth, on the 
Duluth, Missabe & Northern, the Du- 
luth & Iron Range and other railroads. 
The town is situated in the midst of the’ 
hematite iron-ore deposits of the Mesaba 
Range, the most valuable in the Lake Su- 
perior district. The principal industry 
is the mining and shipping of ore. Eve- 
leth is administered under a revised char- 
ter of 1905. Population in 1920, 7,205. 

Evening Schools. These are main- 
tained for the most part in cities, and 
are intended primarily for those whose 
circumstances compel them to devote the 
day to the earning of a livelihood. 
Those of Germany may be said to have 
developed from Sunday schools, which 
about 1760 began to offer some of the 
courses of the elementary school, in ad- 
dition to religious instruction. Many of 
the German evening schools offer tech- 
nical courses especially adapted to the 
needs of those employed in the industries 
of the locality. France and Great Britain 
also support many evening schools at the 
expense of the State, and, because at the 
present time illiteracy is less and less 
common everywhere, the trend in these 
countries also is toward the development 
of advanced and technical courses. 

The evening schools of the United 
States have been developed since about 
1850. In some, the principal aim is to 
give those who have come from other 
lands an opportunity to master the Eng- 
lish language and the most essential prin- 
ciples of American history and civil gov- . 
ernment. In others, those who have 
never learned to read in any language re- 
ceive the instruction offered by primary 
day schools. But the operation of com-, 


_ 986 


EVERETT 


_pulsory school laws in the United States 
also is lessening the number of illiterates. 
Many private institutions and city boards 
of education support evening schools, in 
which technical courses of various kinds 
are open to all who desire. The Young 
Men’s Christian Association offers a vari- 
_ ety of courses in almost every large city. 
The enrollment in the evening schools of 
the country constantly increases, and 
about one-half of those enrolled are usu- 
ally in attendance. See Cooper UNion; 
DREXEL INSTITUTE OF ART, SCIENCE AND 
INDUSTRY ; ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECH- 
NOLOGY; SIMMONS COLLEGE; LEwis IN- 
STITUTE; TRADE SCHOOLS. 

Ev’erett, Edward (1794-1865), an 
American orator and statesman, born in 
Dorchester, Mass. He graduated at Har- 
vard with the highest honors in 1811. 
He became pastor of the Unitarian 
church in Brattle Square, Boston, at the 
age of 19, and soon attracted wide at- 
tention by his eloquence. Two years 
later he was appointed professor of 
‘Greek in Harvard. He traveled and stud- 
ied in Europe for four years, returning 
home in 1819 to enter upon his profes- 
sional duties. 

In 1820 he became editor of the North 
American Review, to which he contrib- 
uted more than 100 articles. He was 
elected to Congress in 1824, where he 
served for ten years. From 1835 to 
1839 he was governor of Massachusetts ; 
became minister to England in 1841; was 
president of Harvard from 1846 to 1849; 
was made secretary of state in 1852; and 
in 1853 entered the United States Sen- 
ate. Against his wishes he was nom- 
inated for vice-president of the United 
States by the Constitutional Union 
Party in 1860, and thereafter retired to 
private life. } 

Everett was one of the really great 
orators of American history. One of his 
contributions to the public good was the 
assistance which he rendered the move- 
ment to purchase- Mt. Vernon and make 
it a fitting memorial to Washington. He 
delivered his address on Washington 122 
times and gave the proceeds to the Mt. 
Vernon fund. By his lectures he donated 


EVERETT 


nearly $100,000 to various benevolent 
enterprises. 

Everett, Mass., a city of Middlesex 
Co., 3 m. n. of Boston, adjoining Chel- 
sea, on the Boston & Maine and other 
railroads. It has electric railroad con- 
nection with Boston, Lynn, Chelsea, 
Salem and other cities and towns in the 
vicinity. Everett is primarily a residen- 
tial town and includes many Boston busi- 
ness men and their families among the 
residents. Everett covers an area of 
over three square miles. Among the 
public institutions are the Frederick E. 
Parlin Memorial Library, the Shute 
Memorial Library and the Whidden Me- 
morial Hospital. Everett has varied in- 
dustrial interests. There are bottling 
works and manufactories of steel, struc- 
tural iron, automobiles, varnishes, boots 


_and shoes, wagons, carriages, chemicals 


and druggists’ fittings. The gas and 
coke industry is important, the coal used 
being brought from the Virginia mines. 
Until 1870 Everett was a part of Mal- 
den and was known as South Malden. 
It received a city charter in 1892. Pop- 
ulation in 1920, U. S. Census, 40,120. 
Everett, Wash., a city, subport of 
entry and the county seat of Snohomish 
Co., about 35 m. n. of Seattle, on Puget 
Sound, at the mouth of the Snohomish 
River. Railroads entering the city are the 
Great Northern, the Northern Pacific 
and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. 
Two interurban electric lines and several 
large passenger and freight steamers 
furnish further facilities for transporta- 
tion. The harbor is a fine one; and this, 
together with other natural advantages, 
including abundant mineral resources 
(gold, silver, copper), has made the city 
a center of the productive lumbering, 
mining and agricultural region which 
surrounds it. The city contains some of 
the largest lumber plants of the North- 
west, and has extensive shipyards, paper 
and pulp mills, shingle mills and sash and 
door factories. There are also smelting 
and refining works, a United States as- 
sayer’s office and ironworks. An ex- 
tensive trade in lumber, shingles, bullion, 
paper and flour is carried on. Among 


987 


EVICTION 


the conspicuous buildings of the city are 
a Carnegie library, a Y. M. C. A. Build- 
ing, a high school building costing 
$200,000, id the Pacific College build- 
ings, erected in 1908 by the United Nor- 
wegian Lutheran Church. Settled in 
1891, Everett was incorporated in 1893. 
Population i in 1920, 27,644. 

Evic’tion, removal or expulsion by 
legal process of a tenant from the prop- 
erty he holds under a lease. The most 
common causes of eviction are failure to 
pay rent, destructive or wasteful use of 
the property and the use of the property 
for illegal or immoral purposes. The 
landlord must prove the cause alleged or 
he is liable to suit for damages by the 
evicted tenant. 

Ev’idence, in law, “all the legal 
means which tend to prove or disprove 
any matter of fact, the truth of which is 
submitted to legal investigation.” Evi- 
dence may be divided into two general 
classes, oral and documentary. Oral evi- 
dence includes statements made by wit- 
nesses before the court during the trial; 
documentary evidence consists of papers 
containing writing or other marks capa- 
ble of being read and which are submit- 
ted during the trial. 

OrAL EvipeNnce. Oral evidence is sub- 
ject to several limitations. Chief among 
these are the following: 

1. It must consist of statements of 
facts personally known by the witness. 
Hearsay evidence, that is, statements 
which the witness heard others make, is 
not admissible. 

2. It must consist of statements of 
fact. The opinions of the witness are 
not admissible except under certain con- 
ditions allowed by the trial judge, such 
as the opinion of the distance of an auto- 
mobile from the person injured when 
warning was given, and the opinion of 
the rate of speed at which the automobile 
was moving. 

3. It must relate to-the case on trial. 
Usually direct relation is required, but 
indirect relation may be admitted if it 
has an important bearing on the case. 

DocuMENTARY EvipENcEe. Document- 
ary evidence is considered as primary or 


988 


EVIDENCE 


secondary. It is primary when the doc- — 


ument itself is produced for inspection by 
the court. If a document is in counter- 
parts, each counterpart is primary evi- 
dence. When the document has been 
duplicated by printing or any other proc- 
ess that assures an exact copy, each copy 


is primary evidence of the other copies,, 


but no copy is primary evidence of the 
original. Documentary evidence is sec- 
ondary when, in lieu of the original doc- 
ument, copies of the original are submit- 
ted by one who has seen the original 
and compared the copy with it, and when 
office copies, official copies and records 
are submitted. Before the secondary ev- 
idence can be received, the party offer- 
ing it must satisfy the court that the 
original cannot be produced. Statutes 
concerning the introduction of document- 
ary evidence vary in different states, but, 
in general, documents executed under the 
seal of a notary public or other officer 
authorized to administer oaths are ad- 
missible. 

EXPERT EvipENCE. Expert evidence is 
that given by specialists, such as physi- 
cians and scientists, ~who devote their 
time to expert work. The specialist must 
convince the court that he is qualified to 
give the evidence expected of him, and 
his testimony consists of facts and his 
opinions upon the bearing of these facts 
upon the case. This is because he is 
more qualified than the jury to form an 
opinion upon these facts. 

OTHER EvipENcE. Thumb and finger 
marks, clothing, weapons and other ob- 
jects may be admitted as evidence if they 
have a bearing. on the case, but their ad- 
mission usually is determined by the 
court. 

BurDEN OF ProoFr. The burden of 
proof must rest with one party or the 
other, and it is usually considered to rest 
with the party against whom judgment 
must be given if no evidence is produced 
in his favor. In criminal cases it rests 
with the prosecution, and the crime must 
be proved beyond reasonable doubt to 
secure conviction. In criminal cases the 
defendant cannot be compelled to testify 
against himself. See Jury. 7 


EVOLUTION 


Evolu’tion (from Latin evolvere, to 
anroll), a word meaning an unfolding or 
unrolling, as a scroll; hence, the proc- 
ess of developing what is contained or 
implied in something. The term has 
come to be applied in modern usage to 
the theory that the existing order of 
things is the result of a natural unfold- 
ing of what existed potentially or in germ 
in earlier and simpler forms of life, or 
in the original “world stuff.’’ Evolution, 
therefore, is a method of growth, not a 
philosophy of nature. It does not deal 
with the ultimate nature of reality, but 
rather presupposes reality. It starts at 
a given point, with an existing substance 
or order of life. Whether this is eter- 
nal or was created, whether it is in the 
last analysis material or spiritual, evolu- 
tion does not ask. As a method or 
process of development it may be ac- 
cepted, therefore, equally by theist or 
agnostic, by materialist or idealist. 

Evolution is commonly used with a 
wider application than is development. 
The latter refers to an individual, the 
former te a race or to the world in gen- 
eral. The two essential factors in evolu- 
tion are the existing germ containing the 
potentialities of development, and the 
unfolding of this germ by the operation 
of forces resident within it. The devel- 
opment proceeds from simpler forms to 
more complex forms of life, like the 
growth from the simple sapling to the 
complexly branching tree (differentia- 
tion). It also proceeds in the direction 
of increasing unification and better con- 
trol of organism (integration). Thus 
the complex and highly organized forms 
of life now existing have descended in 
the course of time from simpler forms of 
life, and these in turn from still simpler 
forms, and so on back, until the imagina- 
tion loses itself in the obscurity of the 
beginnings of things. 

It is not yet fully demonstrated that 
evolution is the true method of world 
development; but there are many things 
that point so decidedly in that direction 
as to make a strong presumption in favor 
of the theory, and its acceptance is now 
aimost universal. The analogy between 


989 


EWART 


the development of an individual from 
the embryo and of a race of plants or 
animals from simpler forms of life is 
most striking. An almost continuous line 
of development may be observed in spe- 
cies of plants and animals now in ex- 
istence and in fossil remains. In the 
supposed evolution of birds from rep- 
tiles, for instance, the geologist has dis- 
covered forms which indicate that the 
earliest birds were winged and feathered 
reptiles. All are familiar with the 
changes that take place in the structure 
of plants and animals as a result of se- 
lective breeding; and analogous changes 
appear in natural selection and the in- 
fluence of new environment, tending 
toward the “survival of the fittest.” The 
acceptance of evolution has also been 
greatly furthered by the successful way 
in which the doctrine explains the facts 
of nature and forms a-point of depart- 
ure for new research. It furnishes a 
workable hypothesis for the comprehen- 
sion and study of the forms of life. 

The idea of evolution has been of 
gradual formation. Traces of it are 
found in Empedocles, and it was elab- 
orated by Aristotle. In modern times 
Laplace applied the idea to astronomy 
in his famous nebular hypothesis (See 
NEBULAR HyPpoTHEsis), and Lyell used 
it in descriptive geology. Through Leib- 
nitz, Schelling, Kant, Buffon, Erasmus 
Darwin, Lamarck, Goethe and many 
others the idea may be traced to its more 
complete formulation as an organic part 
of our modern thinking in the epoch- 
making work of Charles Darwin and the 
writings of Alfred Russel Wallace, 
Ernst Haeckel, John Fiske and Herbert 
Spencer. The doctrine of evolution has » 
profoundly influenced human thought, al- 
most to the extent of revolutionizing it. 

Ew/’art, John Skirving (1849- ys 
a Canadian lawyer, born in Toronto and 
educated at Upper Canada College. He 
practiced in Winnipeg until 1904, when 
he became head of a leading firm of Ot- 
tawa. He was appointed solicitor for 
the Canadian Pacific Railway, Ottawa. 
in 1908 and was chief counsel for Can- 
ada at The Hague Tribunal in 1910. Be- 


EWELL 


sides contributing to the Queen’s Quar- 
terly and similar organs, he has published 
several legal works, a brochure on Sur 
John Macdonald and the Canadian Flag 
and another on Canadian Independence. 

Ewell, U’ el, Richard Stoddert (1817- 
1872), an American soldier, born at 
Washington, D. C., and educated at West 
Point. He was brevetted captain in the 
Mexican War, participated in the In- 
dian campaigns of 1857, and in 1861 
joined the Confederate army. He was 
shortly commissioned major-general, was 
division commander at both battles of 
Bull Run and at Antietam, and following 
the death of “Stonewall” Jackson, with 
the rank of lieutenant-general, com- 
manded the latter’s corps. He was con- 
spicuous at Gettysburg and the Wilder- 
ness, but early in April, 1865, was cap- 
tured with his entire force by Sheridan. 
Following the war he engaged in stock 
raising in Tennessee. 

Exchange’, originally the commer- 
cial term used to denote the exchange 
of one commodity for another, but now 
used with two significations. The first 
denotes a series of transactions by which 
debts are paid without the actual trans- 
mission of money between the parties. 
This is accomplished by the use of checks, 
bank drafts and money orders. When 
these orders are sent to foreign coun- 
tries they are known as bills of foreign 
exchange. Exchange is at par when 
bought for its face value, below par when 
bought for less than its face value, and 
above par when bought for more than 
its face value. See BANKS AND BANK- 
ING. 

The second application of the term is 
to those organizations in cities which 
have for their purpose the promotion of 
certain commercial enterprises, such as 
a stock exchange, composed of members 
who deal in stocks and bonds, and the 
cotton exchange, whose members deal in 
cotton. Similar organizations which deal 
in grain are generally called boards of 
trade. See Boarp oF TRADE. 

Ex’cise Tax. See Tax. 

Executor, Eg zek’ u tor, one to whom 
is committed a person’s last will and 


990) 


EXPANSION 


testament for the purpose of executing 
the instrument after the testator’s death. 
The duties of the executor may or may 
not be prescribed in the will. If not pre- 
scribed, the law generally holds that the 
executor should bury the deceased in a 
manner suitable to the estate left; that 
he should collect: within reasonable time. 
the personal property of the deceased; 
prove the will; and take out administra- 
tion papers, under which he will proceed 
to administer the estate according to the 
laws of the state. 

Ex’odus, the second book of the Bible 
and of the Pentateuch, named from a 
Greek word signifying a going out. Ex-- 


‘odus thus receives its name from the 


principal event therein related—the mi- 
gration of the Israelites from Egypt to 
Canaan. The book begins where Gen- 
esis concludes, with the death of Joseph, 
and includes the birth of Moses, his 
early life and call, the ten plagues and 
deliverance of the Children of Israel 
from slavery, the institution of the Pass- 
over, the passage of the Red Sea, the pro- 
viding of manna, the pronouncement of 
the Ten Commandments and various 
laws and ordinances, instructions for 
making the Tabernacle, the Ark and 
other accessories of worship, and the 
consecration of the family of Aaron to 
the priesthood. 

Expan’sion, in physics, the increase 
in bulk of a substance, due to heat. With 
very few exceptions, the application of 
heat expands a body, while the applica- 
tion of cold, or rather the withdrawal of 
heat, contracts it. If the expansion of 
a solid is considered as taking place in 
but one direction, it is spoken of as linear 
expansion; in two dimensions it is super- 
ficial expansion, and in all dimensions, 
cubical expansion. The fractional in- 
crease of length which a substance takes 
on by expansion when its temperature is 
raised one degree, is known as the co- 
efficient of linear expansion; the coef- 
ficient of superficial expansion is twice 
this, and that of cubical expansion three 
times. 

The coefficient of expansion differs 
ereatly for different substances: that of 


) 


EXPOSITION, INDUSTRIAL 


copper is nearly twice that of platinum. 
This expansion of metals is provided for 
in laying rails on a track, where space is 
left between the rails to allow for their 
expansion in warm weather. The pen- 
dulums of clocks and other metallic in- 
struments also require regulation for dif- 
ferences in length at different temper- 
atures (See PENDULUM). India rubber 
is a notable exception to solids, as it 
contracts when heated. Liquids have no 
definite form and for that reason their 
expansion is understood to be cubical 
expansion. The expansion of liquids is 
very much less regular than that of sol- 
ids. Water on cooling from moderate 
temperatures contracts till it reaches 4° 
C.; it then expands slightly till it reaches 
O° C.; it then expands about 1/11 of its 
bulk in freezing. This accounts for ice 
being formed only at the surface of 
ponds; when all the water has cooled to 
A° C., or 39.2° F., the surface water that 
is cooled still more and hence becomes a 
little lighter, remains‘on top and freezes 
there. The great expansion of water on 
freezing also accounts for the bursting 
of water pipes in cold weather. Gases 
expand far more rapidly than solids or 
liquids. See GasEs, Laws oF. 
Exposition, Industrial, an exposition 
of the industries and arts for the pur- 
pose of stimulating public interest and 
promoting trade. The first industrial ex- 
hibition was held at Paris in 1798, which 
proved so successful that a series of them 
was held, beginning in 1802. The first 
French Exposition Universelle was 
opened in Paris in 1855, with buildings 
in the Champs Elyseés covering 24 acres, 
and there were 24,000 exhibitors. Lon- 
don held an international exhibition in 
1862 and the famous Crystal Palace was 
built to house it. In 1867 the second 
French International Exhibition was 
opened in Paris, occupying about 37 
acres on the Champ de Mars, with nearly 
50,000 exhibitors and an attendance of 
10,000,000 persons. The Centennial Ex- 
hibition in 1876 at Philadelphia was held 
to celebrate the centennial of the Amer- 
ican Declaration of Independence, This 
covered 60 acres and had nearly 10,000,- 


EXPRESS 


000 visitors. In 1878 at Paris a third 
French International Exhibition was 
held, and a fourth one in 1889 to com- 
memorate the centenary of the French 
Revolution at the same place. The cele- 
brated Eiffel Tower was its principal fea- 
ture (See E1rrFeL Tower). In order to 
commemorate the 400th anniversary of 
the discovery of America, the World’s 
Columbian Exposition was held in Chi- 
cago in 1893, and was an international 
exhibition of great magnitude. In 1900 
another exhibition of international char- 
acter was held in Paris. In 1904 an ex- 
hibition commemorating the Louisiana 
Purchase was held in St. Louis. See 
Wortp’s CoLUMBIAN ExposiITION; Lovu- 
ISTIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION, 

Expositions for special purposes have 
been held in recent years at San Fran- 
cisco; Cal.) Atlanta; « GasieNashvile: 
Tenn., Omaha, Neb., New Orleans, La., 
utraloy N.Y. Charlestony SY@iapork 
land, Ore., and Seattle, Wash. To cele- 
brate the opening of the Panama Canal 
in 1915, San Francisco held an inter- 
national exhibition which possessed great 
attractions and was of majestic propor- 
tions. 

Ex Post Fac’to Law. A law is said 
to be ex post facto, or retroactive, when 
it is enacted to punish an offense com- 
mitted before the passing of the law, the 
term meaning “from something done aft- 
erward,” or “after the fact.” It is proper 
that any law shall not be in effect until a 
certain number of days after its passage, 
as such delay gives all an opportunity to 
become acquainted with its provisions. 
When public welfare, however, demands 
prompt action to meet an emergency, a 
law may become effective upon the day 
it is passed and signed by the executive. 
Not only does the Constitution of the 
United States expressly decree that no 
ex post facto law shall be passed, but in 
no enlightened country today is such leg- 
islation permitted, as such a law might 
make a deed a crime which was not a 
crime when committed and lead to un- 
just punishment. 

Express’, a business originated in 
1839 for the transmission of money and 


991 


EXTRADITION 


small parcels between Boston and New 
York, now one of the most important 
factors in the commerce of the world. 
Stage drivers had previously transacted 
some business of this sort for a small 
consideration; but William F. Harnden 
first entered the field in earnest, and his 
success encouraged others to devote their 
energy to the business. Today, express 
companies receive deposits for safe-keep- 
ing, collect debts in the United States 
and in foreign countries, and perform 
an astonishing variety of unusual com- 
missions, beside transmitting money or 
property to any part of the world and 
issuing travelers’ checks, preferred by 
many to bank letters of credit. The lead- 
ing express companies in the United 
States were the American, the Adams, the 
Wells Fargo and the United States. The 
Northern Pacific and Great Northern 
Railway systems both had an express 
company operating over their lines. Dur- 
ing the World War all of the railway 
express companies were combined and 
their business carried on under direction 
of the government. In Europe, the 
government post offices transact much 
business of this character. 

Extradition, Ex"tra dish’ un, the de- 
livery of a fugitive by one state to an- 
other. In the United States extradition 
has two specific meanings. First, it re- 
fers to the surrender by one state govern- 
ment to the authorities of another state 
of a triminal who seeks to escape arrest 
and trial by fleeing from the state in 
which the crime was committed; second, 
it refers to the surrender of a criminal 
from one nation to another. The de- 
mand for extradition made by one na- 
tion upon another is a matter of inter- 
national law. The Jay Treaty of No- 
vember, 1794, with Great Britain made 
provision for extradition powers for 12 
years. After its expiration no provisions 
were made for extradition until 1842, 
when the Webster-Ashburton Treaty was 
concluded. France was the next coun- 
try to enter into an extradition treaty 
with the United States, and 24 foreign 
governments have since provided for 
the mutual extradition of criminals. In 


EYE 


order to justify an extradition claim it is 
necessary to establish that the supreme 
political authority, in the country where 
the crime has been committed, has de- 
manded the surrender of the criminal and 
that an inquiry has been made into the 
facts of the case by a United States com- 
missioner or judge under direction of the. 
president. Criminals are extradited from 
one state to ‘another in the Union on 
the demand of the governor of the state 
from which the criminal has fled. A man 
may be extradited from the United 
States only for crimes included within 
the term felony. 

Eyck, van, Vahn Ike’, the family 
name of two brothers, Hubert (about 
1370-1426) and Jan (about 1390-1440), 
founders of painting in Flanders, Hol- 
land and Germany. They were born at 
Maaseyck, a. little town on the Maas, 
from which they took their name. Little 
is known of the life of the elder brother, 
but of Jan, who was one of the greatest 
of portrait painters, it is known that he 
was for a time in the service of the Count 
of Holland (John of Bavaria) and later 
court painter to Philip the Good, Duke of 
Burgundy, who sent him on various em- 
bassies. The service to art of these two 
brothers is of inestimable value and their 
place in the evolution of Flemish paint- 
ing unique. While they were not the 
inventors of oil painting, as has been re- 
peatedly stated, they made many im- 
provements in this medium which led to 
its universal adoption. They also made 
a tremendous advance in _ technique, 
painting with greater realism than their 
predecessors. The Van Eycks intro- 
duced freshness and naturalism into their 
landscape backgrounds and life and vi- 
tality into figures. Their masterpiece is 
an altarpiece in 28 panels depicting the 
Redemption from Sin, painted for the 
Cathedral of Ghent and now divided 
between the towns of Ghent, Berlin 
and Brussels. Numerous other works 
ascribed to the individual or joint efforts 


of the Van Eycks are distributed 
throughout Europe. . 
Eye, the organ of vision. The term 


is used to denote the eyeball, the essen- 


992 


EYE 


tial anatomical feature of the eye, but 
may also include connecting parts. These 
superficial parts of the eye are important. 
The eyelids are two folds of skin, 
fringed with short hairs, which protect 
the eye from dust or other foreign par- 
ticles. A lachrymal gland, about the 
size of an almond, is situated near the 
surface, between the eyeball and the tem- 
ple. These glands secrete a salty fluid, 
which flows continuously across the front 
of the eye, bathing the cornea and pass- 
ing into a basin at the inner corner of 
the eye, called the lachrymal lake. From 
this.they are drained through ducts into 
the nasal passage. Excessive secretion 
of the liquid causes an overflow in tears 
upon the face. 


FIGURE 1 


A, sclerotic membrane; B, choroid mem- 
brane; C, retina; D, optic nerve; E, cornea; 
F, crystalline lens; G, vitreous humor. 


The eyeball is nearly spherical in shape 
and about an inch in diameter. It lies 
in a cavity of the skull, on all sides of 
which it is supported by a cushion of 
fat and by muscles. By means of these 
muscles, the eye can be moved in every 
direction. Three coats cover the globe 
of the eye. The sclerotic, or outer coat, 
is a tough, thick, whitish, opaque mem- 
brane covering about five-sixths of the 
surface. In the front it is continuous, 
with a transparent, convex disk called 
the cornea, which covers the remaining 
surface and which bulges out somewhat 


EYE 


beyond the limits of the sphere. The 
choroid coat lies within the sclerotic 
membrane, and ends at the cornea in 
front in a ciliary process. It contains 
nerves, blood vessels and cells of coloring 
matter. By means of this coat the interior 
of the eye is transformed into a dark 
chamber. The optic nerve, passing from 
the brain, enters the ball of the eye at 
the back, and, branching out, forms a 
third coat inside the choroid membrane, 
called the retina. The retina is of com- 
plex structure. It is only about 1/80 of 
an inch thick, but is made up of ten dis- 
tinct layers of nerve fibers, membranes, 
rods and cones. The point at which the 
optic nerve enters the eye is called the 
blind spot, because here the nerve fibers 
are not sensitive to light. The slight de- 
pression near the blind spot is the point 
of clearest vision. 

The eyeball is divided by the crystal- 
line lens into two unequal chambers. 
This lens has the appearance of glass. 
It is about one-third of an inch long and 
one-fourth of an inch thick, and is held 
in place by a suspensory ligament con- 
necting with the ciliary process at the 
termination of the choroid membrane. 
The lens is the chief focusing instru- 
ment of the eye, and by means of the 
ciliary processes can vary its degree of, 
convexity so as to adapt it to focusing 
objects at different distances. Figure 2 
shows this adaptation at A and B. An 
extension of the choroid membrane forms 
a circular curtain in front of the lens, 
known as the iris. This is the colored 
portion of the eye. In the center of the 
iris is a small opening, called the pupil, 
through which light is admitted into the 
interior of the eye. The muscles of the 
iris increase or decrease the size of the 
pupil and regulate the amount of light 
which shall enter. Exposure to intense 


light causes these muscles to contract and 


narrow the opening. If a sudden change 
from a light to a dark room be made, 
objects cannot be distinctly seen until 
the iris again dilates and admits the 
light. 

The bulging of the cornea leaves a 
chamber between it and the iris which is 


993 


EYE 


filled with a watery liquid called the aque- 
ous humor. The chamber behind the 
lens is filled with a glassy, jellylike fluid 
called the vitreous humor. The light 
waves pass through the cornea and lens, 
which focus them upon the retina. After 
passing through the transparent optic 
fibers of the retina, they reach the rods 
and cones. Here they set up a certain 
stimulation, which causes a nerve cur- 
rent to run along the optic nerve to the 
brain, and excite the optical centers, 
which are the seat of vision. The eye 
acts like a camera, the rays of light 
passing through the pupil forming upon 
the retina an inverted image of the ob- 


FIGURE 2 


ject within the field of vision. If the 
cornea or lens is too convex, the rays 
of light are brought to a focus in front 
of the cornea, and objects are not dis- 
tinctly seen. Persons affected with this 
deformity of the eye are said to be short- 
sighted or nearsighted. The defect is 
remedied by means of spectacles with 
concave lenses. If the cornea is too flat 
the image is brought to a focus back of 
the retina, and the person is farsighted. 
This defect is remedied by means of 
spectacles with convex lenses. See 
LENS; SPECTACLES. 


EZRA 


Eze’kiel, a book of the Old Testa- 
ment, occupying a place between Lam- 
entations and Daniel; also one of the 
greater Hebrew prophets and the author 
of the book of Ezekiel. Ezekiel, son of 
Buzi, was one of the captives taken away 
by Nebuchadnezzar about 13 years be- 
fore the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 
B. C. Settled with a Jewish colony on 
the banks of the Chebar River, he began 
to prophesy in the fifth year of his exile. 


The book of Ezekiel contains several 


visions, parables and proverbs, and may 
be divided into two parts. The first 
part, including chapters i-xxxix, contains 
the prophecies spoken before the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalerh. The second part is 
full of consolation, containing a vision of 
the final glory of God’s people in a new 
Jerusalem. See BIBLE, subhead The Old 
Testament. ‘ 

Ez’ra, that book of the Old Testa- 
ment which, in the English Bible, comes 
between Second Chronicles and Nehe- 
miah; also the name of the author of 
this book. gra was originally a part 
of Nehemiah. The author of the book ~ 
was a scribe and priest who went up to 
Jerusalem as the leader of the second 
expedition of Jews from Babylon, about 
458 B. C., in the reign of Artaxerxes 
Longimanus. The book, covering a 
period of 79 years, consists of two parts: 
the first chronicles the return of the 
captives in the time of Cyrus and the re- 
building of the Temple; the second part 
recounts the second immigration to Jeru- 
salem and the reformation of the people 
by Ezra. See BiBLe, subhead The Old 
Testament. 


994 


F 


““A’BIUS, an ancient family of leg- 
endary Rome. They went on an 
expedition against the Veientes, 
fell into an ambush and were 

killed (477 B. C.) with only one boy sur- 
viving. The most famous in the later 
history was Fabius Maximus, Roman dic- 
tator during the Second Punic War, 
whose policy of avoiding open warfare 
with Hannibal was so __ successful. 
Quintus Fabius Pictor, who lived at.the 
same period, was the earliest writer of 
Roman history in prose. He wrote the 
chronicles. of the famous families of 
Rome, and an account of the Second 
Punic War, in which he took part. 

Fa’ble. See Fiction, subhead The 
Fable. 

Fac’tory, an establishment where 
wage earners work in large groups or- 
ganized for the purpose of production of 
commodities. The factory became an 
important industrial unit at the time of 
the introduction of machinery*and steam 
power in the middle of the 18th century. 


~ The first factory in England was a silk 


mill. The first cotton mill in America 
was built in 1803 by Samuel Slater. 
Factory Syst—eM. The use of ma- 
chinery and the concentration of effort 
through division of labor led to a rapid 
growth of industries in the beginning of 
the 19th century. A great number of 
factories were established, and the evils 
attendant upon the indiscriminate mass- 
ing together of laborers were many and 
serious. At first the factory system was 
unregulated. Insanitary conditions, over- 
working and the employment of children 
and women in dangerous occupations 
prevailed. The employers did not come 
into immediate contact with employees 
and took no thought for their welfare. 
All this changed when the public con- 
science was awakened to the need of fac- 


tory inspection, and for over a century 
legislation has been directed toward the 
improvement of conditions in the facto- 
ries, the regulation of the length of the 
working day and the exclusion of women 
and children from employment too tax- 
ing for their health and strength. The 
buildings in which employees work must 
be properly ventilated, sanitary, well 
lighted and heated, have means of easy 
egress and be protected against fire. 
The International Association of Fac- 
tory Inspection, including Canada and 
several of the states of the Union, was 
organized at Philadelphia in 1886. All 
states in which there are large manufac- 
tories now have laws safeguarding the 
employees and prohibiting the employ- 
ment of children under a specified age. 


-The compulsory education laws also pro- 


hibit the employment of minors who 
have not reached the educational stand- 
ard set by the law. 

SwEATING SysTEM. A task, or con- 
tract, system originated in the early part 
of the 19th century and became known as 
the sweating, or sweat-shop, system. 
Contractors sublet their contracts to sub- 
contractors. These subcontractors do 
the work in smaller workshops, engage 
workmen with but little skill and effi- 
ciency at a low wage-rate, and the mar- 
gin between the wages they pay and the 
contract price is their profit. Many of 
the laborers are foreigners who desire to 
learn a trade and work from 12 to 16 
hours per day. When they learn rapidly, 
the profit to the subcontractor, or 
sweater, is large. The sweating system 
originated and prevails in the tailoring 
trade. Within recent years it has been 
under legislative control. See CHILD 
Lasor; LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. 

Fahrenheit, Fah’ ren hite, Gabriel 
Daniel (1686-1736), a German scientist, 


995 


° 


FAIENCE 


born at Danzig, Prussia. His early edu- 
cation and training had in view a busi- 
ness career, but, becoming greatly in- 
terested in natural philosophy, he aban- 
doned his business pursuits and went to 
Holland to study. When he was about 
34 years of age he conceived the idea of 
using quicksilver instead of alcohol for 
the purpose of determining temperature. 
This idea he worked out successfully, 
made a new scale for thermometers, 
placing freezing point at 32°, and gave 
to the world the Fahrenheit thermom- 
eter, which is very generally used for or- 
dinary purposes. He also made other 
valuable discoveries in natural philos- 
ophy. In 1724 he was elected a member 
of the Royal Society. See THERMOM- 
ETER., 

Faience, Fa" yahnz’, a fine variety of 
pottery, which is an imitation of porce- 
lain. It excels common pottery ware in 
beauty of form, decoration and glazing. 
True faience is made of yellowish clay, 
usually covered with white enamel, 
though the enamel may be colored. The 
ware derived its name from the town of 
Faenza in Italy, where a variety of pot- 
tery known as majolica was manufac- 
tured in. the 14th century. Modern 
faience was probably invented at this 
town about the middle of the 16th cen- 
tury as an imitation of majolica. See 
MAJOLICA, 

Fainting, loss of consciousness due 
to lack of proper supply of blood in the 
brain. It is accompanied by loss of sen- 
sation and power of motion, pallor, fee- 
ble heart action and sometimes temporary 
failure of respiration. It may be brought 
on by a shock, such as fear, great joy 
or grief may cause, or by excessive pain, 
loss of blood, etc. The clothing about 
the throat and chest should be loosened, 
and the patient should be placed upon 
his back with his head and chest lower 
than the rest of his body. Plenty of 
fresh air should be given by fanning, if 


not otherwise supplied. Smelling salts. 


sometimes prove efficacious, and strong 
coffee or a few drops of ammonia may 
be given. If the attack continues, a phy- 
sician should be sent for. During return- 


FAIRBANKS 


ing consciousness excitement of any 
kind should be avoided and quiet insured. 

Fair’bairn, Andrew Martin (1838- 
1912), a noted English theologian, prin- 
cipal of Mansfield College, Oxford, born 
near Edinburgh. He was educated at 
the universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow 
and Berlin. After a ministry of 17 years 
in Scottish churches, he became principal 
of Airedale College, Bradford, England, 
in 1878, where he remained for seven 
years, lecturing at the University of 
Edinburgh in 1881-83. When the Con- 
gregationalists founded Mansfield Col- 
lege at Oxford in 1886, Dr. Fairbairn 
was appointed its first principal and re- 
tained the position until he retired on ac- 
count of age in 1909. When he began 


‘his services there the “Oxford Move- 


ment” under the leadership of John 
Henry Newman was very strong. Prin- 
cipal Fairbairn was a man of equal intel- 
lectual ability and probably did more than 
any other man to turn the tide. He lec- 
tured frequently in the United States, 
where he was greatly admired. Among 
lis most important works are The Place 
of Christ in Modern Theology; Catholi- 
cism, Roman and Anglican; and The 
Philosophy of the Christian Religion. 
See Oxrorp MovEMENT. 

_, Fair’banhks, Charles Warren (1852- 
1918), a former vice-president of the 
United States, born near Unionville Cen- 
tre, Union Co., Ohio, and educated at 
Ohio Wesleyan University. He was ad- 
mitted to the bar of the Supreme Court 
of Ohio in 1874, moved to Indianapolis, 
Ind., in the same year, where he prac- 
ticed for 23 years, and was elected to 
the United States Senate in 1897, and 
again in 1903. He was a member of the 
United States and British Joint High 
Commission, which met in Quebec in 
1898 to adjust Canadian matters, and 
was chairman of the United States High 
Commissioners. He was ‘delegate-at- 
large to the Republican National Con- 
vention at St. Louis in 1896, at Phila- 
delphia in 1900 and at Chicago in 1904, 
holding important positions in each con- 
vention. Mr. Fairbanks was unanimously 
nominated for vice-president of the 


996 


} 


FAIRCHILD 


United States at the convention in Chi- 
cago in 1904, and was elected with Theo- 
dore Roosevelt. 

Fair’child, Lucius (1831-1896), an 
American soldier, born at Franklin 
Mills, Ohio. In 1846 he removed with 
his father to Wisconsin. He went to 
California during the gold excitement 
in 1849, returning after six years no 
richer than when he left. He studied 
law and was admitted to the bar in 1860. 
In 1861 he enlisted in the army, was 
made captain of volunteers, and later, 
captain in the regular army. At the 
Battle of Bull Run he commanded part 
of the famous “iron brigade.’ He lost 
his left arm at Gettysburg. In 1863 
he was made brigadier-general of volun- 
teers. He soon resigned, however, be- 
came secretary of state for Wisconsin, 
and, was then elected governor, serving 
for six consecutive terms. He was ap- 
pointed consul at Liverpool in 1872 and 
held this office until 1878, when he be- 
came consul-general at Paris, and in 
1880, minister to Spain. He resigned 
and returned to Madison, Wis., in 1882. 
In 1886 he was elected commander-in- 
chief of the Grand Army of the Re- 
public. 

Fair’fax, Thomas (1612-1671), an 
English soldier and statesman. During 
the struggle between Charles I and Par- 
liament, he was cavalry officer in the 
Parliamentary army, distinguishing him- 
self at Marston Moor. Later, while com- 
manding all Parliamentary forces, he re- 
ceived great credit for the victory at 
Naseby, but he was subsequently super- 
seded by Cromwell for refusing to march 
against the Scotch who supported 
Charles II. Afterwards he belonged to 
Parliament and treated with Charles II. 
He wrote an account of the Civil War. 

Fair’mont, W. Va., a city and the 
county seat of Marion Co., 77 m. s.e. of 
~ Wheeling, on the Monongahela River 
and on the Baltimore & Ohio and other 
railroads. The city, built on both sides of 
the river, is in a region rich in coal; 
and large quantities of coal are mined 
and shipped. Among the manufactories 
and other industrial plants are flour 


FAIRWEATHER, MOUNT 


mills, glass factories, planing mills, fur- 
niture factories, foundries, machine 
shops and manufactories of lumber, 
cigars and machinery. A state normal 
school is located here; and there is a 
miners’ hospital, maintained by the state, 
and a fine courthouse. In 1819 the place 
was laid out and was called Middletown ; 
it became the county seat in 1842 and 
two years later received its present 
name. The city was chartered in 1899, 
Population in 1920, 17,851. : 

Fair Oaks, Battle of, an important 
engagement of the Civil War, fought 
about seven miles east of Richmond, Va., 
May 31 and June 1, 1862, between 42,000 
Federals under McClellan, and about an 
equal number of Confederates under 
Johnston and G. W. Smith. While fol- 
lowing Johnston on his retreat from 
Williamsburg toward Richmond, Mc- 
Clellan reached the Chickahominy, across 
which he threw his left wing, under 
Heintzelman and Keyes. On the morn- 
ing of May 31 Johnston sent D. H. Hill, 
supported by Longstreet, to attack the 
two corps that had crossed the river. 
Johnston soon joined the fight, and the 
Federals were almost beaten when Sum- 
ner arrived with reinforcements. The 
Confederates were now thrown into con- 
fusion, being driven back with great 
slaughter, and Johnston himself was se- 
verely wounded. Command then fell 
upon General Smith and, later, upon 
General Lee, who withdrew toward 
Richmond about noon the following day. 
The Confederates lost about 5200 men; 
the Federals, about 5000. The honor of 
this victory for the Army of the Poto- 
mac belonged chiefly. to Sumner. Mc- 
Clellan was blamed for not having 
marched at once to Richmond, the spires 
of which could be seen from the bat- 
tlefield. 

Fairweather, Mount, a mountain of 
southeastern Alaska lying in the St. 
Elias Range on the boundary between 
British Columbia and the narrow strip 
of Alaska’s “panhandle.” It lies about 
15 m. inland, and its elevation is given 
as 14,580 ft., although some suppose it 
to be much higher. The mountain takes 


997 


FAIRY 


its name from Cape Fairweather, directly 
west of it. 

Fairy, in myths, a delicate, ravishing 
creature who interfered in men’s af- 
fairs. Belief in fairies has come down 
to the present time, and is spread from 
Ireland, where these spirits are thought 
to inhabit the ‘“‘raths,” to Australia, 
Samoa and to the Arabs and Moors, 
whose fairy is called Jan. A human 
being who has tasted food in fairyland 
is believed doomed to dwell there eter- 
nally. Certain women fairies are be- 
lieved to lure human lovers to death. 
Nereids, Oreads and Naiads are thought 
to be fairies of wells, of mountains and 
of seas. Believers in fairies say that they 
have superhuman knowledge; that many 
of them are inspired by the feelings of 
love, jealousy, envy and vengeance; 
that they are responsible not only for the 
disappearance of various objects, but 
that they spirit folks off in whirls of 
dust. Against their many pranks, how- 
ever, the rue is said to be acharm. Still, 
if you are kind to the fairies you need 
have no fear; they will be kind to you. 
For this reason, the people of the Ori- 
ent address. fairies as “blessed ones.” 
Though locally appearing as animals, 
fairies are popularly supposed to have 
the human form in miniature. For the 
Norse fairy, see ELVEs. 

Faith Cure, the healing of the sick 
by prayer and by faith in God. Since 
the beginnings of Christianity numerous 
cures have been recorded which were re- 
ported to have been made without the 
use of medicines and only by the exer- 


cise of faith upon the part of the patient. 


The touching of sacred relics, carrying 
of certain jewels and performing of cer- 
tain tasks were only different forms 
which the method of cure took. So 
great was the belief in these cures that 
for a long time the practice of medicine 
was held in disrepute, since it séemed to 
imply a lack of faith in divine power or 
a desire to interfere therein. Apothe- 
caries were supposed to have a secret 
league with the Evil One. In the United 
States in the middle of the 19th century 
many sects arose having cure by faith 


FALCON FAMILY 


as the basis of their religion. These differ 
from each other in many details and 
their statements of belief differ widely. 
Much good has arisen from their work 
in many instances and there is no lack 
of earnestness in it. In the United 
States, however, it is held to be a crim- 
inal offense to allow a person to dié 
without giving him proper medical at- 
tendance if such can be secured. 

Fa’kir, a Mohammedan religious 
mendicant, more particularly one of the 
Hindu race. The Hindu fakirs are of 
two classes, those belonging to the re- 
ligious orders, and the wandering rogues 
who overrun the country. The first 
class are sincerely religious; the second 
are simply unscrupulous beggars who 
prey upon the superstitious villagers. 
They inflict dreadful tortures upon 
themselves, and most of them are’ un- 
speakably filthy. 

Fal’con Family, a family of bitds of 
prey, which includes kites and falcons. 
The birds of this family are character- 
ized by their strong powers of flight, 
fearlessness as hunters, and their habit 
of capturing their prey on the wing, 
seizing it in their sharp, curved claws— 
the most deadly weapons with which 
any bird is armed. They all fly by day. 
They feed upon other birds and small 
Mammals, and certain species were used 
in falconry during the Middle ee (See 
FALCONRY). 

Duck Hawk. This bird is a good 
example of the true falcon, and is a race 
of the European duck hawk which was 
much used for falconry. It is slaty blue 
above, barred with dark gray; the top 
of the head is black; the under -parts 
are deep buff, barred with dark gray; 
and the throat is white or light buff. 
The male measures 18 and the female 20 
inches in length, the latter being the 
larger and stronger bird. The four red- 
dish eggs are laid on the bare ground, 
in hollows in trees or in old nests of 
other hawks The duck hawk feeds 
mainly on waterfowl, its flight being so 
swift as to enable it easily to pursue and 
capture the swiftest flying ducks. It is 
found in nearly all parts of the world. 


998 


FALCONIO 


Falconio, Diomede (1842-1917), an 
American cardinal, born at Pescoco- 
stanzo in Abruzzi, Italy. He joined the 
Franciscan Order when 18 years of age, 
and five years later was sent as a mis- 
sionary to the United States, where, 
after being ordained a priest, he became 
professor of philosophy and vice-presi- 
dent of St. Bonaventure’s College, at 
Allegany, N. Y., and later, after a year’s 
absence, became its president. For ten 
years (1872-1882) he was secretary and 
administrator of the Cathedral of Har- 
bor Grace, Newfoundland, and in 1883 
he returned to Italy, where he held many 
high offices in the Franciscan Order. 
After being consecrated Bishop of Lace- 
donia and then Archbishop of Acerenza 
and Matera, Archbishop Falconio be- 
came apostolic delegate to Canada and 
to the United States. In 1911 he, with 
two other American archbishops, was 
created cardinal. He has published a 
volume entitled Pastoral Letters. 

Fal’conry, the pursuing of game by 
means of falcons, and the necessary ac- 
companiment of training the birds for 
the sport. The name hawking, which 
is sometimes used synonymously, more 
accurately refers only to the sport in 
the field. Two kinds of birds are used: 
the long-winged, or true, falcons, rep- 
resented by the gyrfalcons; and the 
short-winged falcons, represented by the 
goshawk. These were chained to the 
wrist of the hunter and were released 
when the game was sighted. Pigeons, 
partridges, larks, rooks, magpies, her- 
ons, wild ducks and even rabbits were 
among the animals attacked by the fal- 
cons, and the birds so pursued were 
caught on the wing. 

Falconry was a popular sport in Eng- 
land after the Norman Conquest and 
was practiced by nobles and court ladies. 
A person’s rank could be distinguished 
by the species of falcon possessed; thus 
an earl carried a peregrine falcon, etc. 
In Germany and France falconry was 
popular about the same time, and the 
literature of the period, or that concern- 
ing those times, abounds in references to 
the practice. The sport died out in the 


FALLIERES 


17th century and, though later revived, 
died out almost entirely with the use of 
firearms in the hunt. Consult Freeman 
and Salvin, Falconry, Its Claims and 
Practice. 

Falk’land Islands, a group of islands 
in the South Atlantic Ocean, a posses- 
sion of Great Britain. The two largest 
islands are known as East and West 
Falkland; the Island of South Georgia 
and other smaller islands are uninhab- 
ited. They lie about 300 m. east of the 
Strait of Magellan. The entire area 
is about 7500 sq. m. There are good 
harbors and the coasts are greatly in- 
dented; the climate is favorable except 
when continuous drizzling rains and 
strong winds set in. Sheep farming is 
practically the only industry, as the soil 
yields little except grass. There are 
large unworked deposits of peat. In 
1592 Davis visited the islands and they 
were named by Captain Strong in 1690, 
when he sailed through Falkland Strait. 
The French, British and Spanish have 
had control of the territory; since 1833 
it has been in the hands of the British, 
and the present colony was established in 
1851. Stanley, in East Falkland, is the 
principal town. The population of the 
islands is about 2000. 

Fal’lacy. See Locic. 

Falliéres, Fal’ yar’, Clément Armand 
(1841- ), eighth president of the 
French Republic. He practiced law and 
became mayor of Nérac in 1871. Three 
years later he was elected a Republican 
member of the Chamber of Deputies 
from the same piace. He soon drew at- 
tention as a speaker of the Republican 
Left. In 1880-82 he was undersecretary 
for the minister of the interior and prime 
minister for 22 days in January, 1883. 
He served in other high positions and 
became president of the Senate in 1899. 
He continued to fill this office for seven 
years. In 1906 he was elected president 
of France by the Radical Republicans 
and the Socialists, and he took his seat 
Feb. 18, serving until 1913. His peas- 
ant ancestry and his free and democratic 
manners made him very popular with 
the common people. 


999 


. FALLING BODIES 


Falling Bodies. The earth exerts a 
constant force of attraction on every 
body, so that if the body is free to move 
it will fall toward the earth with uni- 
formly accelerated motion (See Mo- 
TION, Laws oF). In the air bodies fall 
with slightly unequal velocities because 
of the resistance of the air; but in a 
vacuum they fall with equal velocities. 
Neglecting the friction of the air, all 
freely falling bodies acquire in each sec- 
ond a velocity of 32.16 ft., or 980 centi- 
meters, per second. The velocity acquired 
accordingly increases in proportion to the 
time of falling, and the velocity at the 
end of ¢ seconds is 32.16 x ¢ ft. per sec- 
ond, or 980 xt centimeters per second. 
Thus at the end of three seconds, a 
freely falling body would have a veloc- 
ity of 32.16 x 3, or 96.48, ft. per second. 

If the body has an initial velocity, as a 
ball thrown vertically upward, it begins 
to acquire a downward velocity the mo- 
ment it leaves the hand; but it continues 
to go up until its acquired downward 
velocity equals its initial upward veloc- 
ity, when it stops and begins to fall. 
It will finally reach the earth with a 
speed equal to that with which it was 
thrown up, if the air friction can be 
neglected. Again, when a rifle ball is 
shot horizontally, it begins to fall the 
moment it leaves the barrel, and in a 
given time it will fall the same distance 
as if it had simply been dropped. To 
allow for this falling, the sights of a 
rifle are so placed that the rifle barrel 
is pointed slightly above the object aimed 
at. This elevation of the barrel in- 
creases with the distance to be shot. 

The distance a body will fall in a 
given time is found by multiplying its 
average vertical velocity by the time of 
fall, its average velocity being half the 
sum of its initial and final velocities. 
For example, during the first second of 
fall the average velocity is +3", and 
the distance fallen is 16.08 x 1, or 16. O08, 
ft. During the second second it will fall 
16.08 ft. as before, and it will also fall 
32.16 ft., due to the velocity it acquired 
during the first second, or a total of 


‘in 1865 a brigadier-general. 


FALLOWS 


16.08+-32.16, or 48.24. The total fall 
during the two seconds will accordingly 
be the sum of the distances’ fallen in the 
two separate seconds, 16.08-+48.24, or 
64.32 ft., which is four times the distance 
fallen in the first second. The general 
rule is: The distance that a body, start- 
ing from: rest, will fall in a given time 
equals 16.08 ft., or 490 centimeters, mul- 
tiplied by the square of the number of 
seconds. Stated in formula, using s for 
distance, s=16.08 7? ft., or s=490 7? cen- 
timeters. If the body has an initial up- 
ward or downward velocity, it is only 
necessary to calculate the distance it 
would go in the given time due to this 
velocity, and then add or subtract the 
result from the distance it would fall in 
that time as calculated by the rule given 
above. The distance a body will fall 
during any given second, as, for exam-. 
ple, the fifth, is found by calculating the 
total distance it will fall in five seconds 
and subtracting from this the total dis- 
tance it will fall in four seconds. 
Fallow Deer, the spotted deer of 
Europe and Asia, and the one chiefly seen 
in English parks and game preserves. 
Aside from its color, it differs from other 
deer in having long, slender antlers 
which are flattened at the ends and 
branch like the fingers from the palm. 
The fallow deer is found along the 
shores of the Mediterranean, where large 
herds. graze upon tender grass or eat 
fruit and nuts. The skin makes a soft 
leather, the flesh is desirable and the 
antlers are of use in cutlery. The ani- 
mal is so tame, however, that the species 
would soon be exterminated were it not 
protected by law. 
Fallows, Samuel (1835- ret): 
American bishop of the Reformed Epis- 
copal Church, born at Pendleton, Eng- 
land. When he was 13 years of age the 
family came to America, settling in Wis- 
consin. Fallows graduated from Wis- 
consin University and was for a time 
professor in Galesville University. He 
entered the Civil War as chaplain of a 
Wisconsin regiment, but left the service 
He served 
the State of Wisconsin for three years 


4 


1000 


FALL RIVER 


as superintendent of public instruction, 
and subsequently was president of Illi- 
nois Wesleyan University. He accepted 
a call to St. Paul’s Reformed Episcopal 
Church, Chicago, in 1875, and the next 
year became bishop. Bishop Fallows 
has assisted in the preparation of sev- 
eral works of reference, and has been 
engaged in numerous enterprises of great 
importance. 

Fall River, Mass., a city and port of 
entry of Bristol Co., 49 m. s.w. of Bos- 
ton and 18 m. s.e. of Providence, R. I., 
at the mouth of the Taunton River on 
Mt. Hope Bay, which is the northeast- 
ern part of Narragansett Bay, and on 
the New York, New Haven & Hartford 
and other railroads. The city is on a 
good harbor and has steamer connections 
with Providence, Newport, and New 
York, notably by the Fall River line be- 
tween New York and Boston. There are 
also steamer connections with Philadel- 
phia by the Windsor freight lines of 
steamers. Fall River is irregularly laid 
out, with many fine residences built out 
of native granite, and is situated on 
slopes rising from the river. The area 
of the city is 41 sq.m. It has abundant 
water power furnished by the Queque- 
chan River, the outlet of Watuppa Lake, 
which descends 130 ft. in the course of 
half a mile. There are a number of fine 
public parks. | 
_ Among the principal buildings are a 
state armory, St. Vincent’s and St. 
sks homes, a custom-house, Notre 

ame, jot. Mary’s .and” St. :Anne’s 
churches, First Congregational Church, 
Second Congregational Church, classical 

and technical high schools, several ele- 
mentary schools, a city library, Bradford 
Durfee Textile School, Quequechan 
Club, the Boys’ Club, a county court- 
house, Notre Dame College and the 
Academy La Ste. Union des -Sacrés 
Ceeurs. It is as a manufacturing center 
that Fall River is best known. It ranks 
first in the cotton-milling industry in the 
United States. Textile weaving and dye- 
ing is one of the great industries, and an 
extensive hat manufactory furnishes the 
United States army with hats. There 


FAMINE 


are also manufactories of woolens, 
thread, rubber goods, bobbins and shut- 
tles, rope, wire, iron and brass products, 
machinery, calico, soap, twine and knit 
goods. 

Fall River was included within the lim- 
its of Freetown until 1803, when it was 
incorporated under its present name as 
a separate town. The town was called 
Troy from 1804 to 1834, when its old 
name was restored. It received a city 
charter in 1854. Population in 1920, U. 
S. Census, 120,485. 

False Imprisonment, the illegal con- 


finement of a person against his will, 


whether in a public prison or a private 
house. False imprisonment is consid- 
ered a crime and is punished by the 
State. The one imprisoned may also 
recover damages through a civil suit. 

False Pretenses, misrepresentations 
of one’s purpose, financial standing or 
business, for the purpose of obtaining 
pecuniary or other assistance. Such a 
misrepresentation is considered a mis- 
demeanor and is punishable by fine or 
imprisonment, or both. 

Fa’ma, in Greek myths, goddess of 
rumor. She is probably an invention of 
the poets. Vergil vividly describes her 
and Ovid tells of her bronze palace. 

Family. See Botany. 

Fam/ine, a distressing scarcity of 
food affecting the inhabitants of an ex- 
tensive geographical area. Among the 
chief causes of famine are irregular 
rainfall, floods, wars and destructive in- 
sects. Famine usually occurs in coun- 
tries where, as in Ireland, the people 
depend heavily upon a staple product. 
Famines are rare in those regions where 
there is a diversity of activity, and where 
in the event of failure of one product 
the other resources can be drawn upon 
to sustain life. In ancient and medieval 
times famines were numerous and devas- 
tating to the population, but at the pres- 
ent time they are not so frequent, owing 
partly to the increased facilities for 
transportation and: ready intercourse be- 
tween countries. India and China have 
been the scene of many destructive fam- 
ines; in the latter country as many as 


1001 


FAN 


9,000,000 persons perished in 18/77 and 
1878 from this cause. English rule in 
India has greatly lessened the loss of 
life from famine, and the British budget 
makes annual provision against any need 
that may arise from failure of the rice 
crop. 

Fan, the name given to various in- 
struments and contrivances for produc- 
ing air currents. Hand fans for cooling 
the face were well known to the Egyp- 
tians, Greeks and Romans, and were in- 
troduced into England during the reign 
of Henry VIII. They have been made 
of many different materials, such as the 
leaf of certain palms, of wood, of feath- 
ers, of paper and of thin skins, variously 
constructed and attached to ahandle. 
The folding fan was introduced by the 
Japanese in the seventh century, and 
consists of two portions, one the folded 
fabric and the other the rigid strips 
fastened to it, and all pivoted together 
at one end, so as to open when used and 
shut up or fold when not in use. Great 
display of artistic ability is shown in the 
ornamentation of fans. For the descrip- 
tion of a fan as a‘machine see BLOWING 
MACHINE. 

Faneuil, Fan’), Hall, a public build- 
ing, given to Boston by Peter Faneuil 
in 1742. As originally planned, it com- 
prised a market house, being enlarged to 
provide a public hall; but it was burned 
in January, 1761, the walls alone being 
saved. ~The town speedily erected a new 
building, funds for which were raised 
partly through a lottery. This building 
was enlarged in 1805. Faneuil Hall, 
known as the “Cradle of American Lib- 
erty,” is one of the most cherished land- 
marks of Revolutionary times. Here, in 
1772, the first Boston Committee of Cor- 
respondence was organized; in 1773, the 
Boston Tea Party was planned; and in 
1837, Wendell Phillips made his first 
anti-slavery speech. See Boston TEA 
PARTY; PHILLIPS, WENDELL. 

Far’ad, the practical unit of electric 
capacity in the electromagnetic system. 
The microfarad, 1,000,000 times as 
small, is the more commonly employed 
unit. A conductor is said to have a 


FARGO 


capacity of one microfarad, if, when 
charged with a micro-coulomb of elec- 
tricity, its potential is changed by one 
volt; or a condenser is said to have a 
capacity of one microfarad when a posi- 
tive charge of one micro-coulomb on one 
coating and an equal negative charge on 
the other coating cause a potential dif 
ference of one volt between the coatings. 
See ELecrric Capacity; LEYDEN JAR. 

Far’aday, Michael (1791-1867), an 
English chemist whose work began in 
self-planned experiments while he was a 
bookbinder’s apprentice. In 1813 he be- 
came Davy’s assistant in the laboratory 
of the Royal Institution-at London, and 
after traveling with Davy for over a 
year he was made director of the labora- 
tory and later life professor of chem- 
istry in the institution. Faraday’s chem- 
ical work was chiefly in investigation of 
chlorine and other gases. His most im- 
portant work, however, was in the line 
of electrical discoveries, where his 
greatest achievement was the discovery 
of the induction of electric currents. 
Faraday’s work was characterized by 
the concentration and persistency of his 
efforts and the accuracy of his state- 
ments. His private life is particularly 
worthy of note on account of his kindly, 
sympathetic disposition, which rendered 
him doubly helpful to his students and 
associates. 

Far’go, N. D., a city and the county 
seat of Cass Co., 265 m. w. of Duluth 
(Minn.) and 651 m. n.w. of Chicago, on 
the Red. River and on the Chicago, Mil- 
waukee &.St. Paul, the Great Northern 
and the Northern Pacific railroads. The 
city is situated in a fertile agricultural 
region producing quantities of wheat. 
It is an important financial and jobbing 
center and one of the leading distribut- 
ing points for heavy farm machinery in 
the United States. 

Fargo is a city of beautiful streets and 
parkways, and there are many artistic 
homes. It has two city parks, Island 
Park and Oak Grove. A modern elec- 
tric railway system serves the city and 
connects it with Moorhead (Minn.). An 
interurban line also connects with Dil- 


1002 


FARIBAULT 


worth (Minn.), where large car shops 
are located. The prominent buildings 
include a courthouse, city hall, Federal 
Building, Masonic Temple, Y. M..C. A. 
and Y. W. C. A. buildings, three public 
libraries, a number of banks, substantial 
business houses, fine hotels and about 30 
churches. It is the seat of a Catholic 
see and of a Protestant Episcopal bish- 
opric. Fargo is the seat of the North 
Dakota Agricultural College (coeduca- 
tional), which receives both Federal and 
state support. Other colleges include 
the Fargo College, Sacred Heart Acad- 
emy (Catholic), Lutheran Training 
School for women, a central high 
school, public schools and several busi- 
ness colleges. St. John’s and St. Luke’s 
hospitals are among the benevolent in- 
stitutions. The first settlement was 
made in 1871 and the place named in 
honor of W., G. Fargo of the Wells- 
Fargo Express Company. A city char- 
ter was granted in 1875. In 1893 the 


city suffered from a heavy loss by fire. . 


Population in 1920, 21,961. 

Faribault, Far’i bo”, Minn., a city 
and the county seat of Rice Co., about 
45 m. s.w. of St. Paul, at the confluence 
of the Cannon and Straight rivers, and 
on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, 
the Chicago, Great Western, the Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee & St. Paul and other 
railroads. There is ample water power 
and the manufactures include foundry 
products, gasoline engines, windmills, 
wagons, carriages, warehouse trucks, 
furniture, pianos, rattanware, shoes, 
woolen goods, flour, cane sirup and 
canned goods. Faribault is situated in 


a region dotted with attractive lakes and 
is known as a summer resort. 


The town 
offers exceptional educational advan- 
tages, being the seat of the state institu- 
tions for the deaf, the blind and the fee- 
ble-minded; the Shattuck School for 
boys and St. Mary’s School for girls, 
both under the control of the Protestant 


Episcopal Church; the Bethlehem Acad-. 


emy for girls (Roman Catholic); the 
Seabury Divinity School; and the hos- 
pital and nurses’ training school of the 
Minnesota District of the Evangelical 


FARMERS’ ALLIANCE 


Synod. The city has a public library. 
Faribault was permanently settled in 
1848 and chartered as a city in 1872. It 
was named in honor of Jean Baptiste 
Faribault, a French fur trader. Popu- 
lation in 1920, U. S. Census, 11,089, 

Far’ley, John Murphy (1842-1918), 
an American Roman Catholic clergyman, 
born at Newton Hamilton in Ireland and 
educated at St. Marcartan’s College in 
Ireland and at St. John’s College at 
Fordham, N. Y. Later he studied law 
and spent four years in the American 
College at Rome, where, in 1872, he was 
ordained a priest. Subsequently he held 
the offices of private chamberlain to 
Pope Leo XIII, vicar-general to the 
Archbishop of New York, and again do- 
meéstic’ prelaté, to: Pope’ Leo Xi igamin 
1895 he was consecrated auxiliary Bishop 
of New York and titular Bishop of 
Zeugma. He was promoted to the See 
of New York in September, 1902, re- 
ceived the special approbation of the 
Pope in June, 1903, and was made as- 
sistant at the Pontifical Throne in De- 
cember, 1904. In November, 1911, he 
was one of the three American arch- 
bishops to be created cardinal by Pope 
Pius. Cardinal Farley is an author of 
some note, having written a valuable 
Life of Cardinal McCloskey and con- 
tributed articles to many current mag- 
azines. 

Farmers’ Alliance, a national organ- 
ization of agriculturists for mutual im- 
provement and furtherance of political 
ends. It was founded in the State of 
New York in 1873, for social and edu- 
cational purposes, but, with the develop- . 
ment of other organizations of the same 
name in various parts of the country, it 
soon became a political force. In 1890 
it reached the height of its popularity 
and at its national convention of that 
year declared the following principles of 
government in its platform: free and 
unlimited coinage of silver; laws pro- 
hibiting speculative dealings in agricul- 
tural products; government ownership 
of all lines of transportation and com- 
munication; prohibition of ownership of 
land by any except American citizens; 


1003 


FARMERS’ CLUBS 


and a plan for lending money to farmers 
on the security of farm products. The 
membership steadily decreased, however, 
until in 1895 its remaining followers 
united with the People’s Party. 
Farmers’ Clubs, local associations of 
persons interested in questions pertain- 
ing to the farm. Meetings are held at 
regular intervals, and, as generally con- 
ducted, consist of a program devoted to 
papers, talks, etc., interspersed with 
music and with discussions of the topics 
of common interest, whether of local or 
national, scientific or purely practical 
character. Much influence has been ex- 
erted by the most progressive of these 
clubs in improving methods of farm 
work, disseminating scientific agricultural 
education and interesting farmers in 
public questions not directly connected 
with their profession. Such clubs are 
found in nearly all agricultural communi- 
ties of the United States and have a 
social as well as educational value. See 
FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. ! 
Farmers’ Institutes, a series of meet- 
ings for the instruction and help of 
farmers. In the United States such in- 
stitutes have been held in all the states 
and territories except New Mexico, 
Nevada, Alaska and Hawaii. They con- 
sist ordinarily of a two or four days’ 
meeting conducted by directors sent out 
by the agricultural colleges of the states. 
Sessions are held morning, afternoon and 
evening and consist of practical talks 
upon the line of farm work done in the 
community where the institute is held, 
and lectures upon popular subjects. 
The expense incurred is almost entirely 
met by appropriations from the state 
Legislatures. The weak point in the 
service done by the institutes at present 
is the failure to see that application is 
made of the suggestions given from the 
platform. The growing tendency is to 
follow up the lectures with practical 
demonstration of the principles ad- 
vanced. In 16 states separate institutes 
have been held for women and system- 
atic instruction given in women’s depart- 
ments of the farm; and a few states, rec- 
ognizing that many young people in the 


FARRAGUT 


country leave school at the age of 14, are 
providing means of organizing them into 
associations under the direction of insti- 
tute instructors, who can give them 
vocational training adapted to their years. 

Perhaps one of the most helpful and 
popular branches of the institute work 
has been the establishment of institute 
trains. These trains are equipped with 
material for illustrating the points of the 
lectures, and are run at the expense of 
the railroad companies. They are side- 
tracked at the different agricultural cen- 
ters, where farmers have the privilege of- 
examining the exhibits and talking with 
the instructors in the intervals between 
sessions of the institute. At present 18 
states have at least one such train each 
and many have two or more. 

Farming. See RANCHING, 2 

Fa’roe Islands, a group of islands, 
lying in the North Atlantic, between the 
Shetland Islands and Iceland. There 
are 21 in all, and of the 17 which are 
inhabited the largest are Stromo, Ostero, 
Videro and Vaago. Their total area is 
530 sq. m. Hurricanes prevail and pre- 
vent the cultivation of trees and vegeta- 
bles. Fishing, the rearing of sheep and 
bird hunting are the chief occupations. » 
The inhabitants are of Norse descent, 
and the language is a form of old Norse. 
Population 18,000. 

Far’ragut, David Glasgow (180I- 
1870), an American naval hero, born 
near Knoxville, Tenn., the son of George 
Farragut, a native of Minorca. David 
entered the navy as midshipman when 
nine and first served under Porter, with 
whom he went to Valparaiso, Chile. In 
1841 he was promoted commander, and 
from 1854 to 1858 was employed in 
founding the Mare Island navy yard at 
San Francisco. At the outbreak of the 
Civil War he was placed in command of 
the Brooklyn, and in the spring of 1862 
he led a naval expedition against New 
Orleans, the Hartford being his flagship. 


_On reaching the Gulf of Mexico he there 


organized the West Gulf Blockading 
Squadron, and with able land assistance 
forced the surrender of New Orleans.’ 
Later he captured Baton Rouge and 


1004 


FARRAR 


Natchez, and, by running the batteries 
at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet 
above that place. In consequence of his 
services at New Orleans he was placed 
first on the list of proposed admirals. 
In 1863 he cooperated in attacks on Port 
Hudson and Vicksburg, and in August, 
1864, defeated the Confederate forces 
in Mobile Bay. His exploits in the Gulf 
region won him great fame. He received 
the thanks of Congress and for him the 
rank of vice-admiral was created. In 
1866 he became the first admiral of the 
United States navy, and, on visiting 
Europe the following year, was there ac- 
corded the highest honors. 

Far’rar, Frederick William (1831- 
1903), an eminent English clergyman, 
born in Bombay, India. He was edu- 
cated at the University of London and 
became assistant master at Harrow in 
1855. Later he drew attention by his 
work as head master of Marlborough 
College, and became Dean of Canter- 
_bury in 1895. He established a reputa- 
tion as a writer of fiction, biography, his- 
tory and on religious subjects, while his 
works, popular in style, tended to elevate 
religious thought. His chief works are 
a Life of Christ and The Eternal Hope. 

Fashion. See Dress, 

Fast, a temporary abstinence from 
food and drink, usually in connection 
with religion. Fasting’ as a religious 
practice Has prevailed almost universally ; 
it has been found among the Romans, 
the Greeks, the Egyptians, the Assyrians, 
the Aztecs and Toltecs of Mexico, the 
Incas of Peru and other American abo- 
rigines, among the Pacific Islanders, and 
in eastern Asia wherever Brahmanism 
and Buddhism have made their way. 
Fasting among the Israelites was not at 
first obligatory, but after the Captivity, 
days of public fasting were established. 
An orthodox Jew of today fasts on his 
birthday after he reaches the age of 13, 
as well as on the birthday of his eldest 
son, until the latter is 13, besides observ- 
ing the regular fast days. The period of 
abstinence is from daybreak until the 
first three stars appear. In the early 
Christian Church fasting was a general 


FATIGUE 


observance, being required as a prepa- 
ration for holy acts and feasts and for 
ordination and baptism. Roman Catho- 
lics, generally speaking, abstain from 
meat on Friday and throughout Lent, be- 
sides observing certain other fast days. 
Fasting is very strictly kept by the Greek 
Church; their Easter fast covers a 
period of 48 days, that of Christmas 39. 
The Church of England recommends 
fasting as a means of grace, though the 
observance is not obligatory. The Mo- 
hammedans rigorously observe the fast 
which Mohammed commanded, that dur- 
ing the month of Ramadan. 

Fata Morgana, Fah’ tah Mor gah' nah, 
the name applied to a peculiar kind of 
mirage, observable in the Straits of Mes- 
sina between Sicily and southern Italy. 
It appears in the air, on the water or 
even in the water and reflects the images 
of trees, building and people. The name 
Fata Morgana means fay, or fairy, Mor- 
gana. In the legends of King Arthur, 
Fata Morgana was the sister of Arthur, 
and in attempting to steal his sword, 
Excalibur, she secured only the scab- 
bard, which she threw into the sea. She 
was supposed thus to have caused the 
mirage in the Straits of Messina; hence 
the name, which may also be applied to 
any mirage. 

Fates, or Parce, Par’ se, in classic © 
mythology, three daughters of Jupiter 
and Themis (Law) who presided over 
human destinies. Clotho spins, Lachesis 
twists. and Atropos severs the thread 
of life. | 

Fatigue, Fa teeg’, a condition of the 
body or of the mind resulting from con- 
tinued exertion. The form of fatigue 
most often felt is that due to muscular 
exercise and nervous strain. Of this 
sort of fatigue there is a ready con- 
sciousness, but some organs of the body 
may be overworked and the signs of 
fatigue not be manifest for some time. 
When the muscles are exercised, certain 
substances are formed in the muscular 
tissue, which are poisonous in their effect 
if not thrown from the system. These 
poisons are carried off in the blood, but if 
they accumulate, as the result of contin- 


1005 


FAULT 


ued exertion, the natural agencies are 
overtaxed to eliminate them, and serious 
injuries sometimes result. When the 
blood of a fatigued person is injected 
into another, the sense of weariness is 
transmitted to the second person. If the 
muscles be overworked, they lose their 
contractile power and fail to respond 
readily to the ordinary stimuli. In 
nervous fatigue the nerves undergo cer- 
tain physiological changes and lose their 
sensitiveness. The mind is also affected 
by fatigue. Some forms of mental 
fatigue are marked by dullness of per- 
ception and feeling, and decreased mem- 
orizing and reasoning powers. 

Fatigue is nature’s warning that it is 
time to rest. It is, therefore, a protect- 
ive measure. Every part of the body re- 
quires its periods of rest. The muscles 
of respiration and circulation, while ap- 


parently perpetually active, have their 
short periods of rest between each 
rhythmic movement, when for a brief 
interval they are absolutely inert. It is 
during the intervals of rest that the tis- 
sues are nourished. Very young per- 
sons are prone to overexercise, but they 
should be prevented from all violent ef- 


fort which would result in exhaustion. - 


See ATTENTION; 
MeEmory. 

Fault, in geology, the displacement 
of strata of rock caused by fracture. In 
coal beds the extent of a fault varies 
from a few feet to several hundred, and 
is sometimes a thousand. The miner de- 
termines the location of a lost and dis- 


SENSATION; WILL; 


FAWCETT 


placed stratum by the angle of fracture, 
or slope of the broken surface. In the 
illustration the section bounded by the 
lines A A and BB has been raised from 
its former position. 

Fauns, sportive woodland demigods 
of the Romans, human in form except 
for the ears, legs and feet, which were 
those of a goat. They were similar to the 
Greek satyrs. It was a peasant custom 
to sacrifice lambs and kids to them. The 
name is derived from Faunus. 

Faust, Foust, or Faustus, Johann 
(about 1485-about 1540), a German as- 
trologer and soothsayer, supposed to 
have been aided by the Devil in his per- 
formance of marvelous deeds. In 1587 
the first history of Dr. Faust appeared. 
This relates how the son of a peasant, 
after gaining distinction at the Univer- 
sity of Wittenberg, seeks to increase his 
knowledge by resort to magic. Secur- 
ing the help of a devil, Mephistopheles, 
who is to be his servant for 24 years, 
Faust enters upon a course of unre- 
strained revelry. Awakened to remorse 
by visions of the spirit world, he turns 
to mathematics for consolation, but aft- 
erwards visits hell and the stars and re~ 
sumes his revelry. At the end of 24 
years he is carried away by the Devil. 
The story of Faust since its first appear- 
ance has been a favorite literary theme. 
Christopher Marlowe, an English dram- 
atist of the time of Shakespeare, pre- 
sented it in his Tragedy of Dr. Faustus, 
and among the eminent German writers 
who have used the story are Friedrich 
Miller, Lessing, Heine and Goethe, the 
last of whom gave the world a master- 
piece in his drama Faust. The opera 
Faust, the music of which was written by — 
Gounod, is also based on this legend. 

Faw’cett, Henry (1833-1884), an 
English statesman and political econo- 
mist. He attended Cambridge and, hav- 
ing studied law, took up economics, in 
1863 becoming professor of political 
economy at Cambridge. In 1865 and in 
1868 he was elected to Parliament for 
Brighton, and as postmaster-general in 
the second Gladstone administration he 
was responsible for many important re- 


1006 


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FAWKES 


forms. He strongly advocated free 
trade. He wrote A Manual of Political 
Economy and Lectures on the Economic 
Position of the British Laborer. 
Fawkes, Guy. See GUNPOWDER PLOT. 
Fayetteville, N. C., a city and the 
county seat of Cumberland Co., 60 m. 
s.w. of Raleigh and about 80 m. n.w. of 
Wilmington, on the Cape Fear River, at 
the head of navigation, and on the At- 
lantic Coast Line, the Raleigh & South- 
port and other railroads. In the inter- 
ests of navigation the river channel has 
been considerably enlarged and im- 
proved, and from this stream and its 
tributaries near the city good water 
power is derived. The manufactures in- 
clude silk, cotton .goods, flour, lumber, 
Carriages, wagons, woodenware, edge 
tools, turpentine and cottonseed oil. 
There is a_large vineyard here. At 
Fayetteville are located a state normal 
school for negroes and the Donaldson 
Military School. There are two hospi- 
tals, each with a training school for 
nurses. Fayetteville was settled by Scotch 
Highlanders in about 1762 and called 
Campbellton. The name was changed 
in honor of Lafayette, who visited the 
place in 1784. At the outbreak of the 
Civil War the United States arsenal here 
was seized by the Confederates, and in 
March, 1865, General Sherman took and 
destroyed the arsenal and much prop- 
erty. Fayetteville was incorporated in 
1893. Population in 1920, 8,877. 
Feathers, growths from the skin 
forming the covering of birds. A typ- 
ical feather consists of a long, central 
shaft or stem having on each side a web 
made up of barbs, from which project 
many small barbules. The upper and 
under edges of the barbules have many 
hairlike projections, usually terminating 
in minute hooks, which become attached 
to the edge of the adjoining barbules, 
thus locking the barbules together and 
producing a compact web. Many feath- 
ers bear a small downy feather, called 
an aftershaft, which proceeds from the 
shaft at the base of the web. Ina few 
birds, as the emu, this appendage is 
nearly as large as the feather itself. The 


FEBRUARY 


commonest feather is the contour feather, 
which is usually slightly curved toward. 
the body and has a distinct quill and 
web. The wing and tail feathers are 
good examples of this kind. In great 
contrast to this feather is the long, web- 
less plume of some birds of paradise, 
the bristles about the mouth of the night- 
hawk and the tail feathers of the lyre 
bird. Another kind of feather is found 
in the down of geese and swans, in 
which the center shaft is nearly or quite 
absent, as are also the hooks, the barb- 
ules being soft and long. 

Feathers grow from definite tracts on 
the body of the bird, between which 
there are bare spaces. These tracts dif- 
fer widely in the various groups of birds, 
those of a thrush being quite different 
from those of a woodpecker. Feathers 
develop from small projections called 
papillz, which first appear on the skin 
of the embryo about the sixth day. 
From these papillz the first soft, downy 
feathers (natal down) of the chick de- 
velop, and as the bird becomes older the 
true feathers grow from the same cap- 
sule, the downy feathers being pushed 
forward, attached to the tip of the new 
feather, and finally breaking off from 
the end. 

Feathers are an important article of 
commerce, being used for ornamental 
purposes, for filling beds and pillows 
and, in rare instances, for making gar- 
ments. The demand for brilliantly-col- 
ored feathers for millinery purposes has 
brought several species of birds to the 
point of extinction. Among these are 
the white egret, several species of gull, 
birds of paradise and some species of 
humming birds. The ostrich has been 
saved only by the ostrich farms. For- 
merly the quills of the goose and swan 
were used for pens, and these birds were 
bred by the Dutch for their quills, which 
were exported to all parts of Europe. 
See Birps; PEN. 

Feb’ruary, the second month of the 
year, containing 28 days regularly and 
29 each fourth year. February is from 
the Latin Februare, to purify. <A festi- 
val, Lupercalia, or Februalia, occurred 


1007 


FEDERAL HALL 


in the period assigned by Numa to the 
new month instituted by him to follow 
January. The month was accordingly 
named February after the festival. Feb- 
ruary originally had 29 days, but when 
the seventh month was named for 
Augustus, it had only 30 days. This be- 
ing one day less than July (named after 
Julius) contained, the Senate decreed to 
take one day from February and add it 
to August. See Aucust; MontTH; 
YEAR, 

Federal Hall, originally the city hall 
of New York City. It stood in Nassau 
Street, on the site of the present sub- 
treasury building, and was erected in 
1699 to replace the old Dutch stadt-huys. 
When the colonies assumed independ- 
ence, it was made the state capitol, and 
before it the Declaration of Independ- 
ence was read. The first National Con- 
gress met in Federal Hall, and on its 
steps Washington was inaugurated on 
March 4, 1789. The building was torn 
down in 1836, 

Federalist Party. See POo.iTicaL 
PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES, sub- 
head Federalist Party. 

Federalist, The, a _ collection of 
papers first published in the Independ- 
ent Journal of New York City, and 
written by James Madison, Alexander 
Hamilton and John Jay, from October, 
1787, until March, 1788. These essays 
were 85 in number and at first appeared 
under a joint signature, “A Citizen of 
New York;” this was later changed to 
“Publius.” The exact authorship is a 
matter of debate, but to Hamilton be- 
longs the credit for the conception of 
this effort. The first of these essays ap- 
peared directly after the formation of 
the Constitution, and the principles advo- 
cated in them became the rallying cry of 
the members of a strong, national polit- 
ical organization, who took the name 
Federalists. This series of essays will 
always remain indispensable as an intro- 
duction to the thorough study of the 
principles upon which the Federal Gov- 
ernment is based. 

Federation of Labor, American. See 
Lazsor, AMERICAN FEDERATION OF. 


FEEBLE-MINDED, EDUCATION OF 


Fee, or Fief, Feef, a legal term mean- 
ing an inheritable estate in land. The 
term originated in the days of feudalism 
and referred to an estate held by some 
lord, in distinction to an estate held by 
absolute ownership, to which the term 
allodium was applied. In the United 
States private ownership is termed the 
fee. The fee simple is an inherited es- 
tate belonging to the owner and his heirs 
and assigns, without restriction. A fee 
tail is an estate limited to a specified 
line of descent. Such an estate cannot 
be disposed of at the will of the owner. 
See ENTAIL. 

Feeble-Minded, Education of the. 
The first recorded attempts to educate 
the feeble-minded were made in the 
17th century; but were not sufficiently 
successful to attract general attention 
under the conditions then existing. The 
results of efforts begun in 1799 by Itard 
were communicated to his pupil, Dr. 
Edouard Seguin, who in 1838 opened a 
school for idiots in the Paris Hospital 
for Incurables. Within three years he 
had accomplished enough to win the ap- 
proval of the French Academy. Dr. 


Seguin subsequently removed to New 


York City, where he was also very suc- 
cessful in this special field. The first 
serious attempt to interest the American 
people in this subject was made by Mas- 
sachusetts, where the Legislature ap- 
pointed, in 1846, a.commission, of which 
Dr. Samuel G. Howe was made chair- 
man. This commission was charged 
with the duty of preparing a report con- 
cerning the number and condition of 
idiots in that commonwealth, and the 
best means of assisting them. 

The report, made in 1848, is known as 
Dr. Howe’s Report on Idiocy. It re- 
sulted in the opening of a state experi- 
mental school under the general direc- 
tion of Dr. Howe; and here such ex- 
cellent results were attained that in 1851 
the Legislature doubled its appropriation 
and established, in South Boston, the 
Massachusetts School for Idiots. In this 
same year New York opened the experi- 
mental school which was permanently es- 
tablished in 1853. 


1008 


FEEHAN 


-Most feeble-minded persons are utterly 
unable to care for themselves; and since, 
when outside of institutions, each prac- 
tically absorbs the time and attention of 
some one who otherwise might become a 
productive member of society, it also em- 
phasizes the great expense necessary for 
their support. In the best institutions, of 
course, those wholly dependent do not 
mingle with the others. But those capa- 
ble of caring for themselves, and of as- 
sisting each other, can without injury 
earn a large part of their subsistence. 

In working out a plan of instruction 
for mental defectives, educators have to 
recognize that there are degrees of 
feeble-mindedness. The lowest class 
includes idiots, who are wholly lacking 
in the power of attention and self-con- 
trol. The next class, the simple idiots, 
includes those whose minds never ad- 
vance beyond the intellect of the seven- 
year-old child. Lastly come the imbe- 
ciles, who though they are weak-willed 
and backward in many ways, can be 
taught to do useful work. None of the 
imbeciles has a mentality beyond that of 
the twelve-year-old. 

The methods of instruction aré simi- 
lar to those employed in the best kinder- 
gartens and primary schools. The bright- 
est of the pupils learn to read and write, 
and a few are capable of learning num- 
bers as far as multiplication. However, 
the most beneficial work is of an indus- 
trial nature. The girls are taught all 
lines of housework and also fancy nee- 
dlework, knitting, crocheting and em- 
broidery. General exercises in music, 
calisthenics and military drill cre used 
for the purpose of assisting the pupils 
to control their muscular movements and 
to work in harmony. Great patience on 
the part of the teachers is necessary. 

Feeh’an, Patrick A. (1829-1902), a 
Roman Catholic archbishop, born in Ire- 
land and educated at Maynooth Col- 
lege, Kildare. Emigrating to America 
in 1852, he was ordained priest a few 
months later, served as professor of 
moral philosophy and sacred history in 
the Seminary of Carondelet and in 1865 
became Bishop of the See of Nashville. 


- making the mat still finer. 


FELT 

This diocese he was very successful in 
reorganizing. He also founded the 
Catholic Knights of America. He was 
the first Archbishop of Chicago, being 
appointed in 1880, and during his ad- 
ministration he founded several new par- 
ishes, besides a College of Christian 
Brothers and other organizations. 

Feelings. See EMOTIONS. 

Feld’spar, an important group of sil- 
icates, constituting the principal part of 
all igneous rocks. Every species of feld- 
spar consists of aluminum in combina- 
tion with one or more of the following 
minerals: calcium, barium, potassium 
and sodium. It forms in crystals, has a 
glossy luster and is soluble in acids. 
Feldspar is the chief constituent of gneiss, 
greenstone, porphyry, and also of granite, 
to which it gives its color—bluish, green- 
ish, flesh-red and sometimes light gray. 
It is very hard, though not so hard as 
quartz; and among the finer grades are 
moonstones, Labradorites and Amazon 
stones, which are used as gems. When 
decomposed it becomes clay. The feld- 
spar of commerce is found in Green- 
land, New York State, Colorado and 
British Columbia. 

Fel’ony, a term rather loosely ap- 
plied to crimes of a graver nature than 
misdemeanors. It may be applied to 
crimes calling for capital punishment 
and is so applied in some states, but in 
most states the distinction between fel- 
ony and misdemeanor has been abolished. 

Felt, a fabric formed by matting to- 
gether the fibers of wool, hair or fur; 
moisture, pressure and heat are em- 
ployed to assist the process. Pliny states 
that the ancient Gauls made felt so 
strong that a sword could not pierce 
through it. The microscope has revealed 
the structure of hair fiber, showing that 
it is covered with minute hooks or scales, 
like those on fish, all pointing in one 
direction. When the hair has been 
rolled, worked and pressed, these hooks 
become fastened together, forming a mat. 
When subjected alternately to baths of 
hot and cold water, the fibers shrink, 
Wool is the 
best fiber for making felt, because of its 


4009 


FENCING 


wavy or crinkled structure, but all ant- 
mal hair and fur is used. 

The process consists of first carding or 
combing the fiber into fine sheets the size 
of the finished web. These are then laid 
on top of one another; the pile is then 
pressed between heavy rollers, which 
are sometimes heated with steam. Then 
again the material is sometimes im- 
mersed in hot and cold water; it is aft- 
erwards laid away to dry and becomes 
felt. This is often fulled, dyed and 
pressed, the finer qualities being brushed 
and sheared. Felt is employed in mak- 
ing hats, carpets, rugs, linings, trim- 
mings, mittens, gloves, boots and shoes, 
in the saddlery and rubber trade, in pi- 
anoforte actions, in lining refrigerators 
and in many fabrics. 

Fencing, the art of attack and de- 
fense, originally with a sword of one 
style or another, but later also with the 
bayonet. The skillful use of the small 
sword first became common in Italy dur- 
ing the 16th century, and later spread 
to France and Spain. The rapier has 
a point but no edge; and its use, there- 
fore, demands great skill and adroitness. 
The foil, now used in fencing, is like the 
rapier but is tipped with a button instead 
of a point, and has a guard of leather or 
steel over the handle. Fencing affords 
splendid exercise for those who enjoy its 
use; but has not been generally adopted 
as a means of recreation. The bayonet 


exercise taught to soldiers in the infantry 


service is also considered a form of 
fencing. 
2 ’ O 
Fénelon, Fa’n lon’, Francois de 


Salignac (1651-1715), a famous French 
prelate, educator and author, born in the 
Province of Périgord. He was educated 
at the University of Paris; and, after 
studying theology, was granted holy or- 
ders in 1675. In 1678 he was appointed 
director of a school, then newly organ- 
ized in Paris, for the instruction of 
young women. He believed that only 
as women are educated can moral and 
social standards be raised in a com- 
munity. His treatise on The Education 
of Girls was the first systematic work of 
its kind ever prepared. In 1689 Fénelon 


FENNEC 


was appointed by Louis XIV as pre- 
ceptor to his grandson, the Duke of 
Burgundy. For the successful perform- 
ance of his duties in this position, he was 
later appointed to the Abbey of St. 
Valéry, and afterward to an archbishop- 
ric; but he is best known as a leader 
in the movement for the education of 
women. His publications were numer- 
ous and include Télémaque, The Maxims 
of the Saints and The Temporal Power 
of the Medieval Popes. 

Fen/‘ians, an Irish-American revolu- 
tionary society, founded in America by 
John O’Mahony, in 1858. The object of 
O’ Mahony and other leaders of the move- 
ment was to form a great league of Irish- 
men all over the world, united to resist 
British rule in Ireland. The organ of the 
league, the Jrish People, published in 
Dublin, was suppressed in 1865 by the 
British Government, and several prom- 
inent Fenians were sentenced to penal 
servitude, but the American organiza- 
tion continued its plotting. In June, 
1866, a band of Fenians under John 
O’Neill invaded Canada, but the raid 
soon came to an ignominious end. A 
second invasion of Canada in 1870 like- 
wise failed, this being the last effort of 
the Fenians. 

Fennec, Fen' nek, an attractive spe- 
cies of fox and the smallest member of 
the Dog Family. The true fennec lives 
in the Sahara and in desert regions of 
the East, where it digs a deep burrow in 
the sand and lines it with feathers and 
down. In this burrow it spends the day 
hidden from the heat of the desert sun, 
but it steals forth at night to prey upon 
jerboas and other desert Rodents. Its 
fur is generally cream-colored, but the 
throat, cheeks, eyelids and the ears are 
marked with white. The face is foxlike, 
with long, pointed muzzle and erect ears 
that are far larger than the animal’s 
face. The body and tail together are 
scarcely more than 20 inches in length 
and the tail is nearly one-third of this. 
Like a true desert animal the fennec can 
20 without water for days, but eagerly 
makes up for this when a stream is 
found, 


1010 


FENNEL 


Fen’nel, an aromatic herb of the 
Parsley Family, cultivated in gardens for 
its fruits and sweet-scented foliage. It 
is a stout, tall plant, growing to a height 
of from two to six feet and spreading 
out thin, dark green leaves which are 
divided into many tiny leaflets. The 
flowers are large, round-topped clusters 
of yellow blossoms, which have no en- 
veloping leaves. The fruit is a flat, oval 
pod which contains a sweet oil, used 
medicinally and for seasoning. Fennel, 
in earlier days, was the emblem of 
strength and valor. 

Fer’dinand, the name of _ several 
Holy Roman emperors, of whom the 
most important were Ferdinand I and 
Ferdinand IT. 

FERDINAND I (1503-1564) was the 
son of Philip of Austria and the younger 
brother of Charles V of Germany. 
When Charles ascended the imperial 
throne he transferred his right to the 
Hapsburg Austrian possessions to Fer- 
dinand. In 1521 he married the sister of 
Louis, King of Hungary and Bohemia, 
and when, five years later, Louis died 
childless, Ferdinand claimed the crown 
of Hungary in his wife’s name. At the 
same time he was elected King of Bo- 
hemia. Though not without rivals, he 
succeeded in holding his ground and 
later was also made King of the Ger- 
mans. Upon the abdication of Charles 
V in 1556, Ferdinand ascended the 
throne of the Holy Roman Empire and, 
though not recognized by the reigning 
pope, was not opposed by the succeeding 
pontiff. Ferdinand I accomplished many 
reforms and was a wise and progressive 
ruler. He instituted the present system 
of currency in Germany. 

FERDINAND IT (1578-1637) was Holy 
Roman emperor from 1619 to 1637, and 
was the grandson of Ferdinand I. His 
education made him an ardent Catholic, 
and, when he succeeded his father as 
Duke of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, 
he made every effort to stamp out Prot- 
estantism in his domains. To protect 
Catholic interests he formed with Maxi- 
milian the Catholic League. He was 
elected King of Bohemia in 1617 and of 


FERDINAND V 


Hungary in 1618, and his intolerance 
toward his Protestant subjects there 
brought on the Thirty Years’ War. In 
1619, upon the death of Matthias, Fer- 
dinand became Holy Roman emperor, al- 
though two days before his accession he 
was deposed from the throne of Bo- 
hemia. His successor in Bohemia was, 
however, quickly removed by the army 
of the Catholic League under Tilly. 
With his able generals, Wallenstein and 
Tilly, Ferdinand made the Catholic 
cause triumphant in Denmark and Ger- 
many. Gustavus Adolphus, King of 


‘Sweden, became the able champion of 


the Protestant cause and defeated Tilly 
in two great encounters, which left the 


Protestant army almost the masters of 


Germany. Wallenstein, who had been 
in disgrace, was reinstated and succeeded 
in staying the advance of the Swedish 
forces. Ferdinand, however, became sus- 
picious of Wallenstein and connived at 
his assassination. Ferdinand’s own 
death three years later came before the 
close of the conflict and left to his son 
the continuation of the war. 

Ferdinand V of Castile (Ferdinand 
II of Aragon) (1452-1516), called the 
Catholic, son of John II of Aragon. He 
was married to Isabella, sister of Henry 
IV of Castile, in 1469, and five years 
later Ferdinand and Isabella were 
crowned joint sovereigns of Leon and 
Castile. In 1479 Ferdinand became 
King of Aragon through the death of 
his father. Ferdinand’s reign was of 
importance through the uniting of the 
Spanish states, the suppression of the 
banditti and the lowering of the power of 
the feudal lords. The reign of the two 
sovereigns is marked by the discovery of 
the New World in 1492 and the entrance 
of Ferdinand and Isabella into Granada. 
This last event proved the final act in 
breaking up the Moorish domination of 
Spain. The following year occurred the 
expulsion of the Jews from the Spanish 
Peninsula. Isabella died in 1504 and 
two years later Ferdinand married the 
niece of Louis XII of France. Success- — 
ful in uniting his own lands, he also 
added to them various fortresses of 


1011 


FERGUS FALLS 


northern Africa and much of the King- 
dom of Navarre. 

Fer’gus Falls, Minn., a city and the 
county seat of Otter Tail Co., 170 m. 
n.w. of Minneapolis, on the Red River 
and on the Great Northern, the North- 
ern Pacific and other railroads. The 
city is situated in the celebrated “park 
region” of the state, famous for its beau- 
tiful scenery. It is surrounded by pro- 
ductive agricultural lands and valuable 
forests of pine and hard wood; and it 
has exceptional water-power facilities. 
The chief manufactured product is flour. 
Other factory products are lumber, iron, 
furniture, brooms, wagons, sleighs, cas- 
kets, woodenware, sashes, doors, blinds, 
woolen goods and shirts. There are 
also in the town foundries, machine 
shops and a meat-packing plant. Fergus 
Falls is the seat of a state hospital for the 
insane, of the Park Region Luther Col- 
lege (Norwegian Lutheran) and of the 
North-Western College (Swedish Lu- 
theran). Other features of the city are 
a public library, a business college, a 
county courthouse, a city hall, St. Luke’s 
Hospital and the G. B. Wright Memorial 
Hospital. Settled about 1859, the place 
was incorporated in 1863 and chartered 
as a city in 1883. Population in 1920, 
UL Se Censas 87158 1. 

Fer’ment, an agent capable of pro- 
ducing in animal and vegetable products, 
certain chemical changes. Ferments 
have been classed as organized ferments 
and unorganized ferments, or enzymes. 
The former are living organisms, such 
as yeast, bacteria and molds. It is now 
thought that their action is due to the 
production of an enzyme. The unorgan- 
ized ferments, or enzymes, are supposed 
to be complex carbon compounds whose 
compositions and properties are not well 
known. They are soluble in water but 
not in alcohol. Some authorities claim 
that the enzymes are merely properties 
of the organized ferments, but this the- 
ory does not commonly prevail. 

The ferments which take part in di- 
gestion in the body are enzymes, and 
are ptyalin, in the saliva; pepsin and 
rennin, in the gastric juice; and steap- 


FERNS 


sin, trypsin and amylopsin in the intes- 
tinal juices. ; 
Fer’menta’tion, technically any chem- 
ical change which is accompanied by ef- 
fervescence, but the term is broadened 
to include the change of any organic 
substance by means of ferments. Such 
a change takes place in the presence or 
with the aid of moisture and generally 
results in the breaking up of a complex 
compound into simpler ones. Each fer- 
ment has a certain temperature, ordi- 
narily high, below which it will not act. 
Alcoholic fermentation takes place wher: 
ever yeast, or any bacterium, breaks up 
sugar or starch into alcohol and carbon 
dioxide. Other fermentations occur in 
the souring of milk, in the ripening of 
cheese and, in the body, in the processes 
of digestion. See FERMENT; YEAST. 
Fernan’do Po, an island in the Bight 
of Biafra, about 20 m. off the west coast 
of Africa. It is 40 m. long, 20 m. wide 
and has an area of 7/0 sq. m. Its origin 
is volcanic, and the mountainous surface 
rises to its highest elevation of 9300 ft. 
The extreme heat makes the climate un- 
healthful; the fertile and well-watered 
soil yields rice, corn, bananas and yams. 
It was discovered by Fernando Po near 
the end of the 15th century. The popu- 
lation, consisting mainly of Portuguese 
and native negroes, exceeds 20,000. | 
Ferns, a name given to a number of 
plants classed together in the Fern Fam- 
ily, and known as the chief group of 
flowerless plants. They vary in size 
from the giant tree ferns of the tropics 
to the delicate cliff spleenworts. In gen- 
eral they are stemless or hollow-stemmed 
and have leafy, spreading fronds. In 
the spring, when first coming up, the 
distinct leaves are rolled close to the stem 
and the stem is curled like the top of a 
bishop’s crozier. As the stems lengthen 
the heads unroll until they are wide- 
spread. The leaves commonly bear upon 
their under surfaces the round, brown- 
ish spore cases, in which are countless, 
tiny spores by means of which the plant 
is to be reproduced. These spore cases 
differ in size, shape and location accord- 
ing to the species to which the ferns be- 


1012 | 


FERNS 


jong. When the spores are ripe the 
case opens and the spores are scattered 
far and wide. Those which fall in fa- 
vorable locations develop into a peculiar, 
hairlike body, very unlike the fern which 
produced it. Later, through an intricate 
course of growth, the fern is developed 
from this body. 


Oo} {A/G} & 


lo} | 9 
0 0, 
0/0 
(2) lo 
ie) 
is) 


ey; 
a 


TYPES OF FERNS 


The ferns are outwardly widely dif- 
fering plants but are grouped together 
mainly through their mode of reproduc- 
tion. As house plants, conservatory 
plants or inhabitants of the woodland, 
they are extremely decorative. The 
chief varieties are: the asparagus fern, 


FERRERO 

a potted fern whose leaves are reduced 
to tiny spines; the brake, a coarse fern, 
discussed under that title elsewhere; the 
polypodium, a blunt-toothed fern which 
loves the seemingly bare walls of rocks; 
the dicksonia, lady, and New York ferns, 
whose long plumelike fronds make the 
moist wood beautiful; the maidenhair 
fern and the spleenworts, which are deli- 
cate plants, generally bearing but one 
leaf. The largest ferns known now are 
the tree ferns of warm climates, which 
may be large, palmlike trees with un- 
branched stems and waving fronds, or 
smaller, more delicate plants scarcely 
more than three feet in height. 

Ferrara, Fer rah’ rah, a city of north- 
ern Italy in the Province of Emilia, 26 
m. ne. of Bologna and not far from the 
banks of the Po. Though still the cap- 
ital of its district, Ferrara has little of 
the glory that it possessed when it was 
the seat of the dukes of Este, and when 
their magnificent court vied with any of 
Italy. The old Castello in the middle of © 
the city, once the residence of the dukes, 
is now occupied as a city bureau. The 
great cathedral remains, though sunken 
into decay, and there are numerous other 
churches and galleries of famous paint- 
ings. The home of Ariosto and the cell 
in which Tasso was imprisoned are ob- 
jects of great interest. The city still 
carries on a trade in grain, fruit, cattle 
and wine, and manufactures soap, wax, 
glass, stoves and utensils of brass. At 
one time Ferrara was famous for its 
school of painting, and in 1438 it was 
the meeting place of the Council of Fer- 
rara-Florence. In the 16th century the 
city was the refuge of Calvin, Marot 
and others. A free university, estab- 
lished there in 1391, enrolls 490 students. 
Population, 33, 000. 

Ferrero, Fer ra’ ro, Guglielmo (1871- 

), an Italian historian, born at Por- 
tici, near Naples. He was educated at 
Pisa and Bologna, and in 1896 pub- 
lished a collection of social and political 
studies under the title Young Europe. 
In 1902 appeared the first volume of his 
celebrated history, The Greatness and 
Decline of Rome. He has also written 


1013 


FERRET 


The Women of the Cesars. He has 
lectured in France and in several cities 
in the United States. 

Fer’ret, a small, active animal of the 
Weasel Family, by some supposed to be 
only an albino polecat, and, like all 
weasels, having a distinctive, unpleasant 
odor. The ferret was brought from 
Africa to the United States because of 
its value as a Rodent destroyer, and its 
zeal in killing mice, rabbits, chickens or 
even turkeys and geese is unbounded. 
Sometimes it does more harm than good. 
It has a pointed head, reddish eyes and 
small ears; its body is long and slender, 
its legs short, with sharp, strong claws; 
the tail short and furry. The ferret can 
be domesticated sufficiently to be of as- 
sistance in ridding mills, factories, 
granaries and farms of rats, mice and 
rabbits, but it can never be fully tamed. 
A black-footed ferret, known in the re- 
gions of the Platte River, has a black 
mask, a black saddle and black spots 
upon its feet and tail. 

Fer’ry, a boat for the transportation 
of freight or passengers, or both, across 
a relatively narrow body of water. On 
small streams the boat is often only a 
rude scow, propelled by oars or poles, or 
by means of a cable or chain, stretched 
from shore to shore. Launches of vari- 
ous kinds and steam ferries have now 
replaced the more primitive ferries, 
wherever the business is sufficient to 
justify. Passenger ferries at cities like 
San Francisco or New York are licensed 
to carry several thousand persons. Rail- 
road ferries are used for transporting 
cars across bodies of water. Some of 
these. are large enough to take on board 
an entire train of freight or passenger 
cars. . 

Fer’tili’”zer, a commercial manure 
used to enrich soil and to increase the 
yield of crops. To be of value it must 
contain the elements that the soil lacks 
to render it fertile; these are usually 
nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid, 
and the different fertilizers contain these 
in varying quantities in order to be avail- 
able for different soils. Usually sandy 
soiis need all three of these; clay needs 


FESSENDEN 


nitrogen, limestone needs potash and 
nitrogen, and black soils lack potash and 
phosphoric acid. The best test as to 
what a soil needs is to grow a crop upon 
it and watch the results. 

Nitrogenous fertilizers promote the 
growth of stems and leaves. The most 
common of these upon the market are 
Chile saltpeter, sulphate of ammonia, 
dried blood, azotin, tankage and fish 
guano. The phosphates are bones, rock 
phosphates, or floats, superphosphates 
and Thomas slag; these phosphates may 
be applied at any time, as they are not 
easily washed out. Potash fertilizers pro- 
duce starch in plants ; since they are easily 
soluble they are generally applied broad- 
cast and then harrowed in. The most 
common kinds are muriate of potash, 
sulphate of potash, nitrate of potash, 
wood ashes, cottonseed hull ashes and © 
ground tobacco stems and leaves. The 
latter is also of value as an insecticide. 

Since no soils require exactly the 
same treatment, many farmers prefer to 
mix the fertilizers themselves, thus buy- 
ing only the constituents which their soils 
lack. Directions for this and discussions 
of the various fertilizers upon the mar- 
ket may be found in the United States 
Department of Agriculture Farmers’ 
Bulletin 44; New York Experiment Sta- 
tion Bulletin 94; Voorhees, Fertilizers; 
Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Agnicul- 
ture. See MANURE. 

Fess’enden, William Pitt (1806- 
1869), United States senator, born at 
Boscawen, N. H. He graduated at 
Bowdoin College in 1823, studied law, 
was admitted to the bar in 1827, and be- 
gan practice in Maine. In 1832 he be- 
came a member of the Maine Legis- 
lature, serving several terms, and was 
elected to Congress in 1840, where he 
remained one term. He became prom- 
inent as an anti-slavery speaker, was 
elected United States senator in 1854, 
opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in a 
remarkable speech, and became one of 
the recognized anti-slavery leaders in 
Congress. During the war he was the 
most conspicuous senator in sustaining 
the national credit, and in the words of 


1014 


FESTIVALS 


Mr. Sumner, “was in the financial field 
all that our best generals were in arms.” 
He was made secretary of the treasury 
in 1864 and immediately issued a popu- 
lar loan to relieve the financial situation. 
_ Having accomplished his purpose, he re- 

turned to the Senate in 1865, where he 
was made chairman of the finance com- 
mittee, and the joint committee on re- 
construction. He opposed the impeach- 
ment of President Johnson and was one 
of the seven Republican senators who 
voted for his acquittal. 

Fes’tivals, or Feasts, celebrations in 
honor of some personage or to com- 
memorate some great event. The chief 
festivals of the Jews were the Pente- 
cost, Passover and Feast of Tabernacles, 
attendance on these being required of 
all males. The Greeks celebrated the Di- 
onysia, the Eleusinia and the Olympian, 
Isthmian, Nemean and Pythian games, 
besides various local festivals. Among 
the Roman feasts, the Saturnalia, Cerea- 
lia and Lupercalia were important. Sun- 
day, the survival of the Hebrew Sabbath, 
is the only day observed by all branches 
of the Christian Church, but the Roman 
Catholic and Anglican churches cele- 
brate many days or periods commemo- 
rative of events in the life of Christ. 

Feu’dal System, a political and social 
condition which has existed in many 
—~ countries. The fundamental principle 
was that land or a fief was received by a 
vassal from his lord, the vassal promis- 
ing fealty and certain stated aids, while 
the lord promised to protect the vassal 
in his possession of the land. The sys- 
tem in Europe had certain Teutonic and 
Roman elements, and grew out of the 
turbulent state of society after the fall 
of the Roman Empire. It was an at- 
tempt to maintain some sort of unity 
against foreign invasions, without the 
protection of a central authority. The 
invaders adopted the system, as the chief 
of a conquering band rewarded his com- 
rades by grants of land according to 
feudal tenure. It was further extended 
by the custom of “commendation,” or the 
voluntary giving up of land by a free- 
man to some powerful chief who gave 


FEVER 


back the land as a fief and promised to 
protect his new vassal. 

After a while the fief became heredi- 
tary, and the system permeated all ranks 
until theoretically the land all belonged 
to the king. Practically, the feudal sys- 
tem was built on force, and every petty 
lordling felt free to make war, admin- 
ister justice and in other ways to act 
like an independent king. The system 
was very complicated, as the terms of . 
contract and the services required varied 
with each fief, and a man might find him- 
self lord and vassal to the same man for 
different fiefs. 

Feudalism attained its most complete 
development in Europe in the 11th, 12th 
and 13th centuries, where it rendered 
good service to civilization by the pro- 
tection it gave to society after the em- 
pire of Charlemagne was divided. Chief 
among the causes which finally over- 
threw the system were the hostility of 
the kings and common people, and the 
weakening of the power of the nobles, 
the latter resulting from the Crusades, 
the growth of cities and the introduction 
of firearms in war. See CHIVALRY. 

Fe’ver, a condition in which the tem- 
perature of the body is above normal. It 
occurs during disease and is usually ac- 
companied by pains in the head, back or 
limbs, general weakness and rapid pulse, 
always by dry, parched skin. The term 
is also applied to certain bacterial dis- 
eases, in which high temperatures are a 
conspicuous symptom, such as malarial 
fever, yellow fever, scarlet fever and 
typhoid fever. Fever is usually marked 
by three principal stages. The first is 
the period of invasion, the symptoms of 
which are a feeling of weakness, loss of 
appetite, lassitude, chilly sensations, pain 
in the back and limbs and rapid pulse. 
Following this is the period of domina- 
tion, characterized by continued, rapid 
pulse, hot surface, high temperature, 
headache, thirst, rapid breathing and 
restlessness. With the period of decline 
comes a‘fall of temperature, cessation of 
pain, perspiration, easier respiration and 
sleep. 

Fever which remains above the normal 


1015 


FEVERFEW 


(98.4° F.) for several days is called con- 
tinued fever; when the temperature 
drops to normal and after a few hours 
rises again, it is termed intermittent; if 
the fever rises and falls between points 
above normal and continues in this way 
for several days, it is called remittent. 
In relapsing fever the temperature goes 
down to normal, remains several days 
and then rises. In addition to those dis- 
eases caused by the presence of bacteria 
in the system, other causes of fever, such 
as local inflammation, are numerous. In 
treating fever, the body should be 
sponged often with cold water to reduce 
the temperature, and the patient should 
not be allowed to drink too much water. 
Fever is regarded as high when it rises 
four degrees above the normal; when it 
reaches 105 degrees, it become dan- 
gerous. 

Fe’verfew, a low weed of the Com- 
posite Family, once brought here as a 
garden plant. Even now people admiring 
the golden beauty of the blossoms in the 
summer often transplant the weed to 
their lawns and gardens, only to find that 
they have brought in an intruder which 
spreads rapidly and is extremely hard to 
eradicate. The stems are erect, about 
one to three feet in height, and bear 
coarse leaves which are composed of 
rough, oval leaflets. The flowers are 
much like those of its close cousin, the 
ox-eye daisy, except that those of the 
feverfew grow in larger clusters and are 
apt to be double-flowered. Each blos- 
som is a flat, disklike head of yellow or 
white florets surrounded by one or more 
rows of flat, white rays. In amass these 
flowers are lovely, and, as they last long 
after picking, they are favorites for porch 
decoration or clustered bouquets. 

Fez, one of the two capitals of Mo- 
rocco, situated on the Wad Fas River, 
which divides the town into the old and 
new parts. The streets are gloomy and 
damp and the drainage system is poor. 
The Karueein is the largest mosque in 
Africa; there are also several other 
mosques and the sultan’s palace, which is 
partly in ruins. Caravans bring a large 
amount of wares from the South and 


FIAT MONEY 


East, and Fez is an important commer- 
cial center. The manufactures include 
the famous Fez cap, dyed to a dull crim- 
son with the juice of a berry growing 
near the town, yellow slippers of Mo- 
rocco leather, sashes, silk cords and 
handkerchiefs, carpets and pottery. It 
is still the “university town” of Morecco, 
and as a seat of learning was once the 
empire’s pride. The city was founded 
about 808. Population, estimated at less 
than 100,000. | 
Fezzan, Fes"zahn', a country of 
northern Africa forming the’ southern 
portion of the Province of Tripoli. It 
has an area of about 130,000 sq. m., and 
physically may be divided into two dif- 
fering regions: the northern, covered by 
barren mountains; the southern, con- 
sisting of desert broken by many small 
oases. In the oases, dates, barley, maize, 
melons, pomegranates, figs, legumes and 
some vegetables are raised. Dates are, 
however, the chief article of food. There 
are almost no streams, and in some parts 
rain does not fall for years. The city 
of Murzuk, the capital, is said to be the 
hottest place in the world in the summer, 
but the extremes of temperature are great 
and the cold in winter | likely to be 
severe. The natives of, fezzan are of 
mixed race; they are governed by a 
chief, who has the title and powers of 
Sultan in his own territory, but who pays 
tribute to the viceroy of .Tripoli. The 
population of Fezzan is variously esti- 
mated between 50,000 and 150,000. 
Fi’at Money, the term applied to 
paper money issued by a government and 
secured only by the credit of that gov- 
ernment. Such money does not even 
contain a promise to pay. No fiat money 
has been in use in the United States since 
the passage of the gold standard law of 
1900, and none is used by any other 
great commercial people. That issued to 
a considerable extent in early days by 
the American colonies was soon recog- 
nized as worthless. The paper money 
now used in the United States is in cir- 
culation largely because it is lighter to 
carry; and because its use saves that 
loss to the nation which would result 


1016 


hy oretical. 


FICHTE 


from abrasion, if gold, or even silver, 
were more generally carried. | * See 
Money, subhead Paper Money; ConrI- 
NENTAL Money. 

Fichte, Fik' te, Johann Gottlieb 
(1762-1814), a celebrated German phi- 
losopher, born at Rammenau, in Upper 
Lusatia, the son of a ribbon weaver. A 
neighboring nobleman helped him to get 
an education. He studied theology and 
philosophy at Jena and Leipsic, and did 
private tutoring in Saxony and at Zurich, 
Leipsic and Warsaw. In 1791 he went 
to Konigsberg, where he made the ac- 
quaintance of Kant. The next year he 
published his Critique of all Revelation, 


which attracted much attention and re-. 


sulted in his appointment in 1793 to the 
chair. of philosophy at the University of 
Jena. Relinquishing this position five 
years later because of heresy charges, he 
went to Berlin, where he taught privately 
for a number of years and delivered phil- 
osophical addresses to distinguished audi- 
ences. He became professor of philos- 
ophy at Erlangen in 1805. In the winter 
of 1807-8, with the French in possession 
of Berlin, he delivered there his famous 
Patriotic Addresses tothe German Peo- 
‘ple, which a../ised great enthusiasm. In 
1809 he became professor of philosophy 
in the new University of Berlin which 
he had helped to found, and the next 
year was chosen its rector, continuing in 
this position until his death. | 

Starting with Kant’s philosophy, 
Fichte emphasizes the primacy of the 
practical reasoning, rather than the the- 
He reduces Kant’s “thing's in 
themselves” to an empty shadow, and 
makes the Ego supreme. Complete sub- 
jective idealism is the result. In educa- 
tion he emphasizes the importance of 
the whole nature, moral and religious as 
well as intellectual. His addresses, writ- 
ings and teaching exerted a powerful in- 
fluence upon Germany at a critical period 
in its history. 

Fic’tion, that species of literature 
which treats of imaginary events, situa- 
tions and characters. In the course of 
‘its development it has included both 
prose and poetry, but as used today, the 


word novel. 


FICTION 


term fiction is generally applied to prose 
narratives. Tattered manuscripts re- 
covered from ancient Egyptian tombs 
tell us that the art of fiction was known 
to the dwellers on the Nile as early as 
4000 B. C. The Hindus, Chinese, Per- 
sians and Arabians had their treasures 
of fiction, and from the Arabian came 
the ereatest collection of tales of magic 
the world has ever known. The Greeks 
also made their contribution to fiction, 
not only in their myths and epics, but in 
the prose tales of adventures which be- 
long to the period when Alexandria was 
the center of culture. The Romans orig- 
inated practically nothing in fiction, but 
their language became the chief medium 
through which ancient fiction was trans- 
mitted to the new European nations. 

During the Middle Ages romances of 
chivalry dealing with such figures as 
Charlemagne and King Arthur were very 
popular. In Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales 
we find a variety of typical medieval 
forms: the romance of chivalry, the 
Oriental tale, the story of intrigue and 
the beast fable. In Italy short prose 
stories like those found in Boccaccio’s 
Decameron were popular. These were 
called novelle, from which we derive our 
Medieval fiction is interest- 
ing as the foundation upon which mod- 
ern fiction is built. Prominent types of 
fiction read today are the novel, fable, 
parable, allegory and fairy tale. 

THE NoveL. The novel, according to 
modern theories, is a prose narrative con- 
taining a plot and giving a faithful por- 
trayal of character amid scenes of actual 
life. The love element is also a charac- 
teristic of almost every novel. The first 
story fulfilling all of these requirements 
was Pamela, the work of an obscure 
London printer named Samuel Richard- 
son, which was produced in 1740. 
Earlier than this, Bunyan and Defoe had 
written continuous narratives and Addi- 
son and Steele had given very realistic 
pictures of English life and_ skillful 
character portrayal, but Richardson was 
the first to write a continuous narrative 
with a definite plot. After the formula 
for the novel had been given, its devel- 


36 1017 


FICTION © 


opment was assured, both in England and 
in Continental Europe. For the last two 
centuries this form of literature has oc- 
cupied a very prominent place in English 
letters, and it has developed steadily 
through the immediate successors of 
Richardson: Fielding, Smollett, Sterne 
and Goldsmith; and the greater 19th 
century writers: Scott, Jane Austen, 
Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot, Mer- 
edith and others. In the course of its 
development the novel has had a remark- 
able broadening of scope and a corre- 
gp eing increase of power for good or 
evil. 

THE FaBLe,. The fable is a form of 
fictitious narrative in which animals and 
sometimes inanimate objects are made 
to act and speak as human beings, for 
the purpose of imparting a moral teach- 
ing. It is brief and definite. In its or- 
igin the fable goes back to remote antiq- 
uity. The oldest fables which we pos- 
sess in the original form came from Hin- 
dustan. From there they passed to 
China, Tibet and Persia, then to Greece. 
The most famous Greek fabulist was 
7Esop (620-560 B. C.), though whether 
or not his fables were written down is 
a matter of dispute. Of the early Latin 
versions of the Fables the most cele- 
brated is that of Phzdrus, a freedman of 
Augustus. Maximus Planudes, a monk 
of the 14th century, made and edited the 
collection which has come down to us 
under the name of sop. Lessing was 
the best of the German fable writers. 
In the 17th century Gay in England and 
La Fontaine in France won distinction. 
The latter has the first place among 
fabulists. 

THE PARABLE. The parable, like the 
fable, is of Eastern origin and is also 
brief and designed to point a moral. It 
differs from the fable in that animals or 
inanimate creatures do not lose their 
natural characteristics. The most nota- 
ble parables are those of the Bible. Na- 
than’s story of the ewe lamb is one of 
the best in the Old Testament. The 
Prodigal Son is a typical parable of the 
New Testament. 


Tue ALtecory. In literature an al- 


FIELD 


legory is a narrative, in prose or verse, 
conveying a meaning other than and in 
addition to the literal. The fable or 
parable is a brief and simple form of the 
allegory. Many allegorical passages 
occur in the Bible, one of the most ef- 
fective being in the 80th Psalm, the com- 
parison of the history of Israel to the 
growth of a vine. English literature is 
rich in allegorical productions. Conspic- 
uous examples are Swift's Tale of a Tub, 
Bunyan’s Pilgrim's Progress and Haw- 
thorne’s Great Stone Face, 

THE Fairy TALE. The fairy tale is a 
story in which supernatural beings and 
agencies occur, and which is especially 
interesting to children. Most of our 
popular fairy tales have been handed 
down orally, the earliest collection of 
European tales having been published in 
Venice in 1550. The well-known stories, 
Little Red Riding Hood, Bluebeard, Puss 
in Boots, Cinderella and Hop o My 
Thumb, date from 1697. Jacob and Wil- 
helm Grimm and their successors have 
put in written form the tales of nearly 
all nations. The best modern fairy tales 
are those written by Hans Christian An- 
dersen. See ANDERSEN, HANS CHRIS- 
TIAN. 

Field, Cyrus West (1819-1892), the 
promoter of the Atlantic cable, born in 
Stockbridge, Mass. He went to New 
York City at the age of 15, where he se- 
cured employment in a dry-goods store. 
Engaging later in the manufacture and 
sale of paper, he built up a prosperous 
business. In 1853 he partially retired 
and traveled extensively in South Amer- 
ica. He obtained a charter giving him 
the exclusive right for 50 years to land 
ocean telegraphs on the coast of New- 
foundland, and organized an Atlantic 
telegraph company. To this project of 
trans-Atlantic communication he devoted 
many years of his life, making several 
unsuccessful attempts to lay a cable, es- 
tablishing communication between the 
two continents in 1858, only to be broken 
after a few weeks, and finally achieving 
permanent success in 1866. Congress 
voted unanimously to present Field a 
gold medal, and he received various dec- 


1018 


FIELD 


orations from European countries. Later 
he became interested in the construction 
of elevated roads in New York City and 
in establishing telegraphic communica- 
tion with the West Indies and South 
America. See CABLE, SUBMARINE. 
Field, Eugene (1850-1895), American 
poet and journalist, born in St. Louis, 
Mo:.. He was educated in Eastern 
schools and also at the University of 
Missouri. At college, his genial ways 
and cleverness in originating fun made 
him a general favorite. Field began 
newspaper work at the age of 23, and in 
1883 became associated with the Chicago 
News, afterwards the Record, editing a 
humorous column called Sharps and 
Flats. During his residence in Chicago 
he became the leading spirit of the 
seats and Sinners) Corner,” a) group 
of book-lovers who used to meet in the 
rare-book department of McClurg’s 
bookstore. Field was accustomed to re- 
port the sayings of the “saints and sin- 
ners” in his column, one of the many 
ways he had of’getting “copy.” He was 
a man of varied tastes and powers of 
expression, capable of writing both prose 
and verse in a manner that was by turns 
quaint, farcical, grotesque, sentimental, 
pathetic, humorous and tender. His 
great love for children occasioned much 
of the poetry by which he is best known; 
his child verse, of which Little Boy Blue 
is the favorite poem, is unexcelled in 
simple tenderness. Field’s fondness for 
books inspired some of his most admira- 
ble work, notably his translation from 
Horace, Echoes from the Sabine Farm, 
and The Love Affairs of a Bibliomaniac. 
With Trumpet and Drum contains his 
best verses for children. Other writings 
are Love Songs of Childhood, Culture’s 
Garden, A Little Book of Western Verse 
and A Little Book of Proftable Tales. 
Field, Marshall (1835-1906), an 
American merchant, born at Conway, 
Mass. His early years were spent on a 
farm. When he was 17 years of age 
he went to Pittsfield, Mass., and be- 
gan clerking in a dry-goods store. In 
1856 he went to Chicago and formed a 
partnership for carrying on the dry- 


FIELDING 


goods business. In 1865 Marshall Field, 
Potter Palmer and L. Z. Leiter were 
partners. On the retirement of two 
partners, Mr. Field became the head of 
the organization known since 1881 as 
Marshall Field & Company, which, dur- 
ing the first quarter century of its exist- 
ence, grew to be the largest dry-goods 
house in the world. Mr. Field contrib- 
uted liberally to the University of Chi- 
cago, founded the Columbian Museum 
and willed to it about $8,000,000. He 
was a director of the United States Steel 
Corporation, the Pullman Company, the 
Chicago & North Western Railway Com- 
pany and many other corporations. At 
his death he was one of the wealthiest 
men in the world. 

Field, Stephen Johnson (1816-1899), 
an American jurist, brother of Cyrus W. 
and David Dudley Field, born in Had- 
dam, Conn. He graduated at Williams 
College in 1837, studied law in his broth- 
er’s office in New York, and became his 
partner when admitted to the bar. In 
1849 he went to California, and exer- 
cised a salutary influence during the un- 
organized gold-seeking period, mean- 
while gaining an extensive practice. He 
served in the first Legislature of the 
state after its admission to the Union, 
and was elected a justice of the State 
Supreme Court in 1857, becoming chief 
justice two years later. President Lin- 
coln appointed him to the Supreme 
Bench of the United States in 1863 and 
he served for 34 years with great ability. 
He wrote a total of 1042 opinions, many 
of them being important contributions to | 
American constitutional law. 

Field Glass, a small, portable, double 
telescope for observing distant objects. 
It is an enlarged opera glass (See Op- 
ERA Gass). An achromatic telescope, 
having a length of from 15 to 30 inches, 
is also designated a field glass. See TEL- 
ESCOPE, . 

Fielding, Henry (1707-1754), an 
English novelist, born in Sharpham 
Park, Somersetshire. He studied at Eton 
and Leyden and after going to London 
turned his attention to writing for the 
stage. His comedies and farces were 


1019 


FIELDING 


not a decided success, though many of 
them were entertaining burlesques, and 
he returned to the profession of law. 
After his marriage with Miss Cradock, 
whose fortune he soon squandered, he 
began to write again for his living, and 
in 1742 appeared his first novel, Joseph 
Andrews. Seven years later he pub- 
lished The History of Tom Jones, a 
Foundling. In his hands the novel at- 
tained the form that has since been an 
ideal of all novelists, and in its large 
outlines and practical presentation of 
life it far surpassed the sentimental anal- 
ysis of his contemporary, Richardson. 
Fielding’s realism was ‘sordid for he 
drew life exactly as he saw it, but it was 
enlivened with humor and ridicule and a 
sympathy for human frailties such as 
few authors have possessed. Among his 
other works are Jonathan Wild, Amelia, 
Author's Farce, Tom Thumb and Temple 
Beau. See RICHARDSON, SAMUEL. 
Fielding, William Stevens (1848- 
), a Canadian statesman, born in 
Halrfax, Nova Scotia: ini 1864 he 
joined the Morning Chronicle, of which 
he ultimately became managing editor, 
retiring from journalism, however, in 
1884. As a Liberal he sat for County 
Halifax (local) from 1882 to 1896, 
meanwhile declining the premiership of 
Nova Scotia, but serving as provincial 
secretary. Since 1896 he has sat for 
Shelburne and Queen’s (House of Com- 
mons) and was minister of finance in 
the Laurier administration, holding his 
position longer than any other finance 
minister and being always able to report 
a surplus, but retiring in October, 1911. 
The embodiment of imperialism, he has 
been responsible for such measures as 
amendments to the Banking and Insur- 
ance Acts, the British preferential tariff 
and the agreement to construct the Na- 
tional Transcontinental Railway. More- 
over, he has negotiated with France rel- 
ative to a trade treaty between that 
country and Canada, was a royal com- 
missioner for promoting’ mutual trading 
facilities between Canada and the British 
West Indies and has recently discussed 
reciprocity at Washington. At various 


TR DA, Tee eee tes a 
pratt ember mena gt h 
Ye lake ade, 


FIFE 


times he invited Marconi to experiment 
with wireless telegraphy in Canada, es- 
tablished a branch of the Royal Mint at 
Ottawa and introduced the Penny Bank 
into Canada. Mr. Fielding, who is prob- 
ably the greatest finance minister that his 
country ever had, declined knighthood 
in 1902. 

Field Marshal, the highest military 
office in Germany, Great Britain and 
other European countries. The office is 
of German origin, and in 1736 was in- 
troduced into the army of Great Britain 
by George II. Promotion is from the 
rank of general officers and on the 
ground of royal descent or distinguished 
services. It is made by royal selection. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold, the name 
given to a plain lying between Ardres 
and Guisnes in: the Department of Pas- 
de-Calais in France. The splendor of 
the banquets and the rich dress and trap- 
pings used at the place during the meet- 
ing of Francis I of France ‘and Henry 
VIII of England, from June 7 to 20, 
1520, gave the field its name. 
I failed in the object of the meeting, 
which was to secure the help of Henry 
VIII against his rival, Charles V. See 
CHARLES V. 


F rancis 


Fields, James Thomas (1817-1881), | 


an American author and publisher, born 
in Portsmouth, N. H. In 1839 he became 
a member of the publishing firm of Tick- 
nor, Reed & Fields, of Boston, and here 
his charming personality, generosity and 
excellent literary judgment gained for 
him the friendship of a large number of 
American writers. He was the publisher 
of Longfellow, Hawthorne, Emerson, 
Holmes, Whittier and Lowell. From 1862 


to 1870 he was the editor of the Atlantic . 


Monthly, spending the last ten years of 
his life in authorship and lecturing. His 
works include Yesterdays with Authors, 
In and Out of Doors with Charles Dick- 
ens, Underbrush and A Few Verses for a 
Few Friends. 

Fife, a small, shrill-toned wind in- 
strument resembling the flute, usually in 
the key of F or B flat, used principally 
in military music to accompany the drum. 
See FLUTE. 


1020 


FIFTEEN DECISIVE BATTLES © 


Fifteen Decisive Battles. Sir Ed- 
ward Creasy in The Fifteen Decisive 
Battles of the World has chosen and de- 
scribed the following battles as the most 
influential in deciding the progress of 
man: 

1. Maratuon (490 B. C.). The 
Athenians under Miltiades defeated the 
Persians sent by Darius and saved Eu- 
rope from the stagnation of Asia (See 
MARATHON, BATTLE OF). 

Br SVRACUSE”:: (413) By) C.).7 ihe 
Athenians were defeated and Greek ad- 
vance in the West was checked. 

O. (ARBELA (331..Bi @y).+ Alexander 
won his final victory over Darius and 
spread Greek culture and learning 
throughout the Persian Empire (See Ar- 
BELA, BATTLE OF). 

4. Metraurus (207 B..C.). In this 
battle Hannibal failed to receive rein- 
forcements and the final defeat of Car- 
thage was decided. 

5. TEUTOBERG Forest (9 A. D.). The 
Gerrnan, Arminius, defeated the Romans 
under Varus and thus the boundaries of 
the Roman Empire were fixed. 

6. CHAtons (451), 
'man and Gothic forces defeated Attila 
and saved Europe from the barbarous 
‘Huns. 

7. Tours (7/32). Charles Martel con- 
quered the Saracens and saved Europe 
from a Mohanimmedan invasion (See 
_ Tours, BATTLE OF). 

8. Hastincs (1066). William the 
Conqueror defeated Harold and brought 
England into closer touch with the civi- 
lization of the Continent (See HASTINGs, 
BATTLE OF). 

9, Orttans (1429). Joan of Arc 
drove the English from before the town 
and turned the tide of the Hundred 

Years’ War. 

10. ArmapAa, THE (1588). Philip IT 

of Spain failed in his attempt to invade 
England; hence England was saved for 
Protestantism (See SPANISH ARMADA, 
THE). 
BLrENHEIM (1704). The Duke of 
Marlborough and Prince Eugéne of 
Savoy checked the encroachments of 
Louis XIV. 


The united Ro-. 


/ 


FIG 


12. Portava (1709). Peter the Great 
defeated Charles XII of Sweden and 
brought Russia in touch with the civili- 
zation of Europe. 

13. SaratoGa (1777). General Gates 
commanding the Americans defeated the 
English under Burgoyne. This led 
France to espouse the American side, 
and turned the tide in favor of the col- 
onists (See SARATOGA, BATTLES OF). _ 

14. Vatmy (1792). The French won’ 
against the allies gathered under the 
Duke of Brunswick, and the reforms of 
the French Revolution were assured. 

15. Wartertoo (1815). Napoleon I 
was overcome by the allied armies under 
the Duke of Wellington (See WATER- 
LOO, BATTLE OF). 

Fifty-four Forty or Fight, in United 
States history the slogan of the Demo- 
cratic Party in 1844. By the treaty of 
1819 Spain surrendered its claim to ter- 
ritory north of parallel 42° and in 1825 
Russia and the United States agreed to 
54° 40’ as the boundary line between 
their possessions. The country between 
these lines, known as Oregon, was oc- 
cupied jointly by the United States and 
Great Britain, but as fur traders of the 
two countries began to compete with 
each other and pioneers began to make 
settlements the question of the boundary 
line came into prominencé. The Demo- 
crats in the campaign of 1844 demanded 
the reoccupation of Oregon, declaring 
that American title to all territory as far 
as 54° 40’ was clear and not disputable. 
In 1846, however, Great Britain and the 
United States entered into a treaty which 
fixed the 49th parallel as the boundary 
line. 

Fig, a name given to a large group 
of plants cf the Breadfruit Family, 
among the best known of which is the 
tree which produces the fig of commerce. ’ 
There are over 100 species known, many 
of which are held in veneration by Ori- 
entals; chief among these are: the Bo, 
or Sacred Fig, under which Gautama, 
afterwards the Buddha, is said to have 
rested for 40 days; the peepul, or re- 
ligious fig; and the banyan. These dif- 
ferent species are decidedly different in 


1021 


FIG 


form and may be vines, shrubs or trees. 
In general, however, they are character- 
ized by having a milky, biting juice, 
which is often used in. making a green 
dye, and hard rough leaves which are 
used in polishing wood and ivory. The 
fiber of the bark is tough and may be 
twisted into cordage for net making. 
The -common fig, which produces the 
fig of commerce, is a native of India, but 
is common in all tropical countries and 
is grown in parts of the British Isles, 
France and the United States. This is 
a low tree, rarely growing more than 
15 or 20 ft. in height. Its leaves, which 


are not evergreen, are deeply lobed. 
The fruit, which grows singly in the 
joints of the leafstalks, is pear-shaped 


FIG 


and may be blue-black, red, yellow or 
green in color. This edible portion, com- 
monly called the fruit, is really only an 
enlarged receptacle within which the 
flowers grow. In the illustration 1 
shows the fruit on the branch and 2 is 
a vertical section showing the position of 
the flowers and seeds. On account of 
their concealed position, the flowers 
which on one tree are all pistillate (that 
is, containing the undeveloped fruit) are 
not easily fertilized, and much difficulty 
has attended the cultivation of the fruit. 
The receptacle, which will enlarge and 
become sweet without the maturing of 
the seed, was found to be of much poorer 
quality in the unfertilized than in the 
fertilized fruit. This fact led to experi- 


FIG 


ments by the United States Department 
of Agriculture, which brought out some 
interesting facts in regard to fig culture. 
The Smyrna fig trees, which bear the 
best-flavored fruit, were found to pro- 
duce only pistillate flowers, while the 
caprifig, or wild fig, bears both pistillate 
and staminate flowers, the latter contain- 
ing the fertilizing dust. These caprifigs 
are also the home of a small insect called 
the fig insect, which, having spent the 
winter in the slowly developing, winter 
caprifigs, emerges in the spring and 
crawls to the bases of the pistillate flow- 
ers to deposit its eggs. The pollen from 
the staminate flowers is thus carried 
across the pistillate flowers and the ef- 
fect is soon evident in the swelling and 
ripening of the seed pods. See Cross- 
FERTILIZATION, 

The natives of India aided in the fer- 
tilizing of the figs by tying branches of 
the caprifig into the tops of the Smyrna 
trees during the time of their flowering. 
What we are accustomed to call the seed 
of the fig is really the fruit, a hardened 
pericarp surrounding the true seed. 

With the introduction of the caprifigs 
and the fig insect into the United States 
the success of the fig industry was as- 
sured, since the climate and soil of many 
parts of this country are well adapted to 
its ‘culture. Figs are “raised am (large 
quantities in the Gulf States and Cali- 
fornia. The latter state exports at least 
10,000,000 Ib. of the dry fruit annually, 
and the fresh fruit, though not adapted 
to transportation, is in demand in the 
neighborhood of the orchards. 

Because of the fact that the blossoms 
of the fig are so hidden, it has become a 
localism in California that to “stay until | 
the fig blossoms appear’ means to remain 
indefinitely. 

The wood of the fig tree was used by 
Egyptians in making mummy cases; it 
is spoken of in early sacred history, and 
in classic legend is said to have been in- 
vented by Bacchus, and was the tree 
in which rested the cradle of Romulus 
and Remus on the site of the future city 
of Rome. 


» Figaro. See MARRIAGE OF FIGARO. 


1022 


FIJI ISLANDS 


Fiji, Fe’ je, Islands, a group of 200 
islands lying in the South Pacific Ocean 
between 15° and 20° south latitudes, 
177° east and 178° west longitude. Viti 
Levu and Vanua Levu are the largest 
of the islands and are of such size that 
they could comfortably provide for fully 
three times the population of the entire 
group. Only 80 of the islands are: in- 
habited. The climate of the islands is 
uncomfortably warm, made especially so 
because of the dampness, and it is said 
that at Suva, the capital, a day without 
rain is unknown. The population of the 
islands is a curious mixture of whites, 
Samoans, Indians, Chinese and _ the 
Fijians themselves, a people conspicuous 
because of their tall straight build and 
their bushy hair always arranged in stiff 
pompadour fashion. They are generally 
cleanly in their habits and dress and are 
‘not at all the savages of earlier years. 
Controlled by the British Government, 
the Fiji Islander must work out his 
taxes with regularity, and upon occasion 
must serve in the army for a brief period. 
The chief food is the yam, but bananas, 
breadfruit, coconuts and other fruits 
abound. Sugar cane, cotton and tobacco 
are cultivated, and forests of valuable 
cabinet woods, as yet little known to 
European and American cabinetmakers, 
will some day prove a great source of 
revenue. 

The Fiji Islands became British terri- 
tory in 1874. The government is admin- 
istered by a governor appointed by the 
Crown and assisted by executive and 
legislative councils. There are two pub- 
lic schools besides several mission 
schools. The prevailing form of religion 
is Methodist. The total area of the 
islands is 7435 sq. m., and the popula- 
‘tion, 139,600. 

File, an instrument having cutting 
surfaces, or teeth, made chiefly by indent- 
ing steel bars, and used for abrading 
and smoothing surfaces. Files are made 
in various shapes and sizes and fineness 
of cut. The most common form used is 
the flat file, but they are also made 
square, triangular, round and half round, 
and generally tapering to the point. 


“ 


FILTER 


They are either single cut, having but 
one row of teeth, or double cut, having 
two sets of teeth crossing each other ob- 
liquely. The file is mentioned in history 
as early as 109 B. C. Formerly all files 
were made by hand and much skill was 
required not only in cutting them but 
also in tempering and hardening them, 
but they are made now almost exclusively 
by machinery. A rasp is a coarse file, 
used to abrade wood and also the hoofs 
of horses after the shoe is set. 
Filipinos, Fil’i pe’ noze. See PHILIP- 
PINE ISLANDS, subhead People. 
Fill’more, Millard (1800-1874), thir- 
teenth president of the United States, 
born at Summerhill, N. Y. His parents 
were not able to give him more than a 
common school education, but he spent 
his spare Jnoments in study, taught 
school for a time, and was assisted in his 
law studies by a lawyer who became in- 
terested in him. In 1823 he was admitted 
as an attorney to the Court of Common 
Pleas in Erie County, and in 1830 re- 
moved to Buffalo, where he established 
a successful practice. He was elected to 
the State Legislature in 1828 and served 
three terms, securing the passage of the 
law abolishing imprisonment for debt. 
He served in Congress from 1833 to 
1835, and from 1837 to 1843. As chair- 
man of the ways and means committee 
he was the author of the tariff law of 
1842. He was regarded as one of the 
best debaters in the House. 
Fillmore was elected vice-president of 
the United States on. the Whig ticket 
with Taylor in 1848, and became presi- 
dent upon the death of the latter in 1850. 
The Compromise Bill of 1850 was the 
most important measure of his adminis- 
tration. In 1856 he made an extended 
visit to Europe. Fillmore was a man 
of decided views, but always open to 
conviction. While he did not enjoy the 
advantages of early education, he be- 
came a man of graceful and polished 
manners which were the expression of 
genuine refinement and dignity of char- 
acter. See Study Guides. 
Fil’ter, a contrivance designed to 
strain solid particles, particularly im- 


1023 


FINCH 


purities, from water. 
tos paper folded in the shape of a funnel 
generally forms a _ chemist’s filter. 
Liquids strained through such filters are 
freed from all solid particles. Beds of 
sand and gravel in the earth act as 
filters for spring water. Rain water and 
water from lakes and rivers require fil- 
tering before using. Filters for domestic 
purposes are frequently made of two 
vessels, one within the other; the one 
through which the water is filtered is par- 
tially filled with alternate layers of pow- 
dered charcoal and sand, with a layer of 
fine gravel on top. Sometimes the inner 
vessel is made of a porous material, like 
unglazed earthenware, and the water 
seeps through, this being the principle of 
the Pasteur filter. Many water supply 
systems of cities include filters whose ex- 
tent covers acres, and with bottoms lined 
with fine sand, gravel, etce., through 
which the water is filtered and made 
pure. See WATERWORKS. 

' Filters are used in the manufacture of 
sirups, vinegar, oils, wine, beer, fruit 
juices and many other substances. A 
filter composed of a number of metallic 
sieves, held together by rods and contain- 
ing filtering materials, like charcoal, 
mineral wool, powdered: glass, quartz, 
sand, etc., through which the liquid is 
pumped under heavy pressure, is known 
as a filter press. 

Finch, the name given to certain 
seed-eating birds with heavy cone- 
shaped bills which vary in size and form, 
being light in such birds as the junco, 
very heavy in the grosbeak and cardinal, 
and the tips crossed in the crossbill. 
Many of the finches are beautiful in color 
as well as remarkable of song, as, for ex- 
ample, the goldfinch, canary, bullfinch, 
grosbeak, cardinal, etc. The Finch Fam- 
ily contains some 500 species, which are 
found in all parts of the world except 
the Australian region. 

Finch, Francis Miles (1827-1907), an 
American jurist and poet, born in Ithaca, 
N. Y.. He graduated at Yale, and, after 
studying law at Ithaca, began the prac- 
tice of his profession, serving as asso- 
ciate justice of the New York Court of 


A sheet of asbes- 


is fee 


ps 


aa a? my 7 “Se 
' fies Re se, 


FINE ARTS 


Appeals from 1880 to 1896: He assisted 
in the organization of Cornell Univer- 
sity and became dean of the college of — 
law in 1892. While at Yale he wrote a 
number of popular college songs, and his 
poem The Blue and the Gray has become 
a favorite. 

Find’lay, Ohio, a city and county 
seat of Hancock Co., 43 m. s. of Toledo, 
on Blanchard’s Fork of the Auglaize 
River and on the Lake Erie & Western, 
the Toledo & Ohio Central, the Cincin- 
nati, Hamilton & Dayton and other rail- 
roads. It is situated in the natural-gas 
and oil fields of the state and is sur- 
rounded by a fertile agricultural region. 
Findlay is widely known on account of 
its wonderful yield of natural gas. There 
are extensive glass factories, oil refin- 
eries, bridge and engine works, machine 
and boiler shops, target works, potteries 
and manufactories of cartridges, brick, 
tile, furniture, brass goods, nails and 
wooden implements. In the vicinity are 
deposits of sand and gravel and beds of 
clay, lime and building stone. Findlay 
College, a coeducational institution, 
founded in 1882, is located here. There 
is also an orphans’ home. Findlay was 
incorporated in 1837.- Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 17,021. 

Fine Arts. In the terms of the fine 
arts, which, 
understand to mean architecture, sculp- 
ture and painting and their related arts, 
man writes his history so indelibly that 
all that has been committed to writing 
may be obliterated; earthquake, volcano, 
storm, flood may’ use their fullest power 
of destruction, yet will enough be left 
for a future age to reconstruct the life 
and history of the departed race. Nat- 
urally the race or individual reserves its 
highest and best to be expressed in the 
material that will last forever; there- 
fore, we find that art has always been 
the mouthpiece of religion. When a race 
outlives its religion, its art becomes de- 
generate and naturalistic, and then re- 
sorts to copying the older arts or merely 
to making picture statements of nature 
as she appears to the eye. 

Although primitive man uses pictures 


1024 - 


in this article we will ° 


FINE ARTS 


as a form of writing and as a means of 
recording important events, art, in its 
larger sense, cannot be said to begin 
until man has a desire to express beauty 
in things. As long as the shelter he 
builds for himself is constructed only 
with a view to keeping out the wind, 
rain, sun and his enemies, he is not crea- 
ting architecture. Architecture in its 
strictest meaning is man’s effort to build 
beautifully. It is called the “parent art” 
because when man begins to build perma- 
nent temples, shrines, houses, etc., he 
needs sculpture, painting and design to 
make his building more beautiful. 
Architecture is always limited by the 
material that is at hand in any given lo- 
cality. The simplest material to trans- 
port and the easiest to hoist into place 
is wood. The perishableness of wood is 
probably responsible for the loss to the 
world of much beautiful, historic build- 
ings, amongst which may be numbered 
the wonderful Temple of King Solomon, 
of which nothing at present remains, ex- 
cept word pictures. The world, has, 
however, a marvelous example of the 
beauty that may be wrought into wooden, 


structure in the architecture of China 


and Japan where the builders have used 
low timber buildings, because they bet- 
ter resist the shocks of earthquake with 
which both these countries must reckon. 

Building with stone demands more 
skilled labor and much better facilities of 
transportation than a race has at its dis- 
posal until it has reached a high stage 
of development. Egypt, Greece and 
Rome have contributed to the world mar- 
vels of architecture, which, being 
_ wrought in stone, are still in good con- 
dition. These ancient buildings have al- 
ways been the models, particularly in de- 
sign, for succeeding styles, among 
which the most important are the Ro- 
manesque, Byzantine, Gothic, Renais- 
sance, etc., each of which is treated in 
the article on architecture. Even in the 
architecture of our modern civilization 
when the methods of the old construc- 
tion have become impracticable, we des- 
ignate the building as Renaissance, 
Gothic, Byzantine, Romanesque or 


teeming with the spirit of life. 


FINE ARTS 


Greek, according to the type of applied 
decoration used. 

Architecture of both stone and wood 
construction found sculpture to be the 
most logical form of decoration for both 
exterior and interior spaces. While 
Egyptians used all types of sculpture, 
such as the full round, relief and intaglio 
relief in its decoration, it remained for 
the Greeks to develop the most superb 
sculptural decoration the world has ever 
seen. The Greek temple was a shrine 
built to house the statue of some god or 
goddess, which statue was a superb work 
modeled in the full round. The cella 
walls, the metopes in the frieze, the pedi- 
ment and the other parts of Greek build- 
ings were made exquisite with relief dec- 
oration of gods, men and horses, all 
The 
world has never ceased marveling at the 
art of the Parthenon frieze, the Victory 
of Samothrace, the Hermes of Praxiteles 
and many others. | 

All succeeding styles of architecture 
have had their characteristic sculpture. 
In China and Japan, where the most 
wonderful architectures of wood have de- 
veloped, we find statues in the full round 
carved in wood and painted. Also in 
these countries we find the world’s finest 
wood carving in relief, richly colored 
and gilded. 

Painting has always been, from the 
early Egyptian times, an enticing means 
of decorating flat wall spaces, tiles, pot- 
teries and other small things, that de- 
mand design of two dimensions for flat 
or curved surfaces. We may also class- 
ify under the subject of paintings, the 
wonderful color decorations for floors 
and walls that the Byzantine and other 
builders have made in mosaics of stone 
and glass. While the Greeks did not 
use painting extensively as architectural 
decoration, their painted vases show us 
that they knew how to use the brush as 
well as the chisel. 

The Italians at the time of their Ren- 
aissance attained a very high develop- 
ment in mural painting. The Roman- 
esque architecture offered large expanses 
of wall space which the Church seized 


1025 


FINE ARTS 


tipo as a means of teaching the lessons 
of Christianity to a people, who before 
the invention of printing had no means 
of learning to read and write. 

From Giotto to Raphael and Michael- 
angelo all the great painters gave their 
ability to the mural decorations of the 
churches. With the advent of Gothic 
architecture which replaced large wall 
spaces with enormous windows, stained 
glass took the place of Fresco and Tem- 
pora wall painting. The painter was 
thus driven, if he would preserve his 
art, to the small movable easel picture, 
which, having lost its function as a wall 
decoration, rapidly drifted into some- 
thing independent of a place and rapidly 
developed into an imitative art of por- 
traiture, landscape or illustration. 

Closely related to painting is the won- 
derful color and design of the textile 
weaver whose product has always been 
an important accessory to architecture. 
In the tents of the nomadic tribes of 
Arabia and Asia Minor the wonderful 
product of the looms furnished both 
floor and wall covering. The loom and 
needle produced wonderful altar cloths, 
stoles, surplices and many other acces- 
sories of the Church ritual, as well as 
palace decoration, apparel of royalty and 
others. 

The decoration of woven fabrics may 
all be divided into three classes: first, 
textiles such as rugs, carpets, brocaded 
silks and velvets and linens, in which 
the design is woven into the fabric; sec- 
ond, printed designs, such as are printed 
by rollers in machinery, wood-block and 
stencil printing being hand processes; 
and third, embroidery, which was origi- 
nally a hand art but much of which is 
now done by machinery. 

Under the subject of ceramics we may 
classify all products of the kiln which 
are useful, and sometimes necessary to 
the architect. In Chaldea, Assyria and 
Persia there was a poverty both of tim- 
ber and stone, which necessitated the 
discovery of an artificial building ma- 
terial. Sun-dried and kiln-dried bricks 
were used in wall construction, and the 
walls were often covered with marvel- 


FINE ARTS 


ously glazed and colored tiles. This 
probably led to the discovery of the won- 
derful ancient potteries which no mod- | 
ern country could possibly equal. Mod- 
ern architecture of the steel-construction 
type is now finding the glazed tile a prac- 
tical and beautiful covering for both 
exterior and interior use. “ 

The whole subject of illustration and 
fine lettering is usually totally neglected 
in a history of the fine arts. During 
medieval times before the invention of 
printing, a very high order of art mani- 
fested itself in the hand lettering, illu- 
mining and binding of books. With the 
invention of the printing press and the 
invention and perfecting of means of 
reproducing pictures we still have an art 
belonging to the making of books. Never. 
has there been a time in the history of 
printing when books have been so beauti- 
ful as they are today. American and 
European illustration began with wood 
engraving, which necessitated the cut- 
ting of the picture on a wooden block 
from which the print on paper was 
made. These blocks were perishable and 
only a limited number of prints could 
be made from each; consequently a 
means of making a more lasting plate 
had to be found, which resulted in the 
steel engraving and the copperplate. All 
of these processes demanded much hand 
work and hence were expensive. 

Finally when photography had been 
perfected, chemistry discovered a way 
to eat out the parts of a picture that 
were not to be printed from a photo- 
graph on a zinc plate, and we had the 
process known as the zinc etching, by 
which means many illustrations are 
made. Later a means of reproduction, 
known as the half-tone process, was dis- 
covered, which reproduces all grada- 
tions of tone. Zinc etchings and half 
tones are usually in black and white 
only, color reproduction being a much 
more difficult process. The lithograph 
process engraves the picture on stone, 
to which color is applied and from which 
it is transferred to paper. 

Now we have what are known as the 
three-color process and the four-color 


1026 


FINGAL’S CAVE 


process; in the former, the camera 
catches on one plate all the yellows, on 
another all the blues, and on a third all 
the reds; and in the four-color process 
is added a plate for all blacks. These 
are printed one above the other on the 
paper, a full-color reproduction result- 
ing. 

This reference work contains exam- 
ples of zinc etchings, half tones and the 
four-color process. Only since the per- 
fection of the methods of illustration, 
has it been possible to use books as a 
means of art as well as of literary ex- 
pression. See ORIENTAL Arr. 

Fin’gal’s Cave, a celebrated cave on 
the Island of Staffa off the western 
coast of Scotland. It is 227 ft. long, 60 
ft. in height and from 22 to 40 ft. in 
width. Its chief feature is its lofty 
basalt columns, which are beautifully 
joined. See BasaLt; GIANT'S CAUSE- 
WAY. 

Fin’land”, a republic of Europe in- 
cluding in its territory a large part of 
Lapland, bounded on the n. by Norway, 
on the e. by the governments of Olonets 
and Archangel, on the s. by the Gulf 
of Finland and on the w. by the Gulf 
of Bothnia and Sweden. Its length 
from north to south is 700 m.; the maxi- 
mum breadth is 400 m.; and the total 
area is 144,255 sq. m. The surface is a 
table-land, with an average height of 
from 400 to 600 ft. and containing 
Haldischok, a peak with an altitude of 
approximately 4100 ft. The main rivers 
are the Muonio, the Ulea and the Kemi. 
There are numerous lakes, and the coun- 
try has become known as the “Land of 
the Thousand Lakes.” The largest are 
Kalla, Enare, Tornea, Payanne and 
Saima. Lake Ladoga touches the bound- 
ary on the southeast. The climate is 
rigorous and healthful, and the fertile 
soil produces an abundant forest growth, 
but the agricultural products are insuffi- 
cient for home demand. Iron and cop- 
per are mined and large supplies of 
granite are quarried. The manufactures 
are gradually growing in importance, 
and the disadvantages of the geographi- 
cal situation of the country are offset by 


FINLEY 


the fact that the rivers furnish an abun- 
dant water supply. The principal manu- 
factured products are wooden articles, 
iron products, textiles, lumber, leather 
and paper. 

The Finns belong to the Finno-Ugrian 
race, ethnically closely related to the 
Esthonians and more distantly to the 
Magyars of Hungary. Helsingfors, the 
capital, is in the midst of a Swedish 
section. Fifteen centuries ago, the Finns 
occupied the northern half of Russia, 
they were gradually forced to the north- 
west by Slavic tribes from the south. In 
their lake dotted peninsula, the tribes re- 
tained their independence until the 12th — 
century when they became a part of 
Sweden. Early in the 19th century, Fin- 
land was organized as a grand duchy of 
Russia and in the troublous days of the 
Russian Revolution regained their inde- 
pendence and organized a republican form 
of government. Population, 2,750,000, 

Finland, Gulf of, an arm of the Baltic 
Sea, lying between Finland on the north 
and the Russian governments, Esthonia 
and St. Petersburg, on the south. It 
extends east and west over 250 m. and 
varies in width from 12 to over 80 m. 
The coast, bordered by small islands, is 
rugged, and navigation is hindered by 
sand banks and rocks, as well as by ice 
during the winter. Helsingfors, Viborg, 
Kronstadt and Reval are the principal 
ports. 

Finley, John Huston (1863- ), an 
American educator and editor, born at 
Grand Ridge, Ill., and educated at Knox 
College and at Johns Hopkins University. 
From 1889 to 1892 he was secretary of 
the New York State Charities Aid Asso- 
ciation, and in 1892 became president of 
Knox College. In 1899 he accepted the 
editorship of Harper's Weekly, and, later 
in the year, that of McClure’s Magazine. 
In 1900 he became professor of politics 
in Princeton University, and in 1903, 
president of the College of the City of 
New York. In 1913 Professor Finley 
succeeded Andrew_S. Draper as commis- 
sioner of education for the State of New 
York. Besides contributing to reviews, 
he assisted in the preparation of Tara- 


1027 


FINNS 


tion in American States and Cities and 
The American Executive and Executive 
Methods. | 

Finns. See FINLAND. 

Fin’sen, Niels Ryberg (1860-1904), 
a Danish scientist, discoverer of the 
method of curing various skin diseases 
with light rays. In 1893, three years 
following his graduation from Copen- 
hagen University, he first, announced his 
theory of the effect of light on the skin. 
Experimenting with artificial light rays, 
he invented an electric lamp which gave 
forth blue, violet and ultra-violet rays, 
by which he cured tuberculosis of the 
skin and cognate afflictions. The Danish 
Government recognized the value of his 
work, and aided him in establishing Fin- 
sen’s Medical Light Institute in Copen- 
hagen. In 1903 he was awarded the 
Nobel prize in medicine. 

Fiord, Fyord, or Fjord, a long, nar- 
row and irregularly-shaped inlet of the 
sea, indenting a mountainous coast. 
Fiords are bounded by steep walls of 
rock, which descend almost vertically to 
a considerable distance below the sea 
level. Their origin is probably due to 
glacial erosion, sinking of the coastal 
land and the transgression of the sea. 
The most notable fiords are on the coasts 
of Norway, the British Isles and New 
Zealand. 

Fir, a handsome tree of the Pine 
Family, found in North America in the 
West from Alaska to Mexico and in the 
East from Labrador to North Carolina. 
It has a slender, straight trunk with hori- 
zontal, spreading branches. The bark, 
in young trees, is smooth, thin and resin- 
ous, generally pale in color; in older 
ones it is thicker and somewhat fur- 
rowed. ‘The leaves, like those of all 
pines, are much reduced and may be 
recognized by a peculiar twist at the base 
which gives them a curved position on 
the stem. In different species these 
leaves are arranged differently on the 
twigs; in the older branches of the bal- 
sam fir they lie as smoothly on each side 
of the stem as though parted and 
brushed down; in others they entirely 
surround the stem in straight or curving 


FIRE ALARM 


spines. The flowers spring from the 
axils of these leaves and develop from ° 
buds which appeared the previous year. 
The fruit is a solid, resinous cone, cylin- 
drical in form and slightly pointed. 

The varieties common in the United 
States are the balsam fir, white fir, silver 
fir and red fir, or larch. Their wood’is 
used for boxes and in the manufacture 
of pulp for paper making. The fir also 
grows abundantly in the Eastern Hemis- 
phere, being common from the mountains 
of central Europe to eastern China and 
in the highlands of Africa. The wood 
of the fir was used for the ceiling of the 
Temple at Jerusalem, and the growing 
tree is the center of many Eastern leg- 
ends. Many woodsmen have a super- 
stitious fear of cutting it, and some con- 
sider it the true Christmas tree and 
inseparably connected with old St. Nich- 
olas. Its leaves furnish the filling for 
fragrant and soothing balsam pillows. 
See Douctas Fir. 

Firdousi, Fer doo’ se, or Firdausi 
(about 935-1020), the pen name of Abu’! 
Kasim Mansur, author of the epic poem, 
the Shah Namah, or Book of Kings. 
The poem contains 60,000 verses and is 
a complete and valuable history of 
Persia. The writing of it was a task of 
35 years. It is the oldest extant work 
in Persian literature and is distinguished 
by its dignified style, its patriotic appeal 
and the extraordinary knowledge of 
ancient history that it reveals. 

Fire Alarm, a contrivance for an- 
nouncing the outbreak of a fire. Fire 
alarms placed in large buildings are so 
constructed that a rise in temperature 
beyond the ordinary closes a circuit and 
rings a gong. The fire alarm used by 
the fire departments of cities consists of 
a central office containing the electric in- 
struments, batteries, etc., which are con- 
nected by a network of wires to “call 
boxes” stationed in different districts of 
the city. These call boxes are made of 
cast iron, with two doors, the outer one 
of which is usually opened by a key 
exposing a handle or crank, which is 
pulled down or turned in order to send 
in an alarm. This action sets in motion 


1028 


% 
‘ , 


* 


FIREBIRD 


a wheel, which closes an electric current 
and rings the gong in the central office 
and generally in the engine houses of 
the district in which the alarm. box is 
located. ‘The engine-house gong gives 
automatically the number of strokes in- 
dicating the number of the district in 
*which the fire is located. The recording 
apparatus in the central office also gives 
this information to the chief and his 
assistants. 
Fire’bird”. 
timore Oriole. 
Firecrackers, bombs made of paper 
cylinders enclosing explosive materials, 


See ORIOLE, subhead Bal- 


which are ignited by projecting fuses. 


They are made principally in China and 
by hand. The fuses of 64 firecrackers 
are braided together, forming a pack, 
which is wrapped in paper with gilt 
letters on red labels. Firecrackers were 
invented by the Chinese, and have been 
used by them for centuries in celebrating 
anniversaries of historical events and 
festivals. In the United States they 
form a large part of the fireworks con- 
sumed each year on the Fourth of July. 
Giant firecrackers are made as large as 
three inches in diameter and 12 inches 
long, and like all others, should be han- 
dled with the greatest care and never 
be touched after they are lighted. Lock- 
jaw and blood poisoning frequently re- 
sult from wounds made by firecrackers. 
See FrrEworkKS. 

Fire Damp, a name given by miners 
to explosive mixtures of gases found 
principally in coal mines. They usually 
consist of carbureted hydrogen, which 
with air ignites and explodes. This gas 
is also called methane, or marsh gas. It 
is formed by the decomposition of coal, 
and is frequently productive of destruc- 
tive results in mines when exposed to a 
flame. Miners secure protection from 
this danger by using a safety lamp in- 
stead of a candle. See Sarery Lamp. 

Fire Department, an organization 
maintained in cities and towns for the 
purpose of extinguishing fires. It is 
usually a department of the municipal 
government and supported by taxation. 
A paid fire department is one in which 


‘ 
FIRE DEPARTMENT 


the members devote all their time and 
are employed on a salary. A volunteer 
fire department is composed of members 
who serve only when called upon. The 
organization and the character of ap- 
paratus used depend largely upon the 
height and type of the buildings to be 
protected, also upon the nature of the 
available water supply. The apparatus 
usually consists of steam fire engines; 
fire hose, carried on carts in a reel or 
laid in folds in a wagon; ladders of 
various kinds, including extension lad- 
ders; chemical engines; hand chemical 
fire extinguishers; water towers for pro- 
jecting hose streams from points oppo- 
site upper-story windows; and man 
minor devices for climbing tall buildings 
and tearing them down, when necessary 
to confine the area of a fire. 

In planning and constructing a fire 
station, the greatest effort is made to 
bring everything into immediate action 
and to enable the company to reach the 
scene of the fire at the earliest possible 
moment. To assist in this, electric fire- 
alarm systems are employed (See Fire 
ALARM). The members and horses of 
each station are thoroughly drilled in 
quick and concerted action, so that in 
less than a minute after the alarm is 
sounded the company and apparatus are 
on the way to the fire. Hitching devices 
for the almost instantaneous adjusting 
of harness to horses drawing the ap- 
paratus are used, and the horses are 
trained to take their places on the alarm 
of fire, when an electric device unfastens 
their stall chains and a release mechan- 
ism opens the main doors of the fire 
station. Firemen sleeping on the floor 
above the apparatus have their clothes 
so designed and arranged that in the 
event of a fire at night they can almost 
instantly clothe themselves and_ slide 
down poles to their positions on the 
apparatus, ready to leave the house in a 
few seconds. 

The fire department in all large cities 
is a highly organized body under a chief 
and several assistants, and is usually di- 
vided into companies, each under com- 
mand of a captain. One or more of 


1029 


FIRE ENGINE 


these companies occupy the fire station 
where the fire apparatus and horses are 
kept. See Frre ENGINE; Fire Escape; 
FirE EXTINGUISHER. 

Fire Engine, an apparatus consisting 
chiefly of force pumps for throwing 
water to extinguish fires (See Pump). 
Formerly these pumps were worked by 
hand, but now nearly all of them are 
operated by steam. A steam fire engine 
consists of two pumps mounted on a 
frame and driven direct from a steam 
engine, the whole, together with a suit- 
able boiler and fittings, being carried on 
a strong wagon. Two or more lengths 
of suction hose and the engineer are 
carried on this wagon, while several 
hundred feet of hose are carried on a 
hose reel or on a separate wagon. Fire 
engines were formerly pulled by two 
strong horses, but now, in the larger 
cities especially, motor trucks are usually 
used for this purpose. A chemical fire 
engine is one in which chemicals generate 
carbonic acid gas (See Frre EXxtTiIn- 
GUISHER), and this with water is used 
successfully to extinguish fires. The 


whole apparatus is mounted on a small 


fast automobile which is provided with 
a hose reel. 

The chemical fire engine uses only a 
small quantity of water, and will extin- 
guish a small fire with less damage than 
the ordinary engine, but it is practically 
useless in a large fire. 

Fire Escape, a device for enabling 
people to escape from a burning build- 
ing. The most common forms are iron 
ladders attached to the wall of the build- 
ing or iron stairways similarly attached, 
located so that they can be reached from 
a window in each story of the building. 
An improved plan encloses the stairway 
with fireproof walls, so that the inmates 
can make their escape with entire safety. 
A device resembling a standpipe and 
having a spiral canvas slide within is 
sometimes used for school buildings. 
Small hotels often have ropes in sleep- 
ing rooms. One end of the rope is se- 
cured to the wall, and a sliding device, 
which allows the inmate to descend 
slowly to the ground, is fixed to the 


FIREFLY 


rope. All states have stringent laws 
requiring fire escapes to be placed on all 
public buildings, and in large cities, on 
all private buildings containing a large 
number of people, such as office build- 
ings. 

Fire Extinguisher, a contrivance for 
extinguishing fires. A hand fire €x- 
tinguisher usually consists of a metal 
cylinder holding about five gallons of 
water; into this water is put common 
baking soda, forming a solution. In the 
top of a cylinder and held by a clamp 
is a small glass bottle containing sul- 
phuric acid. A hand wheel, or lever, is 
on the outside of the cylinder and so 
arranged that when it is desired to use 
the extinguisher it is screwed down upon 
the glass bottle, which it crushes. This 
allows the acid to mix with the solution 
and generate carbonic acid gas. The 
gas creates a°great pressure, thus forc- 
ing out the water with it through the. 
hose on the fire. These extinguishers — 
are generally carried and operated on 
one’s back and are very efficient in put- 
ting out small fires. Two of these ex- 
tinguishers, holding about 40 gallons 
each and mounted on a special wagon, | 
form what is known as a chemical fire 
engine, and is used by ‘fire departments 
of cities. Glass bottles, filled with vari- 
ous chemical solutions to be thrown on 
fires, are known as fire grenades. 

Fire’fly”, a member of the Lampyrid 
Family of beetles. These insects are 
called flies because they are inconspicu- 
ous except when on the wing. Rising 
from the damp grasses of marsh and 
meadow during the summer twilight, 
many of these little creatures may be 
marked in flight because of the luminous 
spot which is exhibited as the wings are 
spread. During the day, if the locality 
is searched, little soft-bodied, leathery- 
winged beetles may be found, generally 
waiting, nearly motionless, the approach 
of dusk. They have long, straight 
bodies, legs that have a backward direc- 
tion, as do also the long antennz, and 
rounding heads. The luminous patches 
are generally situated upon the last seg- 
ment of the abdomen and are groups 


1030 


FIREWORKS 


of cellular tissue capable of uniting with 
the oxygen, sent from the trachea, in 
such a manner that a slow combustion 
takes place. The glowworm is the wing- 
less female of the firefly and is also 
capable of emitting light. In some spe- 
cies the eggs and larve, which may be 
found early in summer just below the 
surface of the ground, are also luminous; 
but while in the larval and adult stages 
the ability is under nerve control, in the 
egg it is, of course, involuntary. Fire- 
flies are among the insects helpful to 
man, for they destroy harmful insects 
and aid in keeping down noxious weeds. 

Fireworks, preparations of combusti- 
ble substances and explosives for the 
purpose of producing an attractive dis- 
play when ignited. The origin of fire- 
works is unknown, but they have been 
in use in the East since the beginning 
of history, and their manufacture in 
China and Japan was long since brought 
to the highest degree of perfection. The 
materials used in the manufacture of fire- 
works are gunpowder, charcoal, sulphur, 
_saltpeter, chlorate of potash and other 
compounds containing a large propor- 
tion of oxygen and-salts of metals, 
which, when burned, add brilliant and 
peculiar coloring to the flame. The fire- 
works in most common use are Roman 
candles, rockets, pin wheels, revolving 
triangles and colored lights. Roman 
candles consist of a paper tube contain- 
ing a number of balls of combustible 
material and separated by layers of gun- 
powder. As each successive layer of 
gunpowder is ignited, it throws out the 
ball above it, at the same time igniting 
the ball, which explodes in the air and 
produces a colored light. Each ball 
usually produces a different color from 
the one preceding it. Pin wheels and 
other revolving pieces produce beautiful 
whirling effects. Set pieces of great 
beauty and elaborate designs are made 
for the celebration of special occasions. 
In the United States fireworks are used 
more generally on the Fourth of July 
than at any other time. 

Fish, one of the large divisions of 
vertebrate animals, characterized by their 


FISH 


aquatic habits, which necessitate their 
breathing by means of gills rather than 
lungs. In zoological classification the 
Fishes, or Pisces, are ranked as the low- 
est of the group which also contains 
Batrachians, Reptiles, Birds and Mam- 
mals. Fishes show in their general form 
a special adaptation to their mode of 
life, for their bodies present a compara- 
tively small surface to the resistance of 
the water, and their scales, which over- 
lap like the shingles of a roof, are fitted 
to shed it. 

The head of a fish is generally pointed 
and compressed laterally, as is also its 
body, and there is no perceptible neck; 
past the middle, the body slopes toward 
the tail, which is its organ of motion, 
its rudder and sometimes its means of 
defense. In place of limbs, which are 
not at all represented in the skeleton, 
the fish has two sets of paired fins to 
act as balancers and to aid in motion. 
Those which correspond to the fore- 
limbs are called the pectoral fins and are 
located upon each side of the body; the 
pelvic, or ventral, correspond to the hind 
limbs but are variously placed. The 
median fins are rarely paired and are 
located on the upper and lower parts 
of the body; the dorsal fin upon the 
back, the caudal, at the tail, and the 
anal, below the abdomen. ‘The fins are 
made up of more or less flexible rods, 
connected and supported by a stout 
membrane. 

The gills are located at the back of 
the mouth and consist of a number of 
arches upon each of which are two rows 
of red fringes, in which the blood comes 
very near to the surface. Water is taken 
in through the mouth, passed through 
the bronchial clefts and out at the gill 
openings upon each side of the head. 
As it passes the gill arches the blood 
takes up the oxygen dissolved in the 
water and gives off the impurities, act- 
ing in much the same way as in the 
lungs of higher Vertebrates. The bone- 
supported coverings of the gill openings 


are called the operculums. 


The special senses of a fish are not 
ordinarily very highly developed; the 


1031 


FISH 


tongue is flat and gristly and generally 
not free in movement; it is neither an 
organ of speech nor of taste; the eye 
has an almost globular lens, which ren- 
ders it able to see clearly in the denser 
medium of the water, but nearsighted 
in the air: The nostrils are located high 
in the forehead and are not used for 
breathing, but are for the detection of 
food in the water. 
ternal ears. 

The scales differ greatly in different 
species and their form is often a means 
of identification of different groups. 
They are composed of a bony skin tissue 
and generally lie in rows; not all fishes, 
however, have scales. The coloring mat- 
ter lies chiefly in a thin, epidermal tissue 
covering the scales; the colors vary 
greatly and are apt to fade readily. 
High-swimming fish are generally dark- 
colored above and light below; those 
which swim low are apt to be light above. 

A little above the middle upon each 
side of the body lies a row of specialized 
scales which are supposed to have some 
connection with the nervous system. The 
line which they form is called the lateral 
line. 

In internal anatomy fishes have the 
same general structure/ as other Verte- 
brates. One particularly differing fea- 
ture is the presence of a gas-filled air 
bladder which assists the fish in rising 
readily to the surface. Many fishes are 
provided with horns, sharpened fins, 
swordlike bills or other means of de- 
fense, but they rarely use these unless 
attacked. Reproduction is generally by 
means of eggs. 

The fish constitute one of the largest 
important classes of Vertebrates, com- 
prising about 12,000 species included in 
200 families. As a food they are highly 
prized. The coast and lake fisheries 
form a great industry, and the salting, 
preserving, drying and shipping of the 
catch form other important occupations. 
For further discussion see articles upon 
particular species; also FisH ComMIs- 
SION, UNITED STATES; FISHERIES; FISH 


HATCHERY; SPAWN. 
Fish, Hamilton (1808-1893), , an 


There are no ex- 


De SO 
4 ¢ ae feat y 


FISHER 


American statesman, born in New York 
City. He graduated from Columbia in 
1827, studied law and was admitted to 
the bar in 1830. In 1842 he was elected 
to Congress as a Whig, serving one term. 
He became lieutenant-governor of New 
York in 1847, was governor in 1849-51, . 
and in the latter year was elected tothe 
United States Senate. In 1857 he went 
to Europe with his family for several 
years of travel. General Grant ap- 
pointed him secretary of state in 1869 
and he served in that capacity for eight 
years. He was influential in negotiating 
the Treaty of Washington and in settling 
the Alabama Claims and the northwest 
boundary controversy. See ALABAMA 
CLAIMS; WASHINGTON, TREATY OF. 

Fish Commission, United States, a 
bureau established by Congress in 1871 
and in 1893 made a part of the United 
States Department of Commerce and 
Labor. It is headed by a commissioner, 
appointed by the president, whose spe- 
cific title is commissioner of fish and 
fisheries ; he is aided in his duties by an 
assistant commissioner. The duties of 
this commission as stated by the act 
which established it, are three: the prop- 
agation of useful food fish, the term fish 
being used to include such aquatic ani- 
mals as lobsters, seals, whales, oysters 
and other shellfish; the investigation of 
causes which have led to the decrease of 
food fish-in waters of the’ United States, 
and inquiry into the resources for the 
development of commercial fisheries; 
and the collection and compilation of 
statistics in regard to domestic and for- 
eign fisheries. The first fish commis- 
sioner was Spencer F. Baird. See Fisn- © 
ERIES; Fis HATCHERY. 

Fish’er, Sydney Arthur (1850-1921) 
a Canadian statesman, born in Montreal 
and educated at McGill University and 
at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was 
very active in the advancement of agri- 
cultural interests in Canada. He was one 
of the founders of the Provincial Fruit 
Growers’ Association, and in 1909 at 
Washington, D. C., attended the confer- 
ence which met to consider conserving the 
natural resources of the American conti- 


1032 


= 


FISHER 


nent (See CONSERVATION). 
eral he was elected to the House of Com- 
mons in 1882, 1887, and 1896, becoming 
Minister of Agriculture in the Laurier 
administration. From this position he 
retired in October, 1911. For a time he 
was acting Minister of Public ‘Works. 
Mr. Fisher believed that “all natural re- 
sources should be available by the whole 
people and should not be controlled by 
or given away to private corporations.” 
At Ottawa he founded the National Art 
Gallery and the Archives Bureau. He 
was an excellent debater and a keen poli- 
tician. A practical farmer, he was identi- 
fied with various fruit, stock dairy and 
forestry associations, 

Fisher, Walter Lowrie (1862- 2 
an American lawyer and publicist, born 
in Wheeling, Va.. (now W. Va.), and 
educated at Marietta College, Ohio, and 
Hanover College, Ind. In 1888 he was 
admitted to the bar, and he soon rose 
to professional eminence in Chicago. In 
1901 he became secretary and in 1906, 
president of the Municipal Voters’ 
League of Chicago. Three years later, 
with Gifford Pinchot, he drew up the 
declaration of principles on the forma- 
tion of the National Conservation Asso- 


‘ciation, of which he was vice-president. 


In March, 1911, President Taft appointed 
him secretary of the interior. 

Fisheries, the taking of any aquatic 
animals and preparing them for the mar- 
ket. Thus under the control of the 
Bureau of Fisheries of the United States 
are included the taking of whales, lob- 
sters, shrimps and shellfish, as the oys- 
ters, clams, etc., and even the securing 
of pearls and sponges, as well as the 
taking of fish. 

The United States is the leading coun- 
try in the value of its fisheries and in 
the amount of capital invested therein. 
Japan ranks second and England, includ- 
ing Wales, is third. Of the United States 
fisheries the oyster fisheries are at pres- 
ent the most valuable and have shown 
the greatest increase in recent years. This 
is due, no doubt, to the improved meth- 
ods of treating the beds and caring for 
the young oysters (See OysTER). Sec- 


As a Lib-. 


FISHERIES 


ond in importance in the United States 
are the salmon fisheries, which are the 
most valuable upon the Pacific coast (See 
SALMON), Next in order of value are 
the catches of cod, sea herring, shad, lob- 
sters and clams. The fisheries of the 
Great Lakes, where 100,000,000 Ib. of 
fish are taken annually, are highly im- 
portant. Whitefish, lake herring, lake 
trout and perch are taken in great num- 
bers, and fishing, with its allied indus- 
tries, forms one of the important occu- 
pations of those states bordering upon 
the lakes. Lake Erie has the greatest 
yield of fish and Lake Michigan is sec- 
ond. The New England fleet of fishing 
boats is the best equipped, doubtless be- 
cause the industry is oldest in the East. 
The cod, herring and lobster fisheries are 
there best developed. 

To John Adams, the United States is 
vastly indebted for the preserving of her 
fishing rights. In 1783 he stood out, even 
against the persuasion of his colleagues, 
and refused to sign the Treaty of Paris 
until the fishermen of the United States 
were allowed to fish in Canadian waters. 
Trouble between Canada and the United 
States continued, however, until 1818, 
when a joint commission from the two 
countries revised the terms of agreement 
in regard to fishing rights. Points of dis- 
pute have since then continually arisen, 
and in 1910 the matter was referred to 
The Hague Tribunal for settlement (See 
FISHERIES QUESTION). The main point 
of disagreement has been.as to whether 
the three-mile limit for government con- 
trol of waterways is to follow the coast 
line or to be measuréd from headland 
to headland. 

Fish are prepared for the market by 
smoking, drying, freezing, salting or can- 
ning. These preparations are carried on, 
in many cases, upon the boats, but most 
frequently at the port where the cargo 
is landed. The following fish are com- 
monly found in the market: 

Sturgeon: fisheries of less importance 
than formerly. Used in the production 
of isinglass, caviar and fertilizer; also 
put upon the market smoked. 

Herring: members of this family the 


1033 


FISHERIES QUESTION 


most important in the world as a food 
fish, though not so highly prized in the 
United States. Sold smoked and pickled, 
or fresh as bait for cod. 

Shad: sold fresh, salted or smoked. 

Alewife: less valuable than formerly. 
Sold smoked or salted. 

Menhaden: valued as a fertilizer and 
for its oil. Sold salted or fresh. 

Salmon: most important North Amer- 
ican fish. Sold canned, smoked or fresh. 


Whitefish: shipped frozen, salted and 
smoked. 
Mackerel: one of the valuable food 


‘fish. Generally salted or dried. 

Smelt: offered upon the market canned 
or fresh. 
Cod: 

fish. 
Halibut: sold fresh, salted or smoked. 
Other fish, as pickerel, catfish, sea bass, 
mullet, sunfish, etc., are sold fresh or oc- 
casionally in other forms, but not in suffi- 
cient quantities to allow them to be con- 
sidered as special industries. See Fisu 
CoMMISSION, UNITED STATES; FISH 
HatTcHERY; NET; and articles on the 
various fish mentioned in this article. 
Fisheries Question. Before the Rev- 
olutionary War the fishermen of the 
American colonies had free access to the 
fishing grounds of Newfoundland, Lab- 
rador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but 
after the war the inhabitants of Canada 
protested against the continuance of this 
privilege. After a long debate a com- 
promise was effected in the Treaty of 
Paris, Sept. 3, 1783. The War of 1812, 
however, did away with this treaty, the 
fishing right was denied the United 
States, and Canadian governors were in- 
structed to exclude United States fisher- 
men. In 1818 a joint convention of the 
two countries decided that the United 
States renounce for American fishermen 
the liberty of fishing, with certain excep- 
tions, within three miles of any of the 
coasts of the British dominions in Amer- 
ica. By the Treaty of 1854, reciprocal 
trade being established between Canada 
and the United States, fishing was al- 
lowed the latter on the shores of all Brit- 
ish colonies except Newfoundland. This 


the best-known dried or salted 


FISH HATCHERY 


treaty, however, terminated in 1866 at the 
instance of the United States, and the 
conditions of 1818 were revived. In 1871, . 
by the Treaty of Washington, the United 

States fishermen were allowed to take 
fish of any description, except shellfish, 
in Canadian waters, the British fisher- 
men to have the same privilege in Amér- 
ican waters north of latitude 39° north. 
This: treaty was terminated in 1885 by 
the United States Government, and the 
dispute dragged on without definite set- 
tlement until 1910, when the difficult 
problem was solved by a decision handed 


-down by The Hague Tribunal. 


THE FISHERIES AWARD. The decision, 
which was promptly accepted and which 
gave general satisfaction, upheld two 
points maintained by Great Britain and 
five of those claimed by the United 
States. The first question, decided in 
favor of Great Britain, which, involved a 
seeming cession of sovereignty, was gen- 
erally considered the most important. 
On the other hand, the British cannot 
make American fishermen report to cus- 
toms houses; they cannot impose on 
these fishermen light, harbor or other 
dues; the United States fishermen may 
employ Newfoundlanders on fishing ves- 
sels and these vessels have the right to 
purchase supplies as well as to enjoy 
other commercial privileges. The award 
also provides that disputed fishing regu- 
lations shall be submitted to an impartial 
commission, composed of one expert 
from each country and the fisheries ad- 
viser to the Dutch Government, and rec- 
ommends that a similar commission be 
made permanent. 

Fish Hatchery, a place where the 
artificial propagation of fish is carried on. 
It is generally a building or group of 
buildings supplied with constantly run- 
ning water and fitted with tanks or cans 
for the eggs, and long troughs for the re- 
ception of the young fish. It must also 
be so arranged that the temperature may 
be easily regulated. Fish hatcheries have 
been established for the purpose of stud- 
ying more closely the habits of food 
fishes, preventing the extermination of 
the popular species which were in danger 


1034 


FISH HATCHERY 


of annihilation, and of introducing spe- 
cies into waters fitted for their growth 
.and increase. In China and European 
countries, where artificial propagation 
has long been practiced, the hatcheries 
are mainly private and answer the same 
purpose as the similarly managed game 
preserves; in the United States they are 
almost entirely owned and controlled by 
the National Government, although there 
are a few private hatcheries and some 
under state control. 

Fish may be easily propagated in 
hatcheries because of their method of re- 
production, and there they are kept from 
danger of their chief enemies, the other 
fish which would destroy the eggs. For 
the United States hatcheries, the fish 
are collected by government employees, 
who are sent to certain localities to pro- 
cure the. special species desired; the 
marine fish are collected by means of 
boats particularly fitted for the purpose. 
The fish secured are sent to the hatch- 
ery, where they are stripped of their 
eggs, or spawn; the eggs are then mixed 
with the fertilizing milt in vats or cans, 
where they can be stirred gently for a 
short time. The fertilized eggs separate 
from the egg mass and are then removed 
to other repositories where their treat- 
ment varies according to the species. 
The eggs of the fresh-water fish are gen- 
erally placed in McDonald jars, which 
are large glass bottles having round bot- 
toms and tubes that allow a constant 
flow of water. The time of hatching 
depends upon the species of fish and may 
be from a few days to three weeks from 
the time of fertilization. The fry, as 
the young fish are called, are then trans- 
ferred to the long rearing troughs, where 
for four or five weeks they feed upon the 
yolk sacs yet attached to their bodies. 
At this time in particular they need 
plenty of clear water at not too high a 
temperature, and they must be watched 
carefully for the presence of parasites, 
which are extremely destructive and 
easily spread. When feeding is begun 
it must be done frequently and with 
care that the fry are neither over- nor 
under-fed. 


10 


a 


Fe) 


FISHWORM 


The fish are generally planted, that is, 
placed in the waters to be supplied, dur- 
ing their first season, when they are about 
three or four inches long; they are then 
spoken of as fingerlings. Sometimes, 
however, they are kept at the hatchery, 
either in the tanks or in outdoor ponds, 
until the second summer and then sent 
out as yearlings. Occasionally the fry, 
as well as the eggs, are brought to the 
hatchery, but this is not commonly prac- 
ticed since they are more apt to suffer 
from the change of surroundings. 

The first government hatchery ever 
established was that of Alsace in Ger- 
many in 1850. In the United States a 
private hatchery was started in 1865 by 
a New Hampshire doctor who brought 
salmon eggs from Canadian waters and 
successfully propagated the salmon. At 
present the United States Government 
operates 55 stations in 29 states and ter- 
ritories, and has in constant service the 
steamer Fishhawk, which is really a 
great floating hatchery. The fish to 
which the greatest attention has been 
given are the cod, halibut, salmon, trout, 
herring and catfish. See FISHERIES; 
FisH COMMISSION, UNITED STATES; 
FIsH. 

Fish Hawk. See OSPREY. 

Fishkill-on-Hudson, or Fishkill 
Landing, N. Y., a city of Dutchess Co., 
59 m. n. of New York City, on the east 
bank of the Hudson River and on the 
New York Central and the New York, 
New Haven & Hartford railroads. It 
is one of the oldest towns in the state and 
has considerable historical interest. In 
1776 the Provincial Convention of 
New York met here, and from 1776 to 
the close of the Revolutionary War it 
was one of the principal military depots 
of the Northern army. Fishkill has 
steam ferry connection with Newburgh 
across Newburgh Bay on the west side 
of the Hudson. The DeGarmo Institute 
is located here. Its manufactures include 
Corliss engines and boilers, hats, rub- 
ber goods, tools, brick, etc. Fishkill Land- 
ing and Matteawan Villages have consoli- 
dated and incorporated as Beacon City. 
Population, 1920, 10,996. 


> 


FISKE 


Fiske, Fisk, John (1842-1901), an 
American historian, lecturer and philos- 
opher, born in Hartford, Conn. Pre- 
cocious as a boy, Fiske was able to read 
and enjoy the best English authors at the 
age of eight, and by the time he was 13 
he was acquainted with the Latin classics. 
He graduated from Harvard in 1863 
and from Harvard Law School in 1865, 
but never practiced. From 1869 to 1879 
he was identified with Harvard Univer- 
sity as lecturer on philosophy, instructor 
of history and assistant librarian. Five 
years later he became professor of Amer- 
ican history in Washington University, 
St. Louis. Early influenced by Darwin 
and Herbert Spencer, Fiske upheld the 
doctrine of evolution, and his Outlines of 
Cosmic Philosophy exemplified this. It 
is probable that he, more than any other 
American writer, is responsible for the 
clearness with which these philosophies 
are commonly understood. He also wrote 
Origin of Evil. 

Fiske was one of the most eminent 
historians of his time. His works show 
a broad knowledge of the subject, are 
sympathetic in treatment and clear and 
pleasing in style. However, his views 
are not always impartial. His historical 
works include The War for Independ- 
ence, The American Revolution, A Crit- 
ical Period of American History, The 
Beginnings of New England, The Dis- 
covery of America, A Umited States 
History for Schools and, besides Old 
Virginia and Her Neighbors, further in- 
clude Dutch and Quaker Colonies im 
America and Civil Government of the 
United States, New France and New 
England. His three essays, The Federal 
Union, The Town-Meeting and Manifest 
Destiny, appeared as one volume under 
the title American Political Ideas Viewed 
from the Standpoint of Universal His- 
tory. Besides being the author of vari- 

ous other essays, including Myths and 
Myth Makers, he coedited, with James 
Grant Wilson, Appleton’s Cyclopedia of 
American Biography. 

John Fiske was the son of Edmund 
Brewster Green. In 1852 his father 
died, and three years later, upon his 


FITCHBURG 


mother’s second marriage, the boy 
dropped his real name of Edmund Fiske 
Green and assumed that of John Fiske, 
which was the name of his maternal 
grandfather. 

Fiske, Minnie Maddern (1865- i 
an American actress, born in New Or- 
leans, La. As a child she played under 
her mother’s family name of Maddern, 
appearing first on the stage at the age of 
three. She was brought out as a “star” 
in 1882 in Fogg’s Ferry. In 1890 she 
married Harrison Grey Fiske, and for 
three years retired to a life of quiet and 
study. She played in Hester Crewe,.a 
play written by her husband, in 1893, and 
this was followed by repeated successes 
in other dramas. Among her triumph- 
ant roles are Becky Sharp and Tess of 
the D’Urbervilles. She also appeared in 
A Bit of Old Chelsea, A Doll’s House, 
Frou Frou, Magda, Litile Italy and Sal- — 
vation Nell. In 1901 she opened the 
Manhattan Theater, an independent 
playhouse, in opposition to the American 
theatrical trust. Her acting is character- 
ized by dramatic realism, intelligence and 
sustained emotional appeal. 

Fitch’burg”, Mass., a city and one of 
the county seats of Worcester Co., 45 m. 
n.w. of Boston and 42 m. n. of Worces- 
ter, on the Nashua River and on the 
New York, New Haven & Hartford and 
the Boston & Maine railroads. The vil- 
lages of Rockville, Traskville, South and 
West Fitchburg and Fitchburg Center 
are included within the corporate limits 
of the town. ‘The city has an area of 
over 28 sq. m. and is surrounded by pic- 
turesque scenery. ' Fitchburg is the sec- 
ond city in Massachusetts for the pro- 
duction of paper. There are granite 
quarries in the vicinity, and the manu- 
factures include textiles, fire arms, en- 
gines, electrical appliances, machinery, 
and tools. Over 9,000 people find em- 
ployment in the factories. The city is 
noted as having established the first co- 
operative industrial course in connection | 
with a public school in America. Among 
the educational institutions are a state 
normal school, with model and training 
schools. 


1036 


There is also a state armory,a ~ 


eK. ge Ald 
erly ' 


FITZGERALD 


Federal building, a courthouse, a library, 
and two hospitals, and many fine 
churches. 

The suburbs include Whalom Park, 
one of the natural beauty spots of the 
state, and Wachusetts Mountain a state 
reservation. 

The city has quite a large French pop- 
ulation and the largest Finnish popula- 
tion of any city in the United States. 
Population in 1920, 41,029. 

FitzGerald, Fits Jer’ ald, Edward 
(1809-1883), an English poet, born in 
Suffolk. He adopted no profession, but 
lived in retirement, devoted to his books 


and his garden. In addition to his ad- 


mirable English version of the Rubdiyat 
of Omar Khayyam, he also translated 
dramas of A¢schylus, Sophocles and Cal- 
deron. His letters reveal a man of 
marked individuality, sympathy and wit. 

Fiume, Fyoo' me, a seaport at the head 
of the Gulf of Quarnero on the east Adri- 
atic shore. The peninsula of Istra sep- 
arates it from the Adriatic proper. Be- 
fore the World War, it was, politically, 
a part of Hungary and a railroad con- 
nects it with Budapest. It was to Hun- 
gary what Trieste was to Austria, their 
window on the sea; and next to Trieste 
it was the most important seaport on the 
Adriatic. It was also the natural sea- 
port for Croatia and Bosnia. At the 
conclusion of the World War, the pos- 
session of Fiume was earnestly desired 
by Jugo-Slavia, by reason of its impor- 
tance strategically and economically to 
the new republic. Italy desired it by rea- 
son of its strategical importance being 
one of the keys to the north Adriatic 
shore. (See DatmatiA.) . Its possession 
greatly strengthens Italy’s position as 
mistress of the Adriatic. The Allied 
Council in Paris gave Italy possession 
of Fiume in December, 1919. (See An- 
NUNZIO, GABRIELE D’.) 

Five Civilized Tribes, the name given 


by the government to the five tribes of 


Indians living in what was formerly In- 
dian Territory. Here they formed for 
some time five almost independent repub- 
lics under the protection of the United 
States Government. In 1898 a commis- 


FLAG 


sion was appointed to divide the lands of 
the reservations among individual In- 
dians. In 1906, when the work of the 
commission was completed, the Indians 
of the Five Tribes became citizens of the 
United States. See CHEROKEE; CHICK- 
ASAW; CHOCTAW; CREEK INDIANS; 
SEMINOLE, 

Five Forks, Battle of, a battle of the 
Civil War, fought Apr. 1, 1865, a few 
miles from Petersburg, Va., between 
25,000 Federals under General Sheridan, 
and a slightly smaller Confederate force 
under General Pickett. It was Grant’s 
object to prevent Lee’s escape southward, 
and he had therefore sent Sheridan to 
take the Confederate rear at Five Forks. 
The strong force which the Union troops 
there encountered was reinforced by 
Pickett with 7000 men, and Sheridan was 
pressed back till relieved by Warren. 
The following day, Apr. 1, a desperate 
battle took place, in which the Confeder- 
ates were defeated with a loss of about 
5000 men to the Federals’ 1000. ° 

Five Nations, the union of five In- 
dian tribes living in the Valley of the 
St. Lawrence and in New York and 
Pennsylvania. It originally included the 
Cayugas, Hurons, Mohawks, Oneidas, 
Onondagas and Senecas; later the Tus- 
caroras were added and the confederacy 
was sometimes known as the Six Na- 
tions. The league was said to have been 
founded by Hiawatha, and its bonds still 
exist among the survivors of the tribes. 

Flag, a piece of thin cloth, usually 
attached at one end to a standard and 
used as the emblem of a nation, state 
or other organization or for signaling. 
Aside from its color, the flag may bear 
some device, as the cross of St. George 
in the original British flag. In the army 
the flag represents the regiment, each 
regiment having its particular flag or col- 
ors which are used in connection with 
the national flag. In the navy, flags are 
the distinguishing emblems of the dif- 
ferent nations. Flags are also used in 
signaling (See SIGNALING). 

The most important use of the flag 
is as a national emblem. As such it 
becomes the representative of its gov- 


1037 


FLAG 


ernment, and any insult to the flag is 
considered an insult to the nation it rep- 
resents. In addition to its national stand- 
ard, each nation has a number of flags, 
each representing some particular thing, 
as the Royal Standard of Great Britain, 
the President’s Standard in the United 
States and the rank of the commanding 
officer on a ship in the navy. In the 
United States navy the admiral’s flag is a 
broad blue pennant, with four stars in 
the center; the rear-admiral’s senior in 
rank is a similar pennant with two stars, 
one above the other; the rear-admiral’s 
second in rank is a broad red pennant 
with two stars one above the other. Pen- 
nants are long, narrow flags, usually 
coming to a point. The United States 
navy pennant has white stars in a blue 
field, and the revenue pennant has ver- 
tical white and red stripes and blue stars 
on a white field. The revenue flag has 
vertical stripes and a union of the eagle 
and shield surrounded by a circle of 
blue stars in a white field. The yacht en- 
sign has a blue union with a circle of 
white stars surrounding an anchor which 
is also white. The lighthouse service is 
distinguished by a triangular flag hav- 
“ing a red border surrounding a white 
field, in which there is a lighthouse in 
blue. The president’s flag is a blue flag 
with the eagle and shield in gold in the 
center; that of the secretary of war is 
red, with a white star in each corner and 
the eagle and shield in the center; and 
that of the secretary of the navy is blue, 
with a white star in each corner and a 
white anchor in the center. 

Jacks are national flags used for sig- 
naling and other purposes. Other flags 
also have national import. A red flag 
displayed by a vessel denotes that it has 
powder or other explosives on board; a 
yellow flag denotes quarantine; and a 
white flag in war indicates a desire for 
the cessation of hostilities while a parley 
takes place. A flag reversed, that is, in 
case of the American flag, with the union 
below, indicates distress. A flag at half- 
mast, that is, raised only half the height 
of the standard, indicates mourning for 
some national official, When a flag is 


FLAG, UNITED STATES 


struck or hauled down in war, it indicates 
surrender. A white flag raised over a 
fort or on the mast of a ship is also the 
signal of surrender. See FLAG, UNITED 
STATES. 

Flageolet, Flaj” o let’, a small wind 
instrument consisting of a wooden tube 
having six or more holes and fitted with 
a mouthpiece. When played it is held 
in a vertical position. The flageolet has 
a shfill tone and has not been used in 
orchestra since the time of Mozart. Its 
range is slightly over two octaves. 

Flag of Truce, a white flag displayed 
for the purpose of securing a cessation 
of hostilities for parley. This white flag 
has come to be recognized by all civi- 
lized nations and by some _ uncivilized 
tribes as a sacred thing whose bearer is 
to be spared. To be sure of this im- 
munity, however, the flag must not-be 
carried forward during an engagement, 
nor when the bearer is warned not to 
approach. It must be sent by the senior 
officer present, and can be received only 
by the will of the senior officer on the 
other side. The same rules apply in the 
main in naval warfare. 

Flag, United States. The United 
States flag in its present form is the out- 
growth of various attempts to design a 
national banner. Naturally the early col- 
onists used the flag of the Mother Coun- 
try, which was the red ensign adopted in 
1707 and used until 1801. This was a 
red flag with a union consisting of the 
cross of St. George in red, and the 
cross of St. Andrews in white on a blue 
field. But the New England Colonies 
early adopted a banner of their own, in 
which the cross of St. George in red 
in a white field with a pine tree or a 
globe in the upper left-hand corner of 
the canton replaced the union in the na- 
tional ensign. This flag was carried by 
the colonial troops in the Battle of 
Bunker Hill. With the beginning of the 
war for independence, many banners 
were designed, but none had any national 
significance. Chief among these were 


‘the pine tree flag of Massachusetts, a 


white flag with a pine tree in the center, 
and under it the motto “An Appeal to 


1038 


i 


FLAG, UNITED STATES 


Heaven ;” the snake flag of the Pennsyl- 
vamia Gazette, a white flag in the center 
of which, was a snake cut into nine sec- 
tions, the head representing the New 
England Colonies, and each of the other 
sections one of the other colonies; the 
rattlesnake flag, a yellow flag with a 
coiled rattlesnake in the center and un- 
derneath the motto “Don’t Tread on 
Me;” and Colonel Moultrie’s flag, a blue 
flag with a crescent in the upper left- 
hand corner and the word “Liberty” ex- 
tending through the middle of the field. 

ORIGINAL STARS AND STRIPES. The 
first flag adopted as the national ensign 
of the colonies in 1776 was designed by 
a committee consisting of Benjamin 
Franklin, Mr. Lynch and Mr. Harrison, 
all members of the Continental Congress. 
It consisted of thirteen stripes, alternat- 
ing red and white,-and the union of the 
royal ensign of 1707. The stripes rep- 
resented the thirteen colonies and the 
union indicated that they still belonged 
to Great Britain. With the passage of 
the Declaration of Independence, the 
union with Great Britain was dissolved, 


- and on June 14, 1777, Congress resolved 


“that the flag of the thirteen United 
States be thirteen stripes, alternate red 
and white, and that the union be thirteen 
stars, white in a blue field, representing 


a new constellation.” 


THE PRESENT FLAG. With the admis- 
sion of Vermont and Kentucky, the num- 
ber of stripes and the number of stars 
were increased to fifteen, and this was 
the authorized flag until 1818, when the 
number of stripes was reduced to thir- 
teen, and the plan of adding a star to 
the union on the admission of each new 
state was adopted. ‘The star is officially 
added on the Fourth of July following 
the admission of the state. . The national 
banner now consists of thirteen stripes 
and forty-eight stars. 

It was the flag of fifteen stripes that 
waved over Ft. McHenry when that fort 
was attacked by the British in the War 
of 1812, and it was this flag that inspired 
Francis Scott Key to write: The Star 
Spangled Banner. Joseph R. Drake’s 
poem on the flag is widely known. 


FLAME 


When Freedom from her mountain height 
Unfurled her standard to the air, 
She tore the azure robe of night, 
And set the stars of glory there. 
She mingled with its gorgeous dyes 
The milky baldric of the skies, 
And striped its pure celestial white 
With streakings of the morning light; 
Then, from his mansion in the sun, 
She called her eagle bearer down, 
And gave into his mighty hand 
The symbol of her chosen land. 


* %* % * * * *% 
Flag of the free heart’s hope and home! 

By angel hands to valor given, 
Thy stars have lit the welkin dome, 

And all thy hues were born in heaven, 
Forever float that standard sheet! 

Where breathes the foe but falls before us, 
With Freedom’s soil beneath our feet, 

And Freedom’s banner streaming o’er us? 

Flame, gas made luminous by heat. 
Under ordinary conditions it is produced 
by the chemical union of the gaseous ma- 
terial with the oxygen of the air. The 
amount of light and heat evolved by a 
flame varies according to the substance 
of which it is composed; hydrogen burns 
with a pale blue flame, calcium with an 
intense white flame and carbon com- 
pounds with a yellower flame. The flame 
of an ordinary candle consists of three 
parts: the inner cone, 1, 
is a dark portion of gas 
which does not burn be- 
cause the oxygen has no 
access to it; surrounding 
that.-is: a: layer: of partly 
burned gas, 2, in which are 
numerous carbon particles 
that are highly heated; the 
outer cone, 3, is the region 
of perfect combustion in 
which all of the carbon is 
being converted into car- 
bon dioxide; 4 is the un- 
burned wick. A flame of 
illuminating gas shows the 
same structure. 

Gas which burns with lit- 
tle luminosity may be made more lumi-— 
nous by the addition of carbonaceous 
gases. Such gas is said to be “en- 
riched.” The flame of the gas stove is 
made less luminous but hotter by adding 
air to the gas. This principle is also 
made use of in the Bunsen burner, which 


CANDLE 
FLAME 


1039 


FLAMINGO 


increases or decreases the amount of 
heat and light by the change in the air 
supply. | 

Flamin’go, a family of birds related 
to the ducks. The legs and neck are 
very long and the bill is peculiarly bent 
downward and provided with toothlike 
projections. From this characteristic the 
order receives its Greek name, which 
signifies toothed-tongue. The few 
known species are confined to the warm 
portions of both the Old and the New 
worlds. The flamingo of Egypt is one 
of the best known. The American fla- 
mingo formerly lived in Florida and 
along the Gulf Coast but it is now largely 
confined to the Bahamas and other West 
India Islands. 

These birds stand five feet high and 
are bright crimson with black wings, 
yellow legs and yellow bill with black 
tip. The nest is in the form of an in- 
verted cone, 6 to 20 inches in height, 
made of sand or mud, with a depression 
in the top in which one or two white eggs 
are laid. The nesting sites are flat 
tracts of land near the shore, which are 
usually more or less under water. When 
incubating, the flamingos sit on the nest 
by doubling their long legs under them. 
The old story of the flamingo straddling 
the nest has been abundantly disproven 
- by several competent authorities. The 
young flamingos are downy, with long 
legs and a straight bill which becomes 
curved before the birds are fully grown. 

Flan’ders, a portion of eastern Eu- 
rope which once included only the city 
of Bruges and vicinity; later the name 
was indefinitely applied to the coast re- 
gion from Calais to the, Schelde, and is 
still retained in two provinces of Bel- 
gium, 

West FLANpDERS. This province is a 
triangular district, having 40 m. of coast 
on the North Sea; it is bordered on its 
remaining boundaries by Zealand, East 
Flanders, Hainaut and France. The soil 
is fertile, and agriculture and fishing 
are the chief occupations. The principal 
cities are Bruges, its capital, and Ost- 
end. Its area is 1263 sq. m. Popula- 
tion, 881,033. 


FLAX 


East FLANDERS: Completely inlasd 
and east of West Flanders lies the Prov- 
ince of East Flanders. This is an even ~ 
more fertile country than its sister prov- 
ince, and the district of Waes, only re- 
cently reclaimed, is said to be the most 
productive section of Europe. Market 
gardening is the chief industry. Gheat, 
the capital, is the principal city, and St. 
Nicolas and Alost are also important. 
The area is 1172 sq. m. Population, 
1,123,705, 7 

Flatfish. See FLOUNDER. 

Flathead, a tribe of Pacific Indians 
whose name has been derived from their 
custom of flattening the skull by pres- 
sure constantly applied to the head of 
the infants. The custom no longer pre- 
vails, but the name is still applied to 
the tribe. 

Flax, an extensively grown, branch- 
ing nerb of the Flax Family from whose 
fibers linen is mantifactured, and from 
whose _ seeds 
| linseed oil, oil: 
cakes and med- 
LCTRES ate 
max ¢. the 
plants? ame 
grown in wide 
tracts oilke 
grains, and are 
be atari at 
plants _eithe¢ 
when seen ia 
| mass or exam 


lined as indi- 
viduals. The 
stems, which 


grow to a 
height of one 
to two. feet, are 
slender and 
somewhat 
branched near 


the top. The 

leaves are un- 

FLAX divided, stem- 

less and rather inconspicuous. The 


flowers are borne in erect clusters at the 
ends of the branches and are generally 
of a delicate blue color, though some 
species bear white flowers. They bloom 


1040 


FLAXMAN 


in June or July. Each individual flower 
has five sepals and five petals which 
spread widely. The seeds are thin, shiny 


' brown in color and contain a great per- 


centage of oil, which is the basis of the 
linseeed oil of commerce. 

No other plant which is not a food 
producer is more extensively cultivated. 
It is mentioned in earliest sacred and 
profane history, and was evidently 
grown for its fiber, and treated. to much 
the same process as we treat it now, to 
produce the “linen raiment white as 
snow’ which was then, as now, the 
favorite garb of all classes. 
grown in Egypt for many centuries and 
is also a staple crop of Russia, Belgium 
and Ireland. In the United States it is 
grown in the Central Western States 
with great success but requires constant 
care and attention. The name linen is 
derived from the classical name of the 


flax and means thread or fiber. See 
LINEN; LINSEED OIL; WILT. 
Flax’man, John (1755-1826), the 


leading sculptor of the English School, 
was born at York, the son of a modeler. 


He studied at the Royal Academy and 


was engaged in the pottery works of Jo- 
siah Wedgwood, after which he worked 
in Rome contemporaneously with the 


‘sculptors Canova and Thorwaldsen and 


the critic Winckelmann. Among his 
greatest works are illustrations of Ho- 


~mer’s Iliad and. Odyssey and of the 


works of A’schylus and Dante, the sculp- 
tured Cephalus and Aurora and the mon- 
ument to Lord Mansfield. 

Flax’seed”’, a valuable seed obtained 
from the flax plant and used in the pro- 
duction of linseed oil. The crop is an 
important one in the United States, 
where 14,657,000 bushels were produced 
in 1919, Almost the entire amount came 
from the Dakotas and Minnesota. The 
seed is thrashed by means of a special 
thrasher and is pressed to remove the 
fats and oils in which it is rich. After 
72 per cent of the oil is expressed, the 
remaining mass is pressed into cakes or 
ground into meal to be sold as fodder. 
In medicine, flaxseed is used in making 
poultices and other soothing applications. 


It has been 


FLEABANE 


Flea, an insect once classed among 
the flies in the order Diptera, but now 
placed in a separate order, Siphonaptera, 
or tube-winged. During the adult stage 
fleas are parasitic upon Mammals and 
birds. They are then wingless insects, 
with narrow bodies which enable them 
to pass between the hairs of the coat of 
such shaggy animals as dogs and cats. 
The eggs are generally deposited in 
heaps of decaying matter, where the 
larve, when hatched, may find plenty of 
food. The adult develops in about two 
weeks, 

There are several species which are 
known according to the host upon which 
they live. The eggs of the human flea 
are laid in cracks in the floor or under 
the edges of carpets and take a month 
to develop to the adult stage. The 
larve are small white worms without 
eyes or legs. The’ rat’ flea; which 71s 
native in tropical regions, is said to be 
the carrier of the germs of bubonic 
plague brought into subtropical and tem- 
perate climates by rats. 

Domestic animals troubled with fleas 
should be daily washed with carbolic 
soap; their cushions or mats daily 
beaten out of doors; and any suspected 
places where eggs might be deposited. 
should be treated with pyrethrum, or 
Persian insect powder. Heaps of rub- 
bish and decaying animal or vegetable 
matter are choice repositories and should 
not be allowed to stand uncovered. See 
Jiccer; Insecta; INSECTICIDE. 

Fleabane, Filce’ bane, a familiar mem- 
ber of the Composite Family found wild 


‘on moist, low ground or, in some species, 


cultivated as a garden plant. In general 
the fleabanes are weeds which grow to a 
height of about two feet and have erect, 
leafy stems. Often a cluster of large, 
coarse leaves forms a circle upon the 
sround at the base of the stems, while 
those on the stalks clasp them tightly. 
The flowers are much like those of the ° 
wild aster; there is a cluster of leaflike, 
pointed scales called an involucre, which 
surrounds the flat disk of blossoms. 
Around the edge of this disk are many 
short, threadlike rays, purple or white in 


1041 


FLEMING 


color and resembling petals. Upon the 
disks the tiny florets are yellow and tu- 
bular in form. Fleabane grows ‘every- 
where throughout the United States and 
its flowers may be seen from spring until 
fall in meadows and near swampy 
grounds. There is one shrub belonging 
to this same class growing wild in Ore- 
gon. It is more showy than the com- 
moner fleabanes and is occasionally made 
use of as a lawn shrub. 

Flem’ing, Sir Sandford (1827-1915), 
a Canadian engineer and scientist, born 
in Scotland. He came to Canada in 
1845 and by 1857 was chief engineer of 
the Northern Railway, Toronto. In 
1863 he went to England to urge the 
opening of railway communications be- 
tween the Red River and eastern Can- 
ada, and on his return he surveyed for 
a first link in a road from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific. He was chief engineer of 
the Intercolonial Railway during its con- 
struction. Meanwhile he had surveyed 


for the Pacific and had led an expedition ' 


through the Rocky Mountains by way of 
the Yellowhead Pass. Besides, at his 
own expense, he had examined New- 
foundland for possibilities of establish- 
ing a line across that island.. Subse- 
quently he conducted for the local gov- 
ernment a survey from St. John’s to St. 
George’s Bay, which resulted in the 
building of a road there, and in 1883 he 
returned from Europe to assist in estab- 
lishing the Canadian Pacific by its pres- 
ent course through the Rockies. 

Among other subjects which have en- 
gaged Sir Fleming’s attention is that of 
making the prime meridian of universal 
time at Greenwich the standard for the 
world, and that of electric girdling of the 


_ globe, by which the various English pos- 


sessions could be brought into unbroken 
telegraphic communication without cross- 
ing foreign soil. For furthering this lat- 
ter plan, the first step is the Pacific cable, 
in connection with which Sir Fleming 
proceeded to Australia and England in 
1893 and to London in 1896. Another of 
his important works, which tends 
towards the consolidation of the empire, 
was the erecting of the Halifax Me- 


FLINT 


morial Tower, commemorating the or- 
igin and benefits of representative gov- 
ernment. Since 1880 he has been chan- 
cellor of Queen’s University, where the 
engineering building bears his name. 
Most of his writings have been on pro- 
fessional subjects. 

Fletcher, John. See BEAUMONT, 
FRANCIS and FLETCHER, JOHN. 

Fleur-de-Lis. See Iris. 

Flick’er, a bird of the Woodpecker 
Family. The flicker is considerably 
larger than the robin (13 inches long). 
It is brownish or grayish, with spots and 
bars of black on the back and under 
parts ; there is a red band across the back 
of the head; a crescent-shaped black spot 
on the breast; and in the male, a black 
streak on each side of the cheek. The 
shafts and under parts of the wings and 
tail are bright yellow and the rump is 
pure white. The flicker, or yellow- 
shafted woodpecker (also called high- 
hole, pigeon woodpecker, pigeon hawk, 
yellow-hammer, yarup and thirty other 
names), is the only woodpecker which 
habitually perches crosswise on a limb 
and feeds on the ground. During the 
courting season the male beats ~a loud 
tattoo on a resonant limb, besides having 
a shrill call, which sounds like “wick, 
wick, wick.” The nest is made in a hole 
in a tree and contains five to nine white 
eggs. Ants constitute a large part of the 
flicker’s food. 

Flint, a massive variety of quartz re- 
sembling chalcedony, but darker in color. 
It is found usually in chalk formations 


‘in the form of nodules or rounded lumps, 


notable occurrences being in the chalk 
cliffs of England and France, and in the 
cretaceous limestones of the United 
States. Flint is very hard and produces 
a spark when struck with steel. It has 
been used from the earliest times as a 
source of fire and by primitive peoples ~ 
for making sharp implements, such as 
arrowheads, axes and knives. Its chief 
use at the present time is as an ingredi- 
ent of fine pottery. 

Flint, Mich., a city and county seat 
of Genesee Co., 68 m. n.w. of Detroit 
and 34 m. s.e. of East Saginaw, on the 


ne 1042 


FLINT | 


Flint River and on the Grand Trunk 
Western, the Pere Marquette and other 
railroads. ‘There is an excellent city 
electric system, and the Detroit United 
Railway and other interurban lines con- 
nect with Detroit and the near-by towns 
and cities. Flint has an area of over 
12 sq. m. and is situated in an agricul- 
tural and coal-mining region. The city 
ranks high among the cities of the state 
in the value of its manufactures. 

PARKS AND BouLevarps. The city con- 
tains many miles of broad, well-paved 
and shaded streets and boulevards. There 
are about nine public parks included in 
the park system. 

PusLic Buitpincs. Among the note- 
worthy buildings are a courthouse, city 
hall, Federal Building, Y. M. C. A., Ve- 
hicle Club Building, a number of banks, 
theaters, good business houses and about 


~ 25 churches. 


Institutions. The educational insti- 
tutions include the Michigan School for 
the Deaf, established in 1854, a high 
school, several business colleges, a paro- 
chial school, about 20 public schools and 
a public library. Among the benevolent 
and charitable institutions are the Hux- 
ley Public Hospital and the Oak Grove 
Hospital, a private retreat for the insane. 

InpusTRIES. Flint has important man- 


.lfacturing interests and is known as the 


“Vehicle City” on account of its exten- 
sive manufacture of vehicles. Several 
large automobile plants are located here. 


‘The city also contains manufactories of 


inotors, carburetors, flour, woolen goods, 
cigars, wheels, paint and varnish, iron 
goods, bicycles, brick and tile and lumber 
products. The city has sawmills and 
several extensive coal mines are located 
within half a mile. The grain trade is 
of considerable importance. 

History. The first settlement was 
made in 1820. and the place called the 
Grand Traverse of the Flint. Since the 
establishment of the vehicle industry in 
1869 and especially since 1886 the city 
has had a rapid and continuous growth. 
Flint was incorporated as a village in 
1831 and chartered as a city in 1855. 
Population in 1920, 91,599. 


FLORA 


Flintlock, an army musket in which 
the spark to ignite the powder ‘was 
struck from a flint. In this lock the 
flint was secured to the hammer in such 
a manner that when it was released by 
pulling the trigger the flint struck the 
battery of the powder pan and a spark 
from the flint ignited the priming, which 
passed its fire on through the touchhole 
to the charge, so firing the gun. In the 
early part of the 19th century the per- 
cussion cap took the place of the flint 
and powder pan. 

Flod’den Field, a plain in Northum- 
berland, England, at the base of Flodden, 
the northeastern spur of the Cheviot 
Hills. Here on Sept. 9, 1513, the Scotch 
under James IV were defeated by an 
English army commanded by the Earl 
of Surrey. By a daring march to the 
rear of the Scotch, Surrey placed his 
troops where victory for either side 
meant utter defeat for the other. The 
Scotch were beaten only after a stubborn 
contest, and among the 10,000 left dead 
on the battlefield were the leading men 
of the country, who had rallied to the 
support of their king. In Marmion 
Scott gives a description of the battle. 

Flood Plain, a low land area lying 
along a- river’s banks, formed in times 
of inundation by depositions of eroded 
material transported by the stream from 
higher lands in the upper part of its 
course. The flood plain may lie either 
at the mouth of a river or may occupy 
some part of its course. If it occurs 
near the middle or in the upper course 
of the stream, it is usually narrow and 
composed of coarse sand and gravel; 
but if formed at the mouth of a river it 
is usually of fine silt and exceedingly 
fertile. Flood plains are extensively cul- 
tivated and usually thickly _ settled, 
but are in constant danger of floods. 
Notable examples of flood plains are 
in the valleys of the Mississippi, the 
Rhine, the Nile and the Ganges. See 
River; DELTA. 

Flo’ra, Roman goddess of flowers 
and spring, beloved by Zephyrus. Her 
festival, the Floralia (Apr. 28 to May 1), 
was observed in Rome from most ancient 


1043 


FLORENCE 


times, and with a great deal of mirth. 
Flora is considered by the poets to be 
the same as the Greek Chloris. On 
coins she is represented with a crown of 
alate 


(| 4 
is Bee 


FLORA 


Florence, a city of Italy, the former 
capital of Tuscany, now of the Province 
of Florence, situated on both banks of 
the Arno River, 140 m. n.w. of Rome. 
The valley in which it lies, bordered by 
the spurs of the Apennines, is broad and 
fertile, and the hillsides are covered with 
vineyards, olive groves and orchards, or 
dotted with the white villas of the at- 
tractive suburbs. The city is justly called 
“Florence the Beautiful.” The streets 
are clean and the general sanitary condi- 
tions are satisfactory. Several of the 
squares, famous for their artistic or his- 


-avelli, 


FLORENCE 


torical association, are still beautiful. 
The Florentine churches are very nu- 
merous. The most important is the Du- 
omo, completed by Brunelleschi, which 
has the largest dome in the world. The 
Campanile, begun in 1332 and designed 
by Giotto, is magnificent, light and airy, 
and its bell tower is unequalled. by--any- 
thing of its kind. The other churches 
are likewise distinguished for architec- 
tural beauty and splendor of design. 
Four large libraries contain valuable 
collections of books, manuscripts, prints 
and drawings. The art galleries, chiefly 
the Uffizi, the Pitti and the Accademia, 
contain treasures of works of art, among 
others masterpieces by Raphael, Botti- 
celli, Andrea del Sarto, Fra Angelico, 


. Donatello, Michelangelo and the Lippi. 


As the center of Italian science and art, 
there are several schools and academies, 
including the ancient university now 
known as an Institute of Higher Study, 
a higher gymnasium, a school for nota- 
ries, several art schools, a conservatory 
of music and a higher training college 
for women. The industries ate not im- 
portant, the manufacture of art prod- 
ucts, especially the Florentine mosaics of 
colored marbles, being the only one of 
note. There are also porcelain, glass 
and jewelry works. Wine, oil and grain 
are supplied from the agricultural region 
of which Florence is the center. 

The city was probably founded in the 
second century B. C. The strife between 
different factions that sprang up in the 
13th century was long and insistent. 
Florence was the center of the Renais- 
sance movement, and the home of the 
martyr Savonarola. It has produced a 
large number of illustrious men; in ad-) 
dition to the artists mentioned are the 
names of Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch, 
Galileo, Americus V espucius and Machi- 
It was made the capital of the 
new Kingdom of Italy in 1865, but in 
1871 it was replaced by Rome. Popula- 
tion 250,000. 

Florence, Ala., a city and the county 
seat of Lauderdale Co., 126 m. s.w. of 
Nashville, Tenn., on the Tennessee 
River, at the foot of the Muscle Shoals 


1044 


‘QOUIIO]Y Ivo ArOISeUOUT FO IaISIOTD (p) ‘9oR[Vq WAq ‘seooonig jo eH (¢) ‘sored Hud (Z) “e8prg oma (1) “AONANOTA INAILAVAG 


‘ 
3 


1azZZa 


(4) Pi 


(3) Cathedral. 


se of Dante 


(2) Hou 
Cavour. 


ian Monastery. 


(1) Carthus 


FLORENCE 


JACKSONVILLE, 9f 
LUMBER jd 


OBANGES 
KANANAS 

FINE APELES 

GRAPEFRUIT 


. Oranges 4. Croton Bush 7. Poinsettia 10. Vegetables 
2. Orange Blossoms 5. Grapefruit 8. Kumquat 11. Pineapple 
5S. Lemons 6. Calipha Bush 9. Hibiscus 12. Coconut 


pits 2 te ke 


FLORENCE 


Canal. Railroads entering the city are 
the Southern, the Louisville & Nashville 
and others; an electric railway connects 
with Sheffield and Tuscumbia, and fur- 
ther transportation facilities are pro- 
vided by river steamboats. Ample water 
power for manufacturing is supplied by 


the river, and the factory products in- 


clude pig iron, boilers, wagons, stoves, 
engines, wooden pumps, cotton yarns and 
cloth, cottonseed oil, fertilizers and 
staves. Mining and lumbering are im- 
portant industries. It is the seat of a 
state normal college, of the Florence 
University for Women and of the Bur- 
rell Normal School (colored). The city 
was founded in 1818, and among the 
earliest property holders were Andrew 
Jackson and James Madison. During 


the Civil War Florence was several times. 


raided by the Federal troops. The 
place was chartered in 1889. Population 
im 1920) Ui'S! census, 10,529. 

Florence, S. C., a city and the county 
seat of Florence Co., 41 m. ne. of 
Charleston, on the Atlantic Coast Line 
and other railroads. It is situated in a 
productive farming region devoted 
chiefly to the cultivation of cotton and 
tobacco. The principal industrial plants 
are for the handling of the products of 
the two crops, tobacco stemmeries, dry- 
ing plants, cotton gins, cottonseed-oil 
mills, cotton and tobacco warehouses be- 
ing the most important. There are also 
in the town lumber mills, railroad repair 
shops and machine shops. The city has 
a fine Federal Building and is the seat 
of a state industrial school. Population 


*in 1920, U. S. census, 10,968. 


Flo’ricul’ture. See AGRICULTURE, 

Flor’ida, THE EVERGLADE STATE, also 
The Peninsula State, one of the South 
Atlantic States, is bounded on the n. by 
Alabama and Georgia, on the e. by the 
Atlantic Ocean, on the s. by Florida 
Strait and the Gulf of Mexico and Ala- 
bama. The Perdido River forms the ex- 
treme western boundary. 

Size. The length from north to 
south is 400 m. and from east to west 
350 m. The average breadth of the 
peninsula is about 100 m. The area of 


lOO) Tt) to: 300) ft. 


FLORIDA — 


Florida is 58,666 sq. m., of which 3805 
sq..m. consist of lakes, rivers and la- 
goons. The coast line is about 1400 m. 
Florida is a little smaller than Georgia, 
larger than Illinois, almost the exact size 
of Michigan and the 21st state in area. 

PopuLaTion. In 1920 the population 
was 968,470. From 1910 to 1920 there 
was a gain in population of 215,851, or 
28.7 per cent. There are 17.7 inhabi- 
tants to the square mile and the state’s 
rank in population is 32. oe 

SurFAcE. Along the Alabama boun 
dary the surface is rolling and hilly, but 
the land descends to a low level plain 
along the coast. A low ridge extends 
nearly the entire length of the peninsula, 
forming a divide that separates the rivers 
flowing into the Atlantic from those 
flowing into the Gulf. The highest 
points in this divide are in the north, 
where they attain altitudes ranging from 
Between the coast 
and the divide the land is low and level, 
containing many lagoons and lakes. The 
southern part of the peninsula consists 
ef the Everglades, a swamp having an 
area of 3600 sq. m. A portion of this 
has now been drained. A chain of 
islands known as the Florida Keys ex- 
tends along the coast to the southwest. 
Key West is the most important island 
of the group. 

Rivers AND Lakes. The St. Johns 
River, rising in Brevard and Osceola 
counties and flowing northward through 
the series of lakes, is the largest river. 
It is navigable for more than 250 m. 
The St. Mary’s forms part of the north- 
eastern boundary and flows into the 
Atlantic. The principal streams flowing 
into the Gulf of Mexico are the Suwanee, 
the Caloosahatchee and the Escambia. 

Florida has a large number of lakes, 
most of them located at the foot of the’ 
slopes on each side of the divide. The 
largest of these, Lake Okechobee, has 
an area of 1200 sq. m. The state has 
many springs, some of which are so large 
that they form large-sized pools. These 
springs constitute a peculiar feature of 
the state. 


CiummaTeE. The location of Florida 


1045 


FLORIDA 


gives the state a unique climate. Not- 
withstanding the latitude the summers 
are equable and pleasant. The winters 
are short and frost seldom occurs. The 
year is practically divided into the rainy 
and dry seasons, the former including 
June, July and August and the latter the 
fall and winter. Summer is said to last 
two thirds of the year, and Jacksonville, 
Miami, St. Augustine, Tampa and Key 
West are delightful winter resorts. 

MINERALS AND Mininc. Florida con- 
tains extensive deposits of phosphate 
rock of excellent quality for making fer- 
tilizers. The most valuable beds are 
along the coast from Tallahassee to 
Tampa. The mining of this rock is the 
chief mineral industry and Florida ranks 
first in this production. Most of the 
fuller’s earth found in the United States 
is also obtained in Florida. | 

Forests AND LuMBER. Florida has 
extensive forests of live oak, hickory, 
long-leaved pine, pitch pine, red cedar 
used in the manufacture of lead pencils, 
and cypress. The state is said to have 
a greater variety of trees than any other 
in the Union, and some trees peculiar 
to itself. Among these are the wild 
orange, the coconut and the satinwood. 
Lumbering and the production of tar, 
rosin and turpentine constitute the lead- 
ing manufacturing industries, the annual 
output of all forest products amounting 
to about $30,000,000. 

AGRICULTURE. The soil is rich in phos- 
phate and humus. Consequently it has 
a high degree of fertility. This combined 
with the abundant rainfall assures the 
farmers of luxuriant growths of what- 
ever is planted. Corn and other cereals 
are raised for home consumption, but 
most of the farm products are semitropi- 
cal. Florida is the first state in the 
Union in the production of pineapples 
and cassava. Lemons, oranges, ‘limes, 
olives, grapefruit, Japanese plums, coco- 
nuts and bananas are grown extensively 
for the Northern markets. Sugar cane, 
sea-island cotton, peanuts, garden vege- 
tables, melons and sweet potatoes are 
also important crops. Raising water- 
melons for seed is a profitable industry. 


FLORIDA 


' FisHeries. Florida has the most im- 
portant fisheries of any state south of 
Virginia. This is due largely to the ex- 
tent of the coast line and the large inland 
lakes. The red snapper is the most valu- 
able fish taken. The shad, mullet and 
marine turtles are also taken in large 
quantities. Oyster beds are cultivatéd 
in some localities and there are extensive 
sponge fisheries in Florida Keys, having 
their center at Key West. In all, the 
fisheries give employment to about 9000 
men, and the total yearly income is 
about $3,400,000. 

MANUFACTURES. The manufacture of 
lumber and lumber products and the 
production of tar, rosin and turpentine 
constitute the leading manufacturing in- 
dustries. These industries center about 
Jacksonville and Pensacola. Next in im- 
portance is the manufacture of cigars. 
Key West is the center of this industry, 
which employs about 7000 people. Most 
of the tobacco is obtained in Cuba. The 
third industry is the manufacture of fer- 
tilizers, centered in and about Tampa. 
Minor industries include the manufac- 
ture of wooden boxes, barrels, sirup and 
sugar cane, cottonseed oil and meal, and 
the canning of pineapples and guavas. 

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. The 
extensive coast line furnishes numerous 
good harbors. The St. Johns, Appalach- 
icola, Suwanee and St. Mary’s rivers are 
navigable for smaller craft. Jackson- 
ville, Pensacola, Tampa and Key West 
have direct steamer connections with 
New York, Philadelphia, Boston and 
other maritime cities, and Key West is 
connected with Havana, Cuba, with a 
special line of steamers. The Atlantic 
Coast Line, Seaboard Air Line and West 
Florida railways all have lines reaching 
all the principal cities, and the Florida 
East Coast Line has a remarkable exten- 
sion over the Florida Keys to Key West. 

The state has a large export trade, 
sending the Northern markets its fruits 
and vegetables and its lumber and naval 
stores. The imports consist of such 
manufactured articles and foodstuffs as 
cannot be produced with profit within 
the state. Jacksonville, Pensacola, Tam- . 


1046 


FLORIDA 


pa and Key West are the chief seaports, 
and Key West has an extensive trade 
~ with Cuba. 

GOVERNMENT. The present constitu- 
tion was adopted in 1886, The governor 
is elected for four years and is not eligi- 
ble for immediate reelection. In case of 
vacancy in the governorship the presi- 
dent of the Senate becomes governor. 
The Legislature consists of a Senate of 


32.members chosen for four years and a: 


House of Representatives of 77 members 
chosen for two years. Sessions of the 
Legislature are biennial and limited to 
60 days. There was a local option law 
which regulates the liquor traffic by 
counties. 

The judicial department comprises a 
Supreme Court consisting of one chief 
justice and five associates chosen for six 
years; also Circuit, Criminal and County 
courts and local courts presided over by 
justices of the peace. 

EpucaTion. Florida has the benefit 
of a school fund derived from school 
lands, the 16th section of every township 
being set apart for this purpose. This 
fund is supplemented by local and state 
taxation. Within the last few years re- 
markable progress has been made in the 
development of the public school system. 
Separate schools are maintained for 
white and colored children. Towns and 
cities have good systems of graded and 
high schools. The University of | Flor- 
ida (for men) is located at Gainesville. 
In connection with it are the agricul- 
tural college and the state normal school 
for men. The Florida State College for 
Women is located at Tallahassee, and in 
connection with it is the state normal 
school for women.: The agricultural and 
mechanical college for negroes is situ- 
ated at Tallahassee. There are a num- 
ber of colleges and secondary schools 
supported by various religious denomina- 
tions. 

STATE INsTITUTIONS. The hospital for 
the insane is at Chattahoochee and the 
home for Confederate soldiers and sailors 
at Jacksonville. The institute for the 
blind and dumb is at St. Augustine. 
There is a state juvenile reformatory at 


~and Indians. 


FLORIDA 


Marianna. The state convicts are main- 
tained in camps instead of at a state 
prison. 

Cities. The chief cities are Tallahas- 
see, the capital; Jacksonville, Tampa, 
Pensacola, Key West and Miami. 

History, Florida, from the Spanish 
flowery, was so named because on Easter, 
1513, Ponce de Leon, the Spaniard seek- 
ing the fountain of youth, rediscovered 
Florida. Narvaez and De Soto roamed 
the country with dismal fate. Later 
French Huguenots vainly attempted set- 
tlements on the St. Johns River. ~In 
1565 their second colony was massacred 
by the Spanish explorer Menendez. He 
then established St. Augustine, the first 
permanent settlement in North America. 
Two years later Gaston de Gourgues re- 
vengefully surprised the Spanish colon- 
ists, who were also attacked by English 
Pensacola was founded by 
Spaniards in 1699, 

By the treaty of 1763, England ob- 
tained East and West Florida; by that of 
1783 Spain regained it. She sold all 
Florida, which ‘had long been a retreat: 
for outlaws and for fugitive slaves, to 
the United States, in 1819, for $5,000,- 
000. In 1845 it entered the Union. Pre- 
viously, 1842, the Seminoles, against 
whom war had been waged since 1835, 
were given lands west of the Mississippi. 

Seceding in 1861, Florida captured Ft. 
Madison, the arsenal at Chattahoochee, 
besides the forts and navy yards of Pen- 
sacola. The next year Union soldiers 
captured Jacksonville, Fernandina and 
St. Augustine. In 1865 the ordinance of 
secession was annulled, and Florida’s 
debts, incurred for the Confederacy, were 
canceled. In 1868, having adopted the 
Fourteenth Amendment, it was again de- 
clared a state of the Union. The state 
has. recovered from the effects of the 
Civil War, and is making rapid progress 
along all industrial lines. 

Governors. William D. Moseley, 
1845-1849; Thomas Brown, 1849-1853; 
James E. Broome, 1853- 1857; Madison 
S. Perry, 1857- 1861; John Milton, 1861- 
1865; William Marvin, 1865 ; David S. 


Walker, 1865-1868 ; Harrison Reed, 


1047 


FLORIDA, GULF OF 


1868-1872; Ossian B. Hart, 1873-1874; 
Marcellus L. Stearns, 1874-1877 ; George 
F, Drew, 1877-1881; William D. Blox- 
ham, 1881-1885 ; Edward A. Perry, 1885- 
1889; Francis P. Fleming, 1889-1893 ; 
Henry L. Mitchell, 1893-1897; William 
D. Bloxham, 1897-1901; William S. Jen- 
nings, 1901-1905; Napoleon B. Broward, 
1905-1909; Albert W. Gilchrist, 1909- 
1913: Park Trammell, 1913-1917; S. J. 
Catts, 1917-1921, and C. A. Hardee, 
1921—. 

Florida, Gulf of, Florida Straits or 
Bahama Channel, the narrow channel 
connecting the Gulf of Mexico with the 
Atlantic and separating Florida from the 
West Indies. It is 300 m. long and about 
100 m. wide. 

Florida Keys, or Florida Reefs, a suc- 
cession of coral islands or reefs extend- 
ing from Cape Florida for 220 m. in a 
southwesterly direction into the Gulf of 
Mexico. Key West, one of the largest, 
has the city of Key West upon it, and 
a long railway, built from key to key, 
connects this with the mainland. “Among 
the other important keys are Key Largo, 
Saddle Bunch Keys, Key Vaccas and 
Elliotts Key. 

Florida State College for Women, at 
Tallahassee (1905). This was the first 
state college for women in America. It 
was opened in 1905, and its enrollment 
exceeds 700. Its location also, at the 
capital of the state, has given it prom- 
inence, as in the case of the state univer- 
sities of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, 
Nebraska, Utah, Texas, South Carolina 
and Louisiana. The library contains 
about 15,000 volumes. The institution’s 
total receipts exceed $175,000 a year. See 
Fioripa, UNIVERSITY OF; WOMEN COL- 
_ LEGES FOR. : 

Florida, University of, at Gaines- 
ville (1903). Established at Lake City 
in 1884 as the Florida Agricultural Col- 
lege, this institution was chartered as the 
state university in 1903, and removed to 
Gainesville in 1905. The University con- 
sists of 5 separate colleges, College of Art 
and Science, of Agriculture, of Engi- 
neering, of Law, and the Teachers’ Col- 
lege, and there are also a Graduate and 


FLOUNDER 


a Summer, an Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Agricultural Extension Division, 
and General Extension Division, this 
institution is open only to men. How- 
ever, in 1905 the people of this state 
made prowision for the education of 
women (See FLoripa STATE COLLEG FOR 
WomMEN). There are 60 members in 
the faculty and the enrollment is 950. 

Flotow, Flo’ to, Friedrich von (1812- 
1833), a German composer, born at Teu- 
tendorf in Mecklenburg. Intended orig- 
inally for the diplomatic service, his pas- 
sion for music altered the parental plans, 
and he was sent to Paris to study under 
Reicha. The value of his compositions 
lies in their irresistibly melodious qual- 
ity. His operas are frequently heard, 
Martha and Bob Roy being universal fa- 
vorites. 

Flot’sam and Jet’sam, in English 
law, terms applied to goods lost in the 
wreck or danger of a ship at sea. Flot- 
sam was originally applied to such goods 
as floated ashore, and jetsam to those 
that sank with the ship. More recently 
the terms have been applied respectively 
to goods washed overboard and to those 
thrown overboard to lighten the ship. The 
term ligan is applied to goods that sink 
with the ship when they are attached to 
a buoy or some other object in order that 
they may be recovered. Unless recov- 
ered by the owners, goods in all these 
classes belong to the crown. 

Floun’der, or Flatfish, a large family 
of carnivorous fish, containing some of 
the most impoftant food fish. Flounders 
are easily recognized by the peculiar 
twist of the cranium which, when the 
fish are about three months old, has 
brought both eyes upon the same side of 
the flat, elliptical body. In all species 
these eyes are large, rather far apart and 
located upon the right side. The left 
side, called the blind, or naked, side, is 
light-colored, in distinction from the 
right side, which is brilliantly marked. 
There are over 50 genera including 500 
species, found upon sandy bottoms from 
Arctic regions to the tropics. The Amer- 
ican flounder is well known to the fisher 
lads of the Atlantic coast, for it is a fish 


1048 


: FLOUR 

which will take any bait and is easily 
captured through the ice. Other mem- 
bers of the family are the halibut, tur- 
bot, four-spotted flounder, starry flounder 
and pale flounder. The United States 
Fish Commission has given much atten- 
tion to the propagation of many species 
of this family. See HALiBuT. 

Flour, the finely ground and bolted 
meal of wheat. When the term is applied 
to the meal of other grains, the grain is 
specified, as rye flour and buckwheat 
flour. Graham flour, or graham, is the 
unbolted flour of wheat and contains all 
the ingredients obtained in grinding the 
grain. The earliest method of grinding 
the grain was very crude, and the first 
form of a mill was one in which a bed 
stone was held in a frame, on top of 
which revolved a runner stone having an 
eye in the center through which the 
grain was fed. This top stone was re- 
volved by means of a long lever or sweep, 
to which draft animals were hitched. 
Later, water power was applied, and in 
Holland and New England, power from 
windmills was used for many years. 
Mills of this character crushed all parts 
of the grain, and various forms of sifters 
were employed to separate the flour from 
the bran and other impurities. 

Frour Mitxiine. Flour milling is now 
carried on as follows.. The wheat is 
unloaded from the cars into pits, which 
are provided with elevators consisting of 
metal buckets riveted to a belt running 
around pulleys. These elevators carry 
the wheat to the top of the building and 
empty it into suitable bins, from which 
it is spouted out through a machine to 
separate the oats, chaff and light dirt 
from the wheat, and afterwards through 
a cockle separator, the cockle being a 
rough, black seed which darkens the 
flour. From this machine the wheat is 
fed into a smut machine, which brushes 
from the end of the kernel, a fuzz which 
holds a dark-colored dust in its folds. 
From the smut machine the wheat is de- 
livered into a chute, where powerful 
slectromagnets are ‘arranged to catch 
all metallic particles, such ‘as nails, tacks 
and pieces of wire that may have fallen 


FLOWER 


into the wheat from the harvester or 
thrasher. The wheat is now fed into a 
steamer, where it is slightly cooked pre- 
paratory to grinding. 

Grinding is done by chilled-iron rolls, 
of which there are five sets. In the first 
set the spiral corrugations on the rolls 
are comparatively coarse, in order that 
the wheat may be simply broken open, 
and the other sets gradually reduce the 
wheat to finer and finer particles as the 
corrugations grow smaller and smaller. 
At each break the crushed particles are 
carried to a middlings purifier and a vari- 
ety of machines, known as bolters, sift- 
ers and scalpers, to get out the bran and 
offals of the flour. The flour is then led 
to the lower story of the mill and cooled 
by cold-air blasts, and finally fed into a 
machine which packs and weighs each 
bag or barrel, as the case may be. It is 
very important that all dust be taken out 
of the building lest it explode, and fans 
arranged on the suction principle are 
provided for this purpose. 

A barrel of flour weighs 196 lb. and 
is the product of about five bushels of 
wheat. The sacks are made to hold a 
half barrel, quarter barrel and eighth 


_barrel, so that customers can purchase 


their flour in large or small quantities. 
The great milling centers are naturally 
in or near the chief wheat-growing cen- 
ters. Minneapolis, Minn., is the largest 
milling center in the world. Some of 
the mills there have a capacity of 15,000 
barrels in 24 hours, and the combined 
capacity of its mills exceeds 60,000 bar- 
rels a day. Smaller mills, with capaci- 
ties varying from 100 to 1000 barrels a 
day, are common throughout the wheat- 
growing regions of the United States. 
See WHEAT. 

Flow’er, a highly specialized leaf 
whose office is the production of seeds. 
The essential parts of a flower, or those 
necessary to this function, are the sta- 
mens and pistils. Flowers having both 
of these parts are said to be perfect. 
These parts, however, are generally sur- 
rounded by floral envelopes, or the at- ° 
tractive members, consisting of a calyx 
and a corolla. Flowers which possess 


87 1049 


FLOWER 


all of these parts are said to be complete. 

The typical, complete flower has its 
parts arranged in whorls: the calyx, or 
outer whorl, generally green in color and 
often made up of separate divisions 
called sepals; the corolla, the next whorl 
within, ordinarily brightly colored and 
also often made up of separate parts 
called petals. These whorls together are 
called the perianth. If one circle of the 
perianth is lacking, the remaining circle 
is called the calyx. Within the petals is 
the circle of the stamens, which are 
made up of two parts: the filament, or 


PARTS OF A FLOWER 
1, Stamen; 2, petal; 3, pistil; 4, sepal. 


threadlike stem; and the anther, or case 
containing the pollen, or fertilizing dust. 
At the center of the flower is the pistil 
or pistils made up of three parts: the 
ovary, a thickened, hollow portion at 
the base, containing the ovules, or unde- 
veloped seeds; the style, or stalk at the 
top of the ovary; and the stigma, a naked 
surface for receiving the pollen. 

The entire flower is borne upon an en- 
larged portion of the stem called the re- 
ceptacle. A general numerical plan is 
noticeable in most flowers, for usually 
all of the whorls are divided into the 
same number of parts or into multiples 
of that number. For example, the mem- 
bers of the Lily Family have their parts 
. in threes or multiples thereof, and those 
of the Mustard Family in fours. Other 
families have fives, and so on. 


FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL 


Flowers vary greatly from this type 
form, modifications having come about 
through adaptation to different modes of 
life. Imperfect flowers are flowers which 
lack either: stamens or pistils, the former 
being called pistillate and the latter, 
staminate. If staminate and pistillate 
flowers are borne upon one plant-the 
flower is said to be moncecious; if upon 
separate plants, dicecious. 

Incomplete flowers lack one or both of 
the flower envelopes and are then called 
apetalous flowers or naked flowers. Ir- 
regular flowers have the members of 
some or all of their whorls unequal or 
dissimilar, and unsymmetrical flowers 
have their whorls differing in number of 
members. Since many flowers depend 
for cross-fertilization upon the assistance 
of the wind or of insects, which carry 
the pollen of one flower to the pistil of 
another, the attractive apparatus is de- 
signed to entice the insects which can 
best do this work. See Cross-FErti- 
LIZATION. 

But though it may be said that scien- 
tifically the chief object of the flowers is 
the production of seed, it should also be 
granted that they fill unconsciously an 
important place in the world of man; 
their beauty, fragrance and brightness 
have borne many a message of consola- 
tion and cheer, and have surely been re- 
sponsible for many a kinder thought, a 
lightened heart and a renewed courage. 
Spake full well, in language quaint and olden, 

One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, 
When he called the flowers, so blue and 


golder,*) : 
Stars, that in earth’s firmament do shine. 


In all places, then, and in all seasons, 
Flowers expand their light and soul-like 
wings, 
Teaching us by most persuasive reasons, 
How akin they are to human things. 
—Longfellow, Flowers. 
Flowering Moss. See Pyxie. 
Flowers, Artificial, imitations of nat- 
ural flowers, made of a variety of ma- 
terials and used for scientific and dec- 
orative purposes. The art of making 
artificial flowers was known centuries be- 
fore the beginning of the Christian Era, 
and, so far as known, papyrus bark and 


1050 


FLOWERS, LANGUAGE OF 


silk were the materials first used. The 
Greeks and Romans made wreaths of sil- 
ver and gold, and the peoples of the 
Middle Ages used various materials. The 
most delicate artificial flowers of the 
present time vary widely in material and 
structure, according to the regions in 
which they are made, those from South 
America being made of the brilliant 
plumage of native birds, those from 
China and Japan consisting largely of 
rice paper and silk, and those from the 
Bahama Islands being fashioned from 
delicately tinted shells. 

Artificial flowers are used chiefly in 
the United States for decorating wom- 
en’s headgear, and for this purpose they 
are manufactured on a large scale and 
of comparatively cheap materials. The 
industry is carried on most extensively 
in France and the United States. Flow- 
ers made for scientific purposes must be 
accurate representations of those which 
they represent, and their manufacture re- 
quires a high degree of skill, and a 
knowledge of botany as well. One of 
the most noted collections of artificial 
flowers is that of Harvard University, 
which represents the flora of the United 
States. The flowers are made of glass. 
. Flowers, Language of, an ancient 
method of communication, which has 
lingered even to these more practical 
days and which gives to plants and flow- 
ers certain meanings, so that by them 
messages may be conveyed. Its origin, 
though historically uncertain, is prob- 
ably to be found in the era that peopled 
groves and streams with nymphs and 
fauns, and enclosed in each tree and 
flower its separate dryad. Since Nar- 
cissus, viewing his beautiful face in the 
stream, admired it so greatly that he was 
transformed into the flower that bears 
his name, the narcissus has been the em- 
blem of vanity; Daphne, who was 
changed into the laurel, was wooed by 
Apollo, the god of music, and his faith- 
fulness in always wearing laurel leaves 
upon his brow has made them the sym- 
bol of musical and poetical ability; Mi- 
nerva, the goddess of wisdom, created the 
olive and made it the emblem of peace. 


FLOWERS, LANGUAGE OF 


Thus many of our present sentiments in 
regard to flowers originated in the child- 
hood of the earth when the gods still 
walked with mortals, and in Eastern 
lands these legends are still repeated and 
the sentiments still retained. Without 
these’ stories, however, some flowers 
speak the same message to all: the vio- 
lets, modesty; the rose, love; the am- 
aranth, immortality ; and the lily, purity. 
In the United States up to the time of 
the Civil War, these and other sentiments 
were used by gallants and lovers to con- 
vey secret communications to sweet- 
hearts, and anxiously indeed were the re- 
turned posies scanned to read the mean- 
ing of the lady’s message. 

One of Mrs. Sigourney’s short poems 
tells of the lover who gave his lady a 
bouquet of geraniums, roses and haw- 
thorns; the first, to signify her excel- 
lence, the second, his love and the last, 
his hope.. She, being well versed in the 
floral language, took the flowers and re- 
turned to him a single rosebud to ex- 
press that, though she accepted his af- 
fection, she felt herself too young to 
give her own. The popularity of this 
method of*courtship led to the publica- 
tion early in the 19th century of many 
volumes, such as Flora’s Lexicon, Flora’s 
Interpreter and Newman’s Illustrated 
Botany, whose object was to guide youth. 
and maid in their choice of blossoms. 
The few flowers which, still retain their 
symbols have done so probably through 
their fitness to bear them and through 
their association in myth and legend, bal- 
lad and folk tale. 

A few of the flowers with well-known 
symbols are given below: 

Aloe—misfortune. 

Amaranth—immortality. 

Anemone—frailty. 

Asphodel—death. 

Crysanthemum—truth, 

Cypress—sadness. 

Dahlia—dignity. 

Daisy—innocence, 

Fennel—valor. 

Forget-me-not—memory. 

Geranium—excellence, 

Hawthorn—hope. 

Holly—forethought. 

Ivy—home. 


1051 


FLOWERS, NATIONAL AND STATE 


Laurel—fame. 

Oak—bravery. _ 

Oleander—propnecy. 

Olive—peace. 

Pansy—thoughts. 

Rose—love. 

Rosemary—remembrance, 

Wormwood—bitterness. 

Flowers, National and State, em- 
blems adopted by or associated with cer- 
tain countries and states, either because 
of profusion of their growth in its en- 
virons or because by their appearance 
and habits they seem to typify the ideals 
for which that country stands. Many 
times ancient religious ceremonies or 
long-forgotten customs are responsible 
for the choice. The following are the 
flowers either chosen as national flowers 
or commonly associated with certain na- 
tions: 


A DELTIACL a Wied a Voc cian whe Maple 

BOO V DU ales vi wiaiote iaale es Lotus 

eRe ese hai Rose : 
LRge hy Yoh eu Oe Cae CORR GALA ih Flower-de-luce, or Lily 
COPTIMGRY: Wome eeu ts Cornflower 

CSTEECOE ie Ce aiahe a Ui ce ethe Violet 

LS PVE ET 6 (es MOanOy Came AL Tulip 

UE Vad EU Pe NSN ME = UNE gO Lotus 

{Ravel Fok #6 AN es AAU As ED Shamrock 

PP i pn esha aee se als White Lily 

OD ATCE ie steed ah erate Crysanthemum 
Fe AUN Wet St SN Cactus 

Pevain. 22 Wie Conn Rose 

SOCOLIATIO U. Lim aig rout, Thistle 

SPARE Lia, se yh oa Pomegranate 
SWITECT ALEC ies tc by, Edelweiss 

Waited States e240 4 Goldenrod 


In the United States nearly all of the 
states have chosen flower symbols, and 
in most cases the choice was made by 
vote of the public school children and 
was later adopted by the State Legisla- 
ture. The following are the states which 
have chosen state flowers: 


JS FATE Tag RR, CRO Goldenrod 
ETON CE SIS ia is eta Forget-me-not 
PATIZON AY bik oan eee Cactus 

PISA SAS eh Pelion Apple Blossom 
SSAUTOLNIS Vic:. se ee California Poppy 
SOIOLAULO Wii) ss cae Lee Columbine 
sanriecticnt | ..)..02 Seek Mountain Laurel 
ifs SE is aoa ae aE A Peach Blossom 


District of Columbia.. Nasturtium 


Vgytahe a ey) oa, NAD ge Ae ota Orange Blossom 
eMail Vy ye ik ys Magnolia 
AE UP Se ae Syringa 

DPMMOIS Gs etc, pte Ss oe Violet 

PRAIA Se Ban. Corn Flower 


FLUORINE 
Towa" 2e che ee »+.Wild Rose 
Kansas eye tecie eee Sunflower 
Kentucky eee spay Goldenrod 
Louisiana Vand acts Magnolia 
ane |e Sw eater k Pine Cone and Tassel 
Maryland yc ee ee Black-Eyed Susan 
Michigan wee Apple Blossom 
Minnesota ae ee Moccasin Flower 
Mississippt® ig.0. Wa oan: Magnolia <a 
Missouri ioe ine a Goldenrod 
Moritana 0 eto te ee Bitterroot 
Nebrasheasd Pairs tyne Goldenrod 
Nevada es erik ta ee Sagebrush 
New Mexico ......... Cactus 
New Yorke |) Sas ae Rose 
Notth} Caralinanie ox Goldenrod 
North? aleotasiges i: Wild Rose 
sb reh eaen Aa We ine CMR Carnation 
Okano i ee ees Mistletoe 
Oregon i Poupe ish ely m. Grape 
Rhodewisiangdi cee ue Violet 
South Carolina! ......) Palmetto 
South Dakota Aree Anemone, or Pasque 
Flower 
Tennessee is. jock wana Daisy 
Texas ey CR hee rete Bluebonnet y: 
Utah Se eirenaies cninien : Sego Lily 
Vietmont wees: iat Red Clover 
Washington eke Rhododendron 
West Virginia .of)054, Rhododendron 
Wisconseiee ik ies Violet 
VOMMNSe ig eee Gentian 


The goldenrod was chosen as the na- 


tional flower of the United States in 1899 


by a popular vote. 

Floyd, John Buchanan (1807-1863), 
an American statesman and soldier, born 
in Virginia and educated at the College 
of South Carolina. He practiced law in. 
Arkansas, but after 1839 served in the 
Legislature and was governor of Vir- 
ginia. In 1857 he became secretary of 
war; but for ordering the transfer of © 
arms from Northern to Southern ar- 
senals and for various other partialities 
he was forced to retire in 1860. Briga- 
dier-general in the Confederate army, 
he was driven from West Virginia, and 
senior commander at Ft. Donelson, he 
fled before the surrender. See Forr 
HENRY AND Fort DoNneELSON. 

Fluorine, Floo’ or in, a chemical ele- 
ment found in combination with calcium 
in fluor spar. It was isolated in 1886 
by a French chemist, Moissan, and is a 
pale yellowish gas, almost colorless when 
seen in small quantities. It is one of 
the most active elements and _ readily 
decomposes water and unites with mers 


1052 


ROOK 


Pomegranate, Spain 
Goldenrod, United States 
Fleur-de-lis, France 
Chrysanthemum, Japan 


NATIONAL FLOWERS 


5. 
6. 


. 


T 
8. 


Edelweiss, Switzerland 
Rose, England 

Lilies, Italy 

Cactus, Mexico 


ties 


moo 


. 


Kaiser-Blume, Germany 
Thistle, Scotland 
Sugar Maple, Canada 


1. Violet, Illinois 
2. Goldenrod, Missouri, Ne- 


braska. 
3. Apple Blossom, Arkansas, 
Michigan 


STATE FLOWERS 


Daisy, Tennessee 

Magnolia, Georgia 

Moccasin Flower, Minne- 
sota 

Peach Blossom, Delaware 


3itterroot, Montana 

Mountain Laurel, Con- 
necticut 

Sego Lily, Utah 

Bluebonnet, Texas 


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strike it most strongly. 


render the screen luminous. 


FLUOROSCOPE 


cury, so that ordinary methods of collect- 


ing it are useless. It has been found in 
milk, teeth, bones and the blood of ani- 
mals and in small quantities in plants 
and volcanic rock. Its principal com- 
pound is hydrofluoric acid used in etch- 
ing on glass. 

Fluoroscope, Floo or’ o skope, a flu- 
orescent screen so arranged that radio- 
graphs produced by X rays can be exam- 
ined without the necessity of using pho- 
tographic plates. A fluorescent screen 
can be made by coating a piece of paste- 
board on one side with fine crystals of 
calcium tungstate or of platinum barium 
cyanide, the crystals being bound up on 


FLUOROSCOPE 


the surface by wax. When such a screen 
is exposed to the action of X rays, pref- 
erably in a darkened room, it is rendered 
luminous where the X rays strike it; 
most strongly luminous where the X rays 
If the hand, 
or other part of the body, is held close 
to such a screen and between it and a 
source of powerful X rays, the coated 
side of the screen being the one farthest 
from the source of X rays, the rays 
readily pass through the pasteboard and 
Those 
parts of the screen which are shielded 
from the X rays by the bones of the 
hand are comparatively little affected; 
those shielded only by the flesh are more 
affected; while the rest of the screen 
is strongly affected. The resulting ap- 
pearance on the screen is like a shadow, 
hence called a shadowgraph or radio- 
graph, in which the shadows of the rela- 
tively opaque bones are fairly dark; 


FLUX 


those of the flesh alone are less dark 
or moderately bright, while the rest of 
the screen is uniformly bright. Metallic 
objects, such as finger rings or coins, 
show as black shadows, since metals are 
opaque to X rays. Glass objects are 
fairly opaque and show as dark shadows, 
while diamonds are transparent and 
show bright in the radiograph. 

When such a screen is protected from 
stray light on the sensitive side by an 
open pasteboard box, so fashioned that 


_ its open end fits closely around the ob- 


server’s eyes, it is called a fluoroscope 
and can be used in a well-lighted room. 
The cut shows the fluoroscope with the 
screen removed. Fluoroscopes are much 
used by physicians and surgeons in ex- 
amining broken bones and in locating 
foreign substances in the body. The va- 
rious organs of the body, as the heart 
and lungs, can be examined, since the 
shadows cast by the different parts of 
the body differ some in density. The 
part of the body to be examined is placed 
between the source of X rays and the 
fluoroscope, which the observer moves 
about until he can get a satisfactory ra- 
diograph of the part: in question and 
judge what the trouble is. See X Ray. 

Fluor Spar, a crystalline compound 
of calcium, found in connection with 
ores of tin, lead, silver and cobalt. It 
forms in cubical crystals that are of yel- 
low, green, red or blue color, or are 
sometimes almost colorless. It is a source 
of hydrofluoric acid and of fluorine, and 
is used in metallurgy to aid in fusing 
ores. 

Flute, a musical wind instrument, 
usually made of wood, sometimes of 
metal. It consists of a hollow tube or ' 
cylinder about two feet in length, with 
from six to twelve lateral keys and a 
lateral mouthpiece. It has a compass of 
nearly three octaves and is one of the 
most important instruments for the or- 
chestra, being frequently used for solo 
parts in delicate lyrical passages. 

Flux, a material used to advance the 
fusion of minerals or to tend to their 
decomposition. Many different sub- 
stances are employed, depending upon 


1053 


‘ 


FLY 


the nature of the minerals to be treated. 
Limestone combines with the silicates 
and the alumina in iron ore, and is, there- 
fore, the flux generally employed in blast 
furnaces. A flux should combine with 
the earthy matter and impurities of the 
ore to form a slag, and thus act as a 
vehicle to set the metal free. The flux 
used in pottery consists chiefly of borax, 
red lead and sand. See Brast Four- 
NACE; POTTERY. 

Fly, a name applied to all insects of 
the order Diptera; with qualifying ad- 
jectives it is used to designate numerous 
insects of other orders, as the May fly, 
sawfly, dragon fly or butterfly. Unmodi- 
fied, the term is generally applied to the 
familiar but deadly typhoid, or house, fly. 
These flies constitute a family, having in 
common with all Diptera one pair of 
well-developed, nearly transparent wings 
and a secondary, rudimentary pair, 
which serves as a set of balancers in 
the insect’s flight. The head has two 
prominent compound eyes made up of 
some 8000 hexagonal facets, or surfaces, 
each comparable to a single, simple eye. 
Aside from these there are three simple 
eyes on the back of the head, and with 
all these organs of vision it is not strange 
that the slightest movement startles this 
wary insect. 

The mouth of the fly is a sucking 
organ, and the tongue is provided with 
tiny, filelike patches for rasping a sur- 
face upon which the fly wishes to feed. 
It is the movement of these rasps which 
causes the annoying sensation known as 
the bite of the fly. When not in use, the 
proboscis is, folded back under the head. 
The legs are of medium length and an- 
gled; at its extremity each is divided into 
two hairy, hook-bearing pads. The hairs 
secrete a sticky fluid, which enables the 
fly to walk upon smooth surfaces and 
cling to the ceiling. 

Flies are so numerous and so familiar 
to everyone that though they are con- 
sidered annoying, they are looked upon 
as an unavoidable pest. A compara- 
tively recent study of their habits has 
led to appalling discoveries, which have 
caused one writer to state that the fly, 


FLY 


referring to the typhoid, or house, fly, 
is the most dangerous wild beast in 
America and causes more deaths an- 
nually than war, flood or famine.. Were 
children taught to fear it as they fear 
the less dangerous snakes, many avoid- 
able deaths would be prevented. The 
breeding place of the fly is wherever 
filth, especially decaying animal tissue, 
is allowed to accumulate. Here the eggs 
are deposited, the maggots, or larve, 
hatched and fed, and the adult insects 
developed. The sticky secretion upon 
the fly’s feet picks up particles of the 
filth and carries them to the house, leav- 
ing them upon whatever it lights. Thus 
even though the fly were not dangerous, 
it would always be unclean. But the old 
habit of “shooing” the fly or only screen- 
ing houses against them is now recog- 
nized as a sort of criminal procrastina- 
tion, for the fly, keen for the scent of 
decaying tissue, haunts sick rooms and . 
carries away germs of disease, which it 
spreads wherever it goes. Typhoid fever 
is especially liable to be so distributed, 
and epidemics of this disease are trace- 
able to the now despised fly. 

Many cities of the United States have 
organized effective campaigns for the 
abolishment of the fly. Notable in this 
respect is the city of Cincinnati, which 
is said to be practically flyless. When it 
is known that a female fly may deposit 
100 eggs, which in two weeks have be- 
come adult insects ready to reproduce 
at the same rate, the rapid multiplica- 
tion of the species is easily accounted 
for. One investigator, mathematically in- 
clined, has figured that the possible prog- 
eny of the first fly of spring may, by fall, 
number  1,096,181,249,320,720,000,000,- 
000,000 individuals, a mass which would 
exceed the total mass of the earth. For- 
tunately these do not all live at the same 
time or the earth would indeed be over- 
run. 

To rid a place of flies many precau- 
tions should be taken. Chloride of lime 
or kerosene should be sprinkled over the 
garbage boxes which should always be 
kept tightly covered and emptied at least 
once a week, Piles of manure and other 


1054 


FLYING FISH 


waste should be treated in the same man- 
ner. Dirt and decaying matter should 
never be allowed to accumulate, since it 
forms a favorite breeding place. All 
food, especially milk, should be screened 
away. Fly poisons, made by putting two 
teaspoonfuls of formaldehyde in water 
or one dram of bichromate of potash in 
two ounces of sweetened water, may be 
placed in shallow dishes about the house, 
but should be kept out of reach of chil- 
dren and pets. - Pyrethrum powder 
burned in a room stuns the flies, after 
which they may be gathered up and 
burned. Every individual fiy should be 
captured as soon as it appears. In killing 
one fly, the unimaginable number of its 
possible descendants are thus destroyed. 
When it is fully understood that flies 
feed upon the discharges of those sick 
with tuberculosis, typhoid fever, scarlet 
fever, diphtheria and other infectious 
diseases, that they carry these germs to 
our food, our drink, the open wounds 
upon our hands, the lips of sleeping chil- 
dren and whatever they touch upon, but 
that by: concerted effort they may be 
absolutely exterminated, the campaign 
against the fly will become universal. 
Flying Fish, a small family of deep- 
sea fishes of warm latitudes. They are 
found generally near the surface and are 
noticeable because of their habit of leap- 
ing into the air and spreading their pec- 
-toral fins as though in flight. These fins, 
however, seldom vibrate while the fish 
are in the air; hence it is generally con- 
sidered that the fins are spread as sails 
rather than as wings. Since some can 
travel through the air for an eighth of a 
mile or more, it would seem that there 
must be, in a few species at least, the 
power of propelling themselves during 
the flight. They rarely raise themselves 
more than three or four feet above the 
water, but may travel in a straight or 
curved line. In falling, the tail touches 
the water first. All are slender, graceful 
fish resembling huge dragon flies when 
out of the water. The flying fish of 
the Catalina Islands is an excellent food 
fish. Other well-known species are the 
sharp-nosed and the common flying fish. 


FOG 


Flying Squirrel, a member of the 
Squirrel Family which has received its 
name because of a loose flap of furry 
skin which extends from each leg and 
when widespread acts as a sail or para- 
chute. This squirrel makes its home in 
hollow trees where it stays by day, com- 
ing forth by night to feed upon nuts, ten- 
der shoots, eggs or even young birds. It 
has round, full eyes, generally rimmed 
with black, and a long bushy tail which, 
unlike that of the tree squirrel, is 
straight. The fur is soft and silky and 
has a gray-brown tone. 

Foch, Marshal Ferdinand (1851- 

), a French soldier. He received 
his education at the French military col- 
lege of St. Cyre, graduating as a lieuten- 
ant in 1875. For many years he was in- 
structor in the college and nearly all 
French generals in the World War were 
among his students. He wrote two well 
known treatises, ‘““The Principles of War” 
and “The Conduct of War.” He com- 
manded one of the French armies in the 
First Battle of the Marne and turned 
what threatened to be a defeat into a 
French victory, perhaps the most im- 
portant of the war. He was afterwards 
the general in command of the British 
and French forces that fought the Battle 
of Ypres and saved the channel ports. 
Being regarded as the greatest strategist 
of the day, he was appointed generalissi- 
mo of the Entente Allied forces in 
March, 1918. Under his command were, 
ultimately, the greatest number of men 
ever commanded by one general. It was 
his continuous series of assaults along 250 
miles of front that resulted in the utter 
collapse of Germany, November 11, 1919. 

Fog, a cloud upon the surface of the 
earth formed by the condensation of 
water vapor into minute particles of 
water. Fog forms when the air is very 
moist and the water vapor in the atmos- 
phere is condensed near the surface. Fog 
differs from cloud only in that it forms 
near the surface; it does not wet objects 
with which it comes in contact, nor fall 
as does mist. A necessary condition to 
the formation of fog is the presence in 
the atmosphere of numerous particles of 


1055 


FOGAZZARO 


dust, the nuclei around which the water 
vapor condenses. The density of the 
London fogs is due to the abundance of 
dust and germs in the overlying atmos- 
phere; and off the coast of Newfound- 
land, where heavy fogs are of frequent 
occurrence because of the conflict of cold 
and warm moist air currents, this land 
dust is present in large quantities. See 
CLoupD ; RAIN. 

Fogazzaro, Fo’ gaht sah' ro, Antonio 
(1842-1911), an Italian novelist and poet, 
born in Vicenza. His writings are in- 
tensely spiritual, possess a Wordsworth- 
ian simplicity and reveal a sympathy 
with the Liberal Catholic Movement. He 
published Miranda, Valsolda, Malombra, 
Daniele Cortis and The Trilogy of Rome, 
including The Patriot, The Sinner and 
The Saint. 

.Fog Signals, signals used to warn 
vessels of their approach in a fog to 
places dangerous to navigation. Fog sig- 
nals are given most effectively with bells, 
guns, whistles, sirens or powerful flash 
lights. These are an important aid to 
navigation, particularly because many of 
them are now given according to an 
easily understood international code. 
During a fog, bells can be usually heard 
for a distance of from one to three miles ; 
guns and large whistles, perhaps ten 
miles; and sirens for 20 or 30. The sound 
of a movable bell, the clapper being fixed, 
travels farther than that of the ordinary 
type. From a whistle placed in a hori- 
zontal position within a reflector, it trav- 
els farther than from one in a vertical 
position. 

The siren consists of a hollow cylinder, 
into which compressed air or steam is 
forced from one end. In the other end 
there are perhaps a dozen slits; and in 
front of this end is a disk, similarly per- 
forated, which is revolved at any desired 
rate, thus permitting, say, for 2800 revo- 
lutions per minute, as many as 33,600 
puffs of steam or air. A long iron trum- 
pet, which is attached, compresses the 
vibrations thus originated, and directs 
the sound in any desired direction: To 
signal the engineers of railway trains in 
a fog, or in case of emergency, flat cases 


FOLK LORE 


of tin, charged with detonating powder, 
are so placed upon the rails that the 
wheels of an engine must necessarily ex- 
plode them. See LIGHTHOUSE. 

Fo’ley, John Henry (1818-1874), an 
Irish sculptor, born in Dublin. He re- 
ceived his training at the Dublin Society 
of Fine Arts and at the Royal Academy 
of London. His earlier works are chiefly 
on ideal subjects, but he achieved his 
ereatest success in his portrait statues. 
His statues of Hampden, Selden and Sir 
Charles Barry stand in the Houses of 
Parliament; those of Lord, Hardinge, 
Lord Canning and Sir James Outram are 
in Calcutta; those of Oliver Goldsmith 
and Edmund Burke are in Dublin. He 
made the. statue of the Prince Consort 
and the group Asia in the Albert Memo- 
rial of Hyde Park and designed the seal 
for the Confederate States during the 
Civil War. His last work is in Amer- 
ica and is a statue of Stonewall Jackson, 
made for North Carolina: Foley was 
made a member of the Royal Academy 
in 1858. 

Folk, Joseph Wingate (1869- 5 
an American lawyer and statesman, born 
at Brownsville, Tenn., and educated at 
Vanderbilt University. He settled in St. 
Louis. When the great street car strike 
in 1900 paralyzed his city, he was instru- 
mental in bringing the trouble to an end. 
As circuit attorney, Mr. Folk acquired 
national fame by prosecution of those 
involved in election frauds and by the 
vigorous way in which he purified the 
municipal affairs of St. Louis. He served 
as governor of Missouri for one term, 
ending in 1909. In this position also he 
distinguished himself for his fearless en- 
forcement of the laws of the state. He 
has been a popular lecturer in Chautau- 
qua and lyceum courses. 

Folk Lore, the science which includes 
everything relating to the ancient notions, 
beliefs, customs, traditions, prejudices 
and superstitions of the common people; 
more specifically, it embraces folk tales, 
hero tales, ballads and songs, place leg- 
ends, festivals, ceremonies, games, witch- 
craft, popular sayings, proverbs, jingles, 
riddles, etc. The systematic study of 


1056 


ae 
ati a aml 


psi 455 
ee 
aia 
=x 


~~ 


FOND DU LAC 


folk lore did not begin until the 19th 
century, though Percy’s Reliques of An- 
cient English Poetry, published in 1765, 
had inspired Scott and others to examine 
the rich stores of poetic beauty be- 
queathed by the past. The earliest col- 
lection of folk-lore material was made by 
the Grimm brothers, who created a 
school in this field of study. Societies 
have been formed in many countries to 
carry on the work. The Folk Lore So- 
ciety of England was established in 1878, 
and an American society in 1888. The 
latter includes in its study the lore of 
the negroes and of the Indians. Folk 
lore embraces the study of many appar- 
ently trivial matters, but it serves to 
bring out the relationship between races 
and the origin of religious beliefs and 
ceremonies, and thus is of assistance to 
students of ethnology, sociology, history, 
mythology and religion. See Grimm, 
JacoB AND WILHELM. 

Fond du Lac, Wis., a city and the 
county seat of Fond du Lac Co., about 
60 m. n. of Milwaukee, at the south end 
of Lake Winnebago, at the mouth of the 
Fond du Lac River. The Chicago, Mil- 
waukee & St. Paul, the Chicago & North 
Western, the: Minneapolis, St. Paul & 
Sault Ste. Marie railroads enter the city, 
and interurban electric and steamboat 
lines establish connection with surround- 
ing territory and with the principal lake 
ports. Chief among the manufactures 


are typewriters, shoes, automobile tires, 


agricultural implements, 
furniture, refrigerators, toys, flour, 
sashes, doors, leather goods, 
and shirts. The town has a large out- 
put of dairy products, grain and lumber. 
Noteworthy institutions and buildings of 
Fond du Lac are Grafton Hall School 
for girls, a Protestant Episcopal cathe- 
dral, St. Agnes’s Hospital, the Henry 


machinery, 


Boyle Roman Catholic Home for the 


Aged, the Elks’ Clubhouse, St. Mary’s 
Springs Academy and a Carnegie public 


_ library. The first settlement on the site of 


_. Fond du Lac was made by Americans 


ie 


~ from New York about 1835; the village 


which arose was incorporated in 1852. 


Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 23,427. 


paper 


FOOD 


Fontainebleau, Fon’ten"blo’, a town 
of France about 37 m. s.e. of Paris and 
2m. from the Seine, famous for its 
grapes. It has clean, wide streets and 
is set in the midst of the Forest of Fon- 


tainebleau. It is chiefly noted for its pal- 


ace, one of the most magnificent in all 
France. The origin of the palace is 
unknown, but the older chateau was used 
by Louis Vad the 12th century, and the 
present palace was erected by Francis I. 
Here the Edict of Nantes was signed, 
Pope Pius VII lived two years as a 
prisoner, and Napoleon signed his abdi- 
cation. 

Fontenoy, Font’nwah', Battle of, a 
battle of the War of the Austrian Suc- 
cession, wherein on May 11, 1745, the 
French under Marshal Saxe defeated 
the allied English, Dutch and Hanover- 
ian troops under the Duke of Cumber-’ 
land. The village of Fontenoy lies in 
Belgium about four miles southeast of 
Tournai, which was the objective point 
of both factions. The battle, though long 
indecisive, was finally a complete French 
victory. 3 

Food, any substance taken into the 
body to nourish life. It may be gaseous, 
liquid or solid, but must be a substance 
which can be absorbed from the alimen- 
tary canal and so contribute to the 
erowth of the body, an oxidizable sub- 
stance that furnishes energy or a solu- 
ble substance that aids in the absorption 
of other foods. Oxygen is the great 
gaseous food, and without it all other 
foods prove useless. It is taken from the 
air into the blood through the lungs, and 


- is the agent which burns, or oxidizes, the 


other foods. Water is the most common 
liquid food, and it acts chiefly as a sol- 
vent for the solid foods. 

The solid foods are of three general 
classes, the nitrogenous, carbohydrates 
and hydrocarbons. Those of the first 
class consist chiefly of proteids and they 
are found abundantly in lean meat, eggs, 
milk, cheese and many vegetables. They 
are chiefly digested in the stomach and 
are absorbed from there to form new 
tissues or to replace old ones that have > 
been torn down. Albuminoids, though 


1057 


FOOD 


not as valuable as the proteids,.are still 
useful; gelatin and the various Jellies 
which are made with it are the common- 
est albuminoids. The carbohydrates are 
the sugars and starches; they contain 
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are 
found in nearly all fruits and vegetables. 
They are partly digested by the saliva in 
the mouth, and the process there begun 
is completed in the intestines. Since the 
carbohydrates contain a greater percent- 
age of carbon and of hydrogen than of 
oxygen, they do not yield so much en- 
ergy as do the hydrocarbons. The hy- 
drocarbons are the fats and oils and are 
found in butter and in most animal prod- 
ucts. They are also digested in the in- 
testines and, having a large percentage 
of oxygen, are great heat producers. 
Mineral substances pass through the 
body undigested or are taken with other 


FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 


ment of Agriculture, the following foods 
have the greatest fuel value: olive oil, 
lard, beef suet, butter, walnut, coconut, 
bacon, peanut butter, cream _ cheese, 
smoked ham, chestnuts, sugar, corn and 
buckwheat. The chief protein foods are: 
oats, corn, wheat, rye, buckwheat, corn 
bread, whole-wheat bread, toasted bread, 
white bread, cottage cheese, peanuts, 
potatoes, smoked herring, skim milk, salt 
cod, buttermilk, cream cheese, beef steak, 
pork chops, mackerel, dried beef, smoked 
ham, lamb chops, rice and eggs. Various 
bulletins concerning dietary standards 
and the relative values of foods may be 
secured from the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Office of Experi- 
ment Stations. 

The Illinois State Food Commission, 
after careful analysis, prepared the fol- 
lowing table of relative food values: 


EACH OF THESE FOODS CONTAINS THE SAME AMOUNT OF NUTRITIVE MATERIAL 
AS 1 QUART OF MILK 


AMOUNT 

NU} WEIGHT 
KIND OF FOOD cost Alara neve eee 

WaT ere ea hes da anata $0.08 per Ot LOL. 976 2 2 
Cheese Ps See. ae 3p 7 peta Wo Sa iy ees a CP 193-3 v0) eels 6.8 
TOSS. eis gti boa she ners cre ate Poe Loz 10 566 1 3.9 
Meatt 2c oie, Wg as re Gee! Lb eee 307.7 i ete ae 10.8 
ASRYCLITS DAN cise os aholehakee ‘5 ies Rae BF om Ered a AIST 428.5): ree I5e4 
UES ao2 te thir PIP AMOEBA PAR RR NE CIN i 22 Se URN RRR FL MA 185,62) So ae 6.6 
(orn Neal owes os A SE WG MIR ee a ES Race TS 2.7) uapliece ees 4.9 
Potatoes 4 iy. gts won eee MOO pil; re pace | 1 9.4 
Cabbage cia ove 2025: °° Lib: 1 Head 1875 4 Bee 
Died Beans 0) ab. ns Reo Cb. dome ont 243 0) dee 5.05 
Oranges 29 lg icin 0.40 ‘' Lb. 8 1304.4 2 14.0 
A DpTeS i tik a cio clue ae Ciao) Pk. Pore 1052.6 2 Set 
Bananas ...0.. 40a: NORGE Doz.) 5 774 1 | 11.3 
Pruresey se ce wes ce cise Perse VDoc. aes SF Soy Sl yes 6.62 
Nutsiow nec cacmoun ee ae Sb.) so hoe 128.7 sh | eo ee 

Meat—Fat, Round Beef. 3. Codfish—Boneless. 


1. Full Cream Cheese. 


4, painrsesties Lb. to Bushel. 


foods and pass into the system un- 
changed. 

The value of a food depends upon its 
ability to supply warmth, energy and 
building material. Its money value de- 
pends not so much upon the amount as 
upon its ability to satisfy our needs. 
According to the United States Depart- 


5. Bread—White. 


Foot and Mouth Disease, a disease 
common among European cattle and 
appearing in eruptions upon the skin of 
the mouth and feet. It is usually accom- 
panied by fever and produces a conse- 
quent weakness. Lambs are especially 
apt to die from the effects of it, but the 
disease is not ordinarily fatal. Since it 


1058 


FOOTBALL 


is a bacterial disease, the infection is apt 
to spread and stables should be fre- 
quently disinfected. The meat from cat- 
tle having the foot and mouth disease 
is not infected, but milk and milk prod- 
ucts, as cheese and butter, carry the bac- 
teria to man and cause a similar diseased 
condition. The bacterium which causes 
foot and mouth disease has not been 
isolated and inoculation has not proved 
unfailingly successful. The best treat- 
ment is to keep the diseased parts as 
antiseptic as possible and allow all possi- 
ble exposure to sunlight and fresh air. 

Football, a game played, chiefly as 
a part of college and high school ath- 
letics, during the autumn and early 
winter. 

Tue GAME. Football is played in a 
rectangular field, called the gridiron, 360 
ft. long and 160 ft. wide; the limits at 
the ends of the field are called the end 
lines and those at the sides are called 
the side lines. The goal lines lie 30 ft. 
froin the end lines and parallel to them, 
and the portions of the field between 
them and the end lines are called the end 
zones. The gridiron is marked at in- 
tervals of five yards with white lines, 
also parallel to the end lines. Two goal 
posts, 18% ft. apart, stand at the center 
of each end line and are connected by 
a horizontal crossbar 10 ft. above the 
ground. The ball is a leather-covered, 
inflated spheroid whose lengthwise cir- 
cumference is 28 inches and whose short 
axis circumference is 2244 inches. The 
time of play consists of 60 minutes, 
which since 1910 has been divided into 
four periods of 15 minutes each, ex- 
clusive of any time taken out. 
an intermission of one minute between 
the first and second and between the 
third and fourth periods, and of 15 
minutes» between the second and third 
periods. 

The game is played by two opposing 
teams of 11 players each, and the object 
of the play is for each team to put the 
ball behind its opponent’s goal posts, 
while at the same time it attempts to 
prevent the opposing team from making 
a score. A touchdown is made when a 


There:is 


FOOTBALL 


ball in the possession of any player is 
on, above or behind the opponent’s goal 
line; this counts six points. A goal 
from touchdown is made by kicking the 
ball from the field over the crossbar of 
the opponent’s goal by a place kick; a 
goal from touchdown counts one point. 
A goal from field, counting three points, 
is made by kicking the ball from the 
field over the crossbar of the opponent’s 
goal in any way except by a punt, that 
is, dropping the ball from the hands and 
kicking it before it touches the ground; 
or by a kick-off, that is, the opening 
kick of the first and third periods, and 
consists of a place kick from the 40-yard 
line of the team entitled to kick. Safety, 
counting two points, is made when the 
ball in possession of a player guarding 
his own goal is on, above or behind the 
goal line, provided the impetus was 
given by the side defending the goal. 
The ball is first placed in the center of 
the field, and the men line up in the fol- 
lowing positions, with the two teams 
facing each other: center, right and left 
guards, and right and left tackles; be- 
hind these a quarter back, two half backs 
and a full back. The official rules 
change from year to year and cannot 
here be given in detail. Consult Spald- 
mgs Official Foot Ball Guide. 

History. Football has been known 
in a variety of forms since medieval 
times. In the city of Florence the 
Medicis were among enthusiastic play- 
ers of the game. Though much decried, 
it was long a favorite sport in Great 
Britain, where it became a college game 
at Eton, Rugby, Harrow and Charter- 
house. The game was first introduced 
into America at Harvard in 1875 and 
the Rugby rules were used; the first 
intercollegiate contest was between Har- 
vard and Yale a year later and from 
that time on American colleges took up 
the sport with enthusiasm. With the 
formation of an intercollegiate football 
association in 1885, American rules, 
which have differed greatly from those 
used in England, have developed. Foot- 
ball has never been played to any extent 
outside of schools and colleges, but there 


1059 


FOOTE 


large crowds are attracted to the games, 
which are followed with great interest. 
The old methods of playing resulted in 
so many injuries to the players that the 
later revisions of the rulés aim to elimi- 
nate the personal struggles of the players 
and the team plays that require a mass- 
ing of the teams. Owing to the objec- 
-tions that have been made to the rough- 
ness of the play the game is not so 
popular as formerly. 

Foote, Foot, Andrew Hull (1806- 
1863), an-American naval officer, born 
in New Haven, Conn. He studied at 
West Point, but entered the navy as mid- 
shipman in 1822. He was flag lieutenant 
of the Mediterranean Squadron in 1833, 
five years later as first lieutenant of the 
John Adams, circumnavigated the globe 
and attacked the pirates of Sumatra, 
from 1849 to 1852 engaged in suppress- 
ing the slave trade on the African coast, 
and in 1856, during the Chinese and 
English disturbance, commanded the 
China station. In the summer of 1861 
he was made captain and commanded 
the fleet in the Southwest. In February 
of the following year he cooperated with 
Grant against forts Henry and Donel- 
son, being severely wounded in the at- 
tack on the latter stronghold. Though 
suffering, he commanded the naval attack 
on Island No. 10; but after the reduction 
of that place was forced to return home, 
in July, 1862, with the rank of rear- 
admiral. He then acted as chief of the 
bureau of equipment and recruiting and 
in June, 1863, was ordered to succeed 
Rear-Admiral DuPont in command of 
the South Atlantic Squadron. Foote 
died, however, while preparing to assume 
duties off Charleston. 

Foote, Mary Hallock (1847- Vy 
an’ American author and artist, born in 
Milton, N. Y. She studied art in New 
York and has illustrated in black and 
white for magazines and books. She 
married a civil engineer and subsequently 
lived in Colorado, Idaho, and California, 
whence are drawn the scenes of many 
of her works. These include The Led- 
Horse Claim, John Bodewin’s Testi- 
mony, The Last Assembly Ball, The 


¥ Pee 3 Ly ba Me: Te as fu’ 

he Ne ee i 
ae TVS. ta ee re 
Nei, L! 


-FORAKER 


Chosen Valley, In Exile and Other 
Stories, Ceur dAléne, The Little Fig 
Tree Stories, The Prodigal, The Desert 
and the Sown, A Touch of Sun, and 
Other Stories and The Royal Americans. 

Foot Pound, abbreviated ft. lb., the 
common unit of work. in most English- 
speaking countries. It is the work-re- 
quired to raise a one-pound weight one 
foot against the attraction of gravity, 
and is equal to 32.16 foot poundals 
where the acceleration of gravity is 32.16 
ft. per second per second. See Foor 
POUNDAL. 

Foot Poundal, the unit of work in 
the foot-pound-second system of units. 
It is the work done by a force of one 
poundal when it moves its point.of ap- 


plication one foot in the direction the . 


force acts. The work required to raise 
a pound weight one foot is 32.16 foot 
poundals, since the earth pulls down on 
a pound of matter with a force of 32.16 
poundals. See PouNnDAL. 

Foot Rot, a disease attacking the 
feet of sheep and causing unusual 
growth. The margins become cracked 
and thus open to the entrance of dirt 
which induces soreness and ulceration. 
The secretions from the glands between 
the toes cease to flow and a growth of 
proud flesh results. The disease is said 
to be caused by allowing the animals to 


stand too much upon damp ground. To 


treat, the diseased portion should be cut 
away, the wound washed with a solution 
of one pound of blue vitriol to one quart 
of water, and the animal kept in a thor- 
oughly dry shed. 

For’aker, Joseph Benson 
1917), an American statesman born in 
Rainsboro, Ohio. 
age he enlisted in the Union army and 
served throughout the war. He grad- 


uated from Cornell in 1869; was ad- 


mitted to the bar in the same year; was 
judge of the Cincinnati Superior Court, 
1879-82 ; was governor of Ohio 1885-90; 
and was United States senator from 1897 
to 1909. He was identified in Congress 
with the conservative wing of the Re- 
publican Party, and exercised great in- 
fluence in its councils. 


1060 


(1846- 
When 16 years of. 


FORAMINIFERA 


Foram”inif’era, a group of minute 
microscopic water animals, a subdivision 
of the Protozoa. The body of the ani- 
mal is contained within a shell formed 
from sand, mud, sponge spicules or other 
foreign matter cemented together in 
symmetrical and varied form. Fossil 
remains of these shells are found all 
over the ocean floor, excepting the Arctic 
regions, in deposits which are often of 
great thickness. Whole beds of chalk 
and limestone in Europe, Asia and North 
America are formed from the shells 
of the foraminifera, the oldest-known 
formation occurring in the Lower Cam- 
brian rocks of New Brunswick, Canada. 
The type of the order has undergone few 
changes from the earliest times to the 
present. 

Forbes, Forbz, Archibald (1838- 
1900), an English war correspondent, 
born in Scotland and educated at Aber- 
deen University. After serving in the 
Royal Dragoons he went to London in 
1865 and began work on a newspaper. 
He served as a war correspondent for 
the London Daily News throughout the 
Franco-German War, and also during 
the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 and the 
Zulu War of 1879. He was unrivaled at 
securing news and quick reporting, rid- 
ing 120 miles in 15 hours to report the 
victory of Ulundi in 1879. Among his 
stirring war stories may be mentioned 
Glimpses Through the Cannon Smoke, 
My Experiences in the Franco-German 
War, The Afghan Wars, The Black 
Watch and Barracks, Bivouacs, and Bat- 
tles. 3 

Force, that which tends to produce, 
alter or destroy motion of a_ body. 
Forces may be due to various causes, as 
gravity, elasticity, friction, magnetism, 
electricity, etc. Force does not always 
produce motion, although it tends to do 
so, for an equal and opposite force may 
be exerted as soon as the first force acts. 
Thus, in attempting to draw a nail from 
a plank, the force of friction is imme- 
diately exerted in such a direction as 
to oppose the force applied to draw the 
nail. The effect of a force in producing 
motion of a free body depends on both 


FORCE 


the magnitude of the force and the length 
of time it acts. A constant force, such 
as the force of gravity, produces uni- 
formly accelerated motion in a free body; 
if the force is variable, the resulting 


motion is accelerated but not uniformly. 


When a force acts for a very short 
time, as the blow of a hammer on a nail 
or a bat striking a baseball, it is not 
usually possible to measure separately 
either the force or the length of time it 
acts. Such a force is called an impulsive 
force, and since its effect is determined 
by its (unknown) magnitude and the 
(unknown) time it acts, the product of 
its magnitude by the length of time it 
acts is called the impulse of the force. 
This product, or impulse of the force, 
can usually be determined from the 
change of momentum produced in the 
body struck or from the loss of mo- 
mentum in the body giving the blow, 
since change of momentum of a body is 
equal to the impulse causing it (See 
Motion, LAws or). In the case of the 
hammer blow, the impulse is measured 
by the mass of the hammer multiplied 
by its speed at the instant of striking 
the nail, since the hammer loses its entire 
momentum when stopped by the nail. 

A centrifugal force is that force by 
which a revolving body tends to pull 
away from the center about which it is 
revolving. The opposite force, which 
resists this tendency, is sometimes called 
a centripetal force. When a pail of 
water is rapidly swung in a vertical cir- 
cle, the water is kept from spilling by 
the centrifugal force which drives it out- 
ward against the bottom of the pail, 
while the pail is kept in its circular path 
by the centripetal force exerted through 
the arm that swings it. 

There are several units in common use 
for measuring forces: (1) the pound, 
the force necessary to support a one- 
pound weight; (2) the kilogram, the 
force necessary to support a one-kilo- 
gram weight; (3) the poundal (See 
PounpAL); and (4) the dyne (See 
DyneE). Of these, the first two are 
gravitational units, and their values vary 
slightly from place to place on the earth’s 


1061 


FORCE BILLS 


surface due to the variation in the force 
of gravity. The first is the one in most 
common use in engineering work in this 
country. The last two are absolute units 
independent of any locality where they 
may be used; the fourth being the one 
most commonly employed in accurate 
scientific work in nearly all countries. 
Force Bills, the name applied to sev- 
eral Federal laws whose object has been 
to provide means for enforcing certain 
statutes offensive to the section where 
_ they operated. The first of these laws, 
March, 1833, aimed to compel the accept- 
ance of certain tariff laws. During the 
Reconstruction Period, after the passage 
of amendments Fourteen and Fifteen, 
Congress passed a second so-called Force 
Bill on May 31, 1870. It made punish- 
able by fine or imprisonment any attempt 
to intimidate qualified voters from ex- 
pressing themselves at the polls. Another 
act of this nature was directed against 
certain societies organized systematically 
to evade Federal laws in the South. 
Ford, Paul: Leicester (1865-1902), 
an American historian and novelist, born 
in’ Brooklyn, N.\Y.)* He recéived » his 
education in private schools, chiefly in 
his native town. His investigations into 
the source of American history led to 
the editing of the Writings of Thomas 
Jefferson, Writings of Thomas Dickin- 
son and The Federalist. He wrote The 
True George Washington, The Many- 
Sided Franklin and The New England 
Primer. He founded the Bibliographer, 
and as its editor made valuable contribu- 
tions to it. His fiction includes The 
Honorable Peter Stirling, The Great K. 
& A. Train Robbery, Tattle Tales of 


Cupid, Janice Meredith, Wanted: a 


Matchmaker and Wanted: a Chaperon. 

Foresters, Ancient Order of, a fra- 
ternal society founded in Yorkshire, 
England, in 1745. It was introduced 
into the United States in 1836 and now 
has about 45,000 members in the coun- 
try. The entire membership throughout 
the world is over 1,293,000. 

Foresters, Independent Order of, a 
fraternal organization founded in New- 
ark, N. J., in 1874 and reorganized in 


FORESTRY 


1881. There are branches in Canada, 
Great Britain and other European coun- 
tries and in India and Australia. The 
membership is some over 242,000. 

Foresters of America, a fraternal or- 
ganization founded in 1864 and reorgan- 
ized in 1889. It has no connection with 
the Ancient Order of Foresters or the 
Independent Order of Foresters, and its 
jurisdiction is confined to the United 
States. The membership is about 240,- 
000. 

Forestry, the science of producing, 
caring for and cultivating large groves 
and forests. It differs from the study 
of a single tree, or dendrology, in that 
it takes up the forest as a whole; and 
treats of the relations of the trees to 
each other and of their separate needs, 
rather than being a study of botanical 
structure or classification. The study of 
forestry, while scientific, is also wholly 
practical and has recently come into 
prominence in the United States through 
the awakening to the fact that the forests 
were not unlimited in extent. In the 
majority of countries where there have | 
been forests of great extent, there have 
been four steps in changing public opin- 
ion in regard to forests. The first atti- 
tude toward the forests was to consider 
them so abundant as to be more of a 
nuisance than a resource. They were 
hewed down recklessly to prepare the 
way for agriculture and were neglected 
where they were not destroyed. As the 
settlements grew and the wood supply 
retreated farther and farther from them, 
the forests were seized as valuable pos- 
sessions, sources of wealth to individuals 
who owned them and who thus destroyed 
them for personal profit or to some ex- 
tent spared and protected them. The 
third step came through the knowledge 
that the wood supply was waning and, 
though still plentiful, was not, as had 
been supposed, unlimited; the forests 
began to be treated as agricultural crops 
which, when destroyed, must be renewed, 
and the management of forests to secure 


the best growth became important. The 


last step and the one which is slowly be- 
ing approached in the United States is 


1062 


FORESTRY 


that forests as a natural and national 
resource must be protected and con- 
trolled, not by individual whim and for 
the benefit of the present generation, but 
by scientific knowledge and in order that 
they may yield a constant, maximum 
product from one generation to the next. 
To one who passes through the vast 
forests of the Northwest there seems to 
be still no limit to the lumber, but the 
same amount of time spent viewing the 
products of furniture factories, box fac- 
tories and lumber yards _ suddenly 
changes the point of view and makes one 
wonder where the necessary lumber 
could be produced. 

It is almost impossible to estimate just 
how much faster the wood is being cut 
down than it is being produced, nor how 
long at the present rate of destruction 
the’ supply will last. The forest area of 
the United States is estimated at about 
937,500 sq. m., or a little more than 
one-fourth the area of the country, and 
the annual growth at 60 board feet per 
acre. This gives a yearly increase of 
36,000,000,000 board feet, while the 
amount used for lumber alone is equal 
to, if not more than, this amount. The 
other uses, for shingles, ties, pulp wood, 
cooperage stock, mine timbering, veneer, 
lath, poles and wood for distillation, are 
also taken from the unrenewed forests. 

A growing appreciation of this and a 
study of conditions in foreign countries 
has led to the establishment in the United 
States of a Bureau of Forest Service in 
the Federal Department of Agriculture; 
its head is the national forester, whose 
headquarters are at Washington. The 
duties of the forest service are the patrol 
of the national forests to check fires and 
protect the trees from floods, disease, 
decay, and from depredations of man, 
and the planting of new trees to replace 
old ones. Most interesting in the latter 
connection is the planting in the Tahoe 
National Park, California, of sequoia 
saplings, which will not reach maturity 
for at least 2000 years. Unfortunately 
the appropriation set aside by Congress 
for the protection of the national forests 
is strikingly inadequate to the work 


FORESTRY 


necessary to be done. Telephone service 
must be maintained, fire protection pro- 
vided, experts employed and scientific 
study carried on in order to make the 
service wholly effective. The depart- 
ment itself has, however, accomplished a 
great work and is providing for coming 
generations a heritage that would other- 
wise be uselessly lost. 

The number of acres of forest land 
under control of the United States Gov- 
ernment in 1912 is here given: 


ATIZON A! | hU) CON ae 13,883,452 
IATKAansas: (uley uae ae 1,184,012 
Caletorniay 2 Gn salon 21,104,069 
Colorada) ee oes, aan 13,408,138 
lOrida OS al hy aa 318,960 - 
PAAR. Me Chena ay 18,139,435 
Rarrsas! dio sr ieie, anes 156,376 
Nichioan ce Nel ia 84,011 
Niuinnesota fe ees 844,473 
AVL nitaria er oe a eur 16,192,504 
IN eSiraek ae iy ain behets Outs 521,065 
Mevada wlpe a Oi hay 5,424,254 
Nev ilexito tsa 9,810,522 
NOriakotay oy ore 6,224 
PpieTaAn Dina haul he, 61,028 
CARGO OTF. ia tedin ask Claman 13,740,139 
Pout Dakota ce. va 1,073,760 
ae ok ae aap OP ea 7,201,695 
WASHINGTON dl cedure 9,914,314 
WVOra Iti ON tae.) Yt an 8,420,497 
VEUIE Gg Wane eis Ama a ASI 26,643,260 
HOLLO. IRICOPANS shad Gk 32,975 


The timber in the National Forests of 
Alaska is estimated at 69,000,000,000 ft. 
In 1911 Congress made an appropriation 
of $2,000,000 for the purchase of forest 
areas in the Appalachian and White 
mountain regions. The forestry service 
is engaged in reforesting 7,500,000 acres 
that have been denuded by fires, and in 
connection with this work over 30 nurs- 
ery stations are maintained. 

Many of the leading universities and 
the majority of the agricultural colleges 
have established schools for forestry to 
train men for governmental and com- 
mercial work. Men taking up this pro- 
fession study the trees to find at what 
age they may be cut to yield the most 
and the best quality of lumber, to dis- 
cover methods of avoiding destructive 


1063 


FORGE, FORGING 


lumbering and to check the advance of 
fungus disease and insect pests. The 
field offers an opportunity for scientific 
study among the most pleasing surround- 
ings to one who enjoys outdoor life and 
its accompanying freedom. 

The study of forestry in foreign coun- 
tries is among the oldest of sciences. It 
is practiced in every civilized country 
and has been discussed for over 2000 
years in many of them. Germany, which 
has 35,000,000 acres of forests, leads in 
scientific knowledge and in practical suc- 
cess of its application. At present the 
system practiced there has solved the 
problem of securing an increasing forest 
output and at the same time increasing 
profits with no danger of final destruc- 
tion of the forests. Compare with that 
the fact that the United States, which 
might be growing all the lumber that it 
needs, is now using three times as much 
as it produces.. In France and in the 
most of the other European countries re- 
forestation has been practiced for at least 
50 years, and many countries require a 
man who cuts his forest to replant as 
many trees as he has cut. The fact that 
when forests have once been destroyed 
there is no way of hurrying the growth 
of a new crop makes foresight more nec- 
essary than in the case of shorter-lived 
crops, The effect of the lack of lumber 
upon numerous industries and its con- 
nections with climatic and soil conditions 
and irrigation make the study of forestry 
one which is of general interest and not 
one affecting only a few individuals or 
this generation alone. See CONSERVA- 
TION. 

Forge, Forging. A forge is an open 
furnace or hearth provided with an air 
blast and used for heating materials, that 
they may be shaped into forms by ham- 
mering and pressing. Forges are made 
in all sizes, from the diminutive gas-heat- 
ing device used by jewelers to the great 
furnaces for heating armor plates and 
steel ingots weighing many tons. Port- 
able forges are usually constructed of 
metal and comprise a shallow pan for 
the hearth, over which is a smoke hood 
and to which a fan blower, with its driv- 


FORGET-ME-NOT 


ing mechanism, is attached, all mounted 
on four legs made of metal tubes. Sta- 
tionary forges are built of masonry, lined 
with fire brick and supported by heavy 
steel plates and rods drawn together on 
the outside. The blast is produced by 
power fans. 

Forging originally was simply a ham- 
mering process, but since the develop- 
ment of steel: making, the power press 
has largely superseded the hammer. The 
hydraulic press squeezes the material into 
shape by a slow, steady pressure, while 
that used for drop forgings strikes a sud- 
den, heavy blow, forcing the heated metal 
into a die, or other form. Many articles 
that were for- 
merly made of 
cast iron are 
now made of 
steel by drop 
forging and by . 
pressure of 
steel into dies. 
For large forg- 
| ings of simple 
form the steam 
hammer is 
still employed 
to advantage. 
See IRON AND 
ST BBs hae 
DROS TA TEC oe 
Press; STEAM 
HAMMER, 

Forget-me- 
not, a plant of 
the: Borage 
Family whose 
flowers are as 
much loved 
and widely 
sung as those 
of any plant. 
The leaves 
and stems are 
light green or even grayish and so form 
an inconspicuous and fitting background 
to the starry blue flowers with their | 
golden centers. The artistic simplicity . 
of their form and their clear blue 
color render them a favorite in pictures. 
Though delicate in appearance, the for- 


FORGET-ME-NOT 


1064 


7 


FORMALIN - 


get-me-not is a hardy plant and blossoms 
profusely ; it is the emblem of constancy. 

The wild species found in the United 
States is no doubt an escape from old 
gardens which always included this 
dainty, lovable flower. A less commonly 
known though widely growing speciés 
has white flowers, similar in form but 
lacking the chief charm of the true for- 
get-me-not, the clear, bright blue color. 
The forget-me-not is the flower of 
Alaska. 

For’malin, a powerful antiseptic and 
disinfectant made by the solution of 40 
per cent of formaldehyde gas in water. 
It is used in surgery and has lately been 
injected with success as an antitoxin in 
cases of blood poisoning. 

For’mic Acid, a colorless acid found 
in various plants and animals; notably in 
pine needles, nettles, the soap tree, tama- 
rind, bees, red ants, caterpillars and in 
the human body. It is an irritating acid, 
in concentrated form causing severe skin 
burns. Its chief chemical property is 
its ability to take up oxygen. Formic 
acid may be prepared by the distillation 
of red ants. Formaldehyde, the well- 
known antiseptic, takes its name from 
the fact that by oxidization it is con- 
verted into formic acid. 

Formo’sa. See JAPAN. 

Forrest, Edwin (1806-1872), -an 
American actor, born in Philadelphia, 
Pa. In 1820 he made his first appear- 
ance in Home’s Douglas, and was partic- 
ularly successful in Othello, which he 
played in New York six years later. His 
popularity in London, where he went in 
1836, continued until he yielded to his 


jealousy and hissed Macready, the favor- 


ite actor of the English stage. When 
Macready played in New York City the 
Astor Place Riot occurred and Forrest 
was severely criticized for this affair, al- 
though he was far from solely to blame. 
The fortune which he made in his profes- 
sion amounted to $1,000,000, and on his 
death he bequeathed a large portion of 
his estate to found a home for aged and 
poor actors. He was an eminent trage- 
dian, excelling in melodramatic parts and 
in Shakesperean roles. 


FORT DODGE 


Forrest, Nathan Bedford (1821- 
1877), an ‘American soldier, born in Ten- 
nessee. Early in the Civil War he raised 
and equipped a Confederate regiment of 
cavalry and commanded at Ft. Donelson. 
He was wounded at Shiloh, captured 
Murfreesboro and was shortly commis- 
sioned brigadier-general. In 1864 he cap- 
tured Ft. Pillow (See Fort PILLow). 
He was acknowledged the foremost Con- 
federate leader of the West, and his in- 
vasion of Tennessee, in 1864, was among 
the most spectacular raids of the war. 

Fort Collins, Colo., a city and county 
seat of Larimer Co., 74 m. n. of Denver, 
on Cache la Poudre River and on the 
Colorado & Southern Railroad. The city 
is situated in a fertile valley watered by 
an extensive irrigation system, near the 
Snowy Range of the Rocky Mountains. 
Long’s Peak, 14,231 ft. high, is in Lari- 
mer County. Fort Collins is the seat of 
the state agricultural college, opened in 
1879, and of a government experiment 
station. There is good water power for 
manufacturing purposes. Population in 
1970 53,/ 59) 

Fort ‘Dearborn, a stronghold built in 
1804-05 on the site of the present city 
of Chicago (See Cuicaco, subhead His- 
tory). It is well known from the mas- 
sacre which occurred there on Aug. 15, 
1812. By orders of Gen. William Hull, 
the garrison of 67 men, under Capt. Na- 
than Heald, with some 30 resident set- 
tlers, evacuated the fort, and while re- 
treating to Detroit were attacked in am- 
bush by 500 Indians and by the band of 
Miami which was acting as their escort 
to safety. Fully two-thirds of the num- 
ber, including 12 children, were killed. 
The survivors surrendered on promise 
of protection, and from Ft. Mackinaw 
were eventually returned to their homes. 
On the day following the massacre the 
Indians burned Ft. Dearborn, which was 
rebuilt in 1816 only to be destroyed in 
1856. When Wilderness was King, the 
novel by Randall Parrish, gives the story 
of the outrage, but without historical 
accuracy. 

‘Fort Dodge, Iowa, a city and the 
county seat of Webster Co., 89 m. n.w. 


1065 


FORT DONELSON 


of Des Moines, on the Des Moines River 
and on the Chicago, Rock Island & Pa- 
cific, the Illinois Central, the Minneapolis 
& St. Louis, the Chicago, Great Western 
and other railroads. The Ft. Dodge, Des 
Moines & Southern, an interurban elec- 
tric railway, also enters the city. Fort 
Dodge is an important railway and ship- 
ping center and is situated in a section 
rich in natural resources, for which it is 
the principal market. In the vicinity 
are extensive deposits of potter’s clay, 
glass sand, limestone and a gypsum bed 
50 sq. m. in extent, said to be the most 
valuable in the United States. The Clay 
products industries are very important. 


Among the manufactures are pottery, 


sewer pipe, brick, tile, plaster, stucco, 
paints, gloves, telephones, overalls, steel, 
iron culverts, butter tubs, candy, shoes, 
foundry and machine-shop products and 
oatmeal. 

Among the interesting features of the 
city are Wild Cat Cave, Phinney, Dol- 
liner, Reynolds and Oleson Parks. A 
steel railway bridge, one of the longest 
in the country, spans the river at this 
point. Important educational institu- 
tions include Tobin College, St. Paul’s 
School, Corpus Christi Academy, the Sa- 
cred Heart School, Fort Dodge Business 
College. The High School has a new mil- 
lion dollar building and there are ten 
modern grade school buildings and a 
public library. The first settlers on the 
site of Fort Dodge were protected by 
Ft. Clark, built in 1850. The name was 
changed in 1851 in honor of Col. Henry 
Dodge, a prominent soldier. In 1854 the 
town was laid out and in 1869 chartered 
as a city. Population in 1920, 19,347. 

Fort Don’elson. See Fort HENry 
AND Fort DONELSON. 

Fort Duquesne, Du kane’, a fort es- 
tablished in 1754 at the confluence of the 
Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, the 
site of the present city of Pittsburgh. 
The fort was begun by Virginia settlers, 
but the situation was desired by the 
French, who early in the year succeeded 
in taking it. The next year the British 
under General Braddock were disas- 
trously defeated in an attempt to capture 


FORT GRISWOLD 


the fort. In 1758, however, they were 
successful, and immediately changed the 
name to Ft. Pitt in honor of William 
Pitt. See PirrspurcH, subhead History. 

Fort Edward, a fort in New York, 
about 20 m. from the head of Lake 
Champlain. About 1700 its site was 
known to the French and English as the 
Great Carrying Place, as it was the cus- 
tom of Indian war parties to make a 
portage from it on their way to Canada. 
In 1709 Colonel Nicholson built a stock- 
ade there which was called Ft. Nichol- 
son. In 1755 another stronghold was © 
erected on the site and named Ft. Ed- 
ward, in honor of the Duke of York. It 
was a haven for survivors of the Ft. 
William Henry Massacre, 1757, and was 
a starting place for expeditions into Can- 
ada during the French and Indian and 
Revolutionary wars. During the Sara- 
toga campaign it was occupied for a time 
by Schuyler and by Burgoyne. See Fort 
WILLIAM HENRY; SARATOGA, BAT- 
TLES OF. 

Fort Erie, Attack on. During the 
War of 1812, a night attack was made on 
the Americans, under General Brown, at 
Ft. Erie, at the head of the Niagara, by 
the British under General Drummond, 
Aug. 15, 1814. The attack was a blunder 
and, though fighting bravely, the British 
were repulsed with a loss of some 900 
men. The Americans lost 84. 

Fort Fisher, a fort in North Carolina, 
protecting Wilmington.’ On Dec. 24 and 
25, 1864, it was attacked by Porter’s 
fleet of 500 guns and 6500 troops under 
Butler and Weitzel. This attack failing, 
Grant sent General Terry with a large 
force to aid Porter, and after a desperate 
assault the fort, garrisoned by Whiting 
with 2300 Confederates, surrendered 
Jan. 15, 1865.. The mouth of the Cape 
Fear River was closed, and the blocleade 
of Southern ports was made complete. 

Fort Griswold, Massacre of, an event 
of the Revolutionary War, occurring 
Sept. 6, 1781, at Groton, Conn, vAtter 
prolonged resistance, some 800 Tories 
under Benedict Arnold gained the fort, 
which was garrisoned by 150 Americans. 
In the butchery that followed the surren- 


1066 


FORTH 


der, 85 of the 150 were killed and 35 
were mortally wounded. A monument 
has been erected on the site of the fort. 

Forth, a river and estuary of south- 
ern Scotland formed by the juncture of 
Duchray Water and the Avondhu. The 
river has a winding course, giving it a 
length of 66 m., whereas the distance in 
a direct line is less than half as much. 
It has a general southeasterly direction 
through passes of great beauty, and the 
interesting and historic towns of Stir- 
ling, Kirkcaldy and Leith lie upon its 
banks. Many bridges, ferries and rail- 
way viaducts cross the stream, chief 
among which is the famous Queensferry 
cantilever bridge, completed in 1899 at 
a cost of $13,000,000.’ The tide ascends 
the river to nearly five miles above Stir- 
ling, and the stream may be navigated to 
that point by ocean-going vessels. 

Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, two 
forts in Tennessee, near the Kentucky 
border. The first was a small position on 
the right bank of the Tennessee River, 
but the second, 12 m. away, was much 
more formidable, being situated on a 
plateau about 100 ft. above the Cumber- 
land River. It extended over 100 acres 
_and, besides its heavy guns, had two bat- 
teries on the river bank beneath the 
bluff. These posts were erected by the 
Confederates in 1861 and commanded 
the entrance to the Central and Southern 
states. 

On Feb. 6, 1862, General Grant and 
Commodore Foote captured Ft. Henry, 
most of the garrison of which had es- 
caped to’ Ft. Donelson. About a week 
tater Grant attacked Ft. Donelson and, 
after three days of vigorous bombard- 
ing, in which he was supported by the 
fleet, received a note from General Buck- 
ner offering to capitulate. To this Grant 
promptly answered, “No terms except 
unconditional and immediate surrender 
can be accepted. I propose to move im- 
mediately upon your works.” Buckner 
was forced by circumstances to accept 
these terms, and, Feb. 16, surrendered 
about 15,000 men with a great quantity 
of stores and ammunition. The Federals 
tost over 2800 men. This was the first 


FORTIFICATION 


real Northern victory of the war, and it 
opened the way to the heart of the South- 
west. 

For’tifica’tion, the art of protecting, 
by engineering devices, troops or places 
from attacks by the enemy. The term 
is also applied to the works constructed 
for this purpose. The earliest fortifica- 
tions were natural objects, such as trees, 
rocks and mounds of earth, behind which 
men could shield themselves from the 
missiles of the enemy. As armies were 
organized, artificial works were often 
constructed, their nature depending upon 
the material at hand and the sort of 
weapons in use. A hedge of fallen tim- 
ber and brush, for instance, afforded 
good protection against arrows and jave- 
lins, and at the same time an obstruction 
over which the attacking party could not 
readily pass. The palisade of stakes was 
often employed by the American colon- 
ists in Indian warfare, and, unless set on 
fire by the enemy, was very effective. As 


‘the Indians gained possession of fire- 


arms, the blockhouse succeeded the pali- 
sade. This was a square structure built 
of hewn timbers eight to t a inches in 
thickness and laid one upon the other. 
The base was a little smaller than the 
house, in whose walls were numerous 
openings through which the garrison 
could fire. 

Field fortifications usually consist of 
an embankment of earth a few feet high 
often hastily constructed. When the ma- 
terial is at hand and time permits, the 
front of such works may consist of logs. 
The earth is then banked against the logs, 
forming a firm and efficient protection 
against infantry fire, but of little use if 
artillery is used against them. 

The great fortifications constructed 
for the protection of harbors and on 
strategic points along the coast are works 
requiring the greatest engineering skill. 
They are intended to be strong enough 
to resist the fire from the largest battle- 
ships. Experiments have proven that 
banks of sand form the most effective 
resistance to heavy ordnance; therefore 
the most approved fortifications consist 
of strong walls of masonry, often 30 ft. 


1067 


FORT MADISON 


or more in thickness, surrounded with 
banks of sand and earth of such thick- 
ness, that a shot in penetrating them will 
lose its force before reaching the wall. 
The mound is usually covered with 
grass, so as to make it as inconspicuous 
as possible. The large cannon within the 
fort are mounted upon carriages, which 
will allow them to be elevated into a 
position for firing and then to be lowered 
to their former position of safety. Such 
an arrangement is called a disappearing 
carriage. 

The largest guns within these forts are 
40 ft. long and weigh over 100,000 Ib. 
They require a charge of 500 Ib. of pow- 
der and will throw a 12-inch ball 9 m. 
The United States has numerous fortifi- 
cations of the most modern type extend- 
ing along the Atlantic coast from Ports- 
mouth, N. H., to Key West. In addi- 
tion to these, there are six on the Gulf 
of Mexico and eight on the Pacific coast. 

Fort Madison, Iowa, a city and the 
county seat of Lee Co., about 20 m. s.w. 
of Burlington, on the ‘Mississippi River 
and on the Chicago, Burlington & Quin- 
cy, the Atcl..son, Topeka & Santa Fe and 
other railroads. A railway and highway 
bridge Grosses the river at this point. 
The city has a variety of industrial in- 
terests and operates foundries, machine 
shops, sawmills, grain elevators, canning 
factories, heater works and manufacto- 
ries of tires,, tractors, fountain pens, 
bricks, chairs, paper, agricultural imple- 
ments, boots and shoes, overgaiters, but- 
tons and flour. Among the principal fea- 
tures of Fort Madison are the state 
penitentiary and the Cattermole Mem- 
orial Library. The first permanent set- 
tlement was established here in 1833 on 
the site of an earlier stockade. The town 
was laid out in 1836 and chartered as a 
city in 1839. Population in 1920, 12,066. 

Fort Mer’cer, an abandoned fort in 
New Jersey, at Red Bank on the Dela- 
ware. During the Revolution it was a 
defense of Philadelphia, and after his 
occupation of that city, 1777, Howe de- 
termined to capture it with Ft. Mifflin, 
and thus prevent a seige by controlling 
the water route to New York. A picked 


=a S ™ FY) ae 6 
ooh Se fa 
73 a: 

a 

ree ( 


FORT MOULTRIE 


detachment of 2500, most of whom were 
Hessians, marched against Ft. Mercer, 
while a supporting fleet came up the 
river. On Oct. 22 the attack was made, 
the American garrison of 300 under Col. 
Christopher Greene fighting bravely till 
the Hessians were forced to withdraw. 
The stronghold was abandoned Nov. 20, 
after the capture of Ft. Mifflin, and was 
destroyed by the British. 

Fort Mims, Massacre of, a massacre 
perpetrated during the Creek War at Ft. 
Mims, a temporary stockade 35 m. above 
Mobile, on the Alabama River. At the 
outbreak of the war some 550 men, 
women and children had gathered here 
for protection. These, including the gar- 
rison of about 200, under the command 
of the half-breeds Bailey and Beasley, 
were surprised on Aug. 30, 1813, by 800 
Indians, under the leadership of the half- 
breeds Weathersford and McQueen. Fif- 
teen escaped, a few negroes and half- 
breeds were made prisoners and the re- 
mainder were scalped. 

Fort Moultrie, Mol' try, a fort on 
Sullivan’s Island, commanding the har- 
bor of Charleston, S. C. In June, 1776, 
Sir Peter Parker and a squadron from 
Ireland, with Sir Henry Clinton and a 
force of English regulars, attempted to 
capture Charleston, which was to serve 
as a base of operations against the col- 
onies in the South. A force of some 
5000 militia under Gen. Charles Lee had 
assembled to defend the city, while 1200 
men under Colonel Moultrie were sta- 
tioned in the unfinished palmetto strong- 
hold, then known as Ft. Sullivan. On 
June 28 Clinton landed some 3000 men 
on the sand bank near Sullivan’s Island, 
planning to ford the intervening space of 
sea and make a land attack at the point 
of the bayonet. Unfortunately, however, 
Clinton remained on the sand bank. Par- 
ker, in the meantime, had opened fire on 
the fort and the attack became a mere 
artillery duel. After ten hours Parker 
was obliged to retreat out of range. The 
American loss in killed and wounded 
was 37; the British, 205. Only one gun 
had been silenced in the fort, while nine 
of the ten English sail were unseawor- 


1068 


i 
oe 


/ 


~ 


FORT NECESSITY 


thy after the engagement. In commemo- 
ration of this repulse the stronghold was 
subsequently named Ft. Moultrie. 

The victory freed the Southern States 
from invasion for more than two years. 
May 7, 1780, a few days before the cap- 
ture of Charleston, the fort surren- 
dered. Previous to the opening of the 
Civil War, a United States garrison oc- 
cupied Ft. Moultrie; but on Dec. 26, 
1860, Major Anderson transferred the 
soldiers to Ft. Sumter, which was better 
protected on the land side. South Caro- 
lina militia soon occupied the abandoned 
fort, which was a defense of Charleston 
throughout the remainder of the war. 

Fort Necessity, Attack on, an inci- 
dent of the French and Indian War, oc- 
curring on July 3, 1754. From Great 
Meadows, southwestern Pennsylvania, 
Washington had approached Ft. Du- 
quesne, but, hearing that the French 
were advancing, he had fallen back to his 
original position, where he put up a rude 
breastwork which he named Ft. Necessity 
and which was garrisoned by some 300 
men. On July 3 nearly 500 French and 
Indians marched upon the fort in a pour- 
ing rain, and after nine hours of inter- 
mittent fighting the Americans capitu- 


‘lated, giving up all prisoners taken at 


Great Meadows, but being promised a 
safe retreat. 

Fort Niag’ara, a stronghold on the 
American side of Niagara River, near 
its mouth, upon the site of a house built 
by. La Salle about 1669 and of a trading 
post erected some ten years later. In 


- 1725 Vandreuil built Ft. Niagara, which 


was destined soon to become the fore- 
most military and trading center in 
America. During the French and Indian 
War a British expedition under Gover- 
nor Shirley of Massachusetts attacked it, 
and later, in the summer of 1759, it was 
besieged for 16 days by the British under 
Prideaux, reinforced by Johnson. It 
surrendered on July 24. Various Indian 
treaties were negotiated here; the place 
served as the headquarters of John But- 
ler and Joseph Brant, and the scene of 
the organization of the Wyoming and 
Cherry Valley expeditions. The Ameri- 


FORT SCOTT 


cans occupied it upon its evacuation by 
the British, August, 1796. During the 
War of 1812, Nov. 21, 1812, it was se- 
verely bombarded from the Canadian 
side, and later, Dec. 19, 1813, it was 
again attacked and captured, being sur- 
rendered to the Americans, however, at 
the termination of the war. The United 
States garrison was withdrawn in May, 
1826. 

Fort Pillow, a fort in Tennessee, 
about 40 m. n. of Memphis, on the east 
shore of the Mississippi, built early in 
1862 by the Confederates under General 
Pillow. That summer it was attacked by 
a fleet of Federal gunboats, the Confed- 
erate flotilla being speedily destroyed 
and the fort itself thereupon reduced, 
June 4. On Apr. 12, 1864, then held by 
Major Booth with 550 Federals, 260 of 


‘whom were negroes, the place was at- 


tacked by a strong force under the Con- 
federate cavalryman, Forrest. After 
two assaults in which most of the garri- 
son were slain, the fort capitulated. 

Fortress Monroe, a military post of 
the United States located at Old Point 
Comfort, Va., guarding the entrance to 
Hampton Roads. The reservation in- 
cludes 282 acres and has within it a post- 
graduate artillery school, with equipment 
for 100 officers and 900 men. Jefferson 
Davis was imprisoned in Fortress Mon- 
roe for two years after the Civil War. 

Fort Schuyler, Ski’ ler. See Fort 
STANWIX. 

Fort Scott, Kan., a city and the 
county seat of Bourbon Co., 100 m. s. 
of Kansas City, on the Marmaton River 
and on the Missouri Pacific, the St. Louis 
& San Francisco, the Missouri, Kansas 
& Texas and other railroads. The city 
occupies a site upon a rolling plain in 
the midst of rich mineral deposits, espe- 
cially bituminous coal, and in this article 
a considerable trade is carried on. Other 
valuable natural resources are oil, gas, 
building stone, clays, cement rock, lead 
and zinc. Excellent sulphur water has 
been obtained by well-boring. Contribu- 
tory to the industrial importance of the 
city are grain elevators, foundries, ma- 
chine shops, cement and pottery works, 


1069 


FORT SMITH 


flour mills, brick and tile works and man- 
ufactories of sirup and mattresses. The 
city is the seat of the Kansas Normal 
College and Notre Dame de Lourdes 
Academy for girls. Other features wor- 
thy of mention are the Mercy Hospital 
and a public library. There is a national 
cemetery in the vicinity. Fort Scott, 
which occupies the site of the fort of the 
same name, which was abandoned in 
1855, was platted in 1857 and three years 
afterwards chartered as a city. Popula- 
tion in 1920, U. S. Census, 12,066. 

Fort Smith, Ark., a city and one 
of the county seats of Sebastian Co., on 
the western border of the state and on 
the Arkansas River at the junction of the 
Poteau. Transportation facilities are 
provided by the river and by the Arkan- 
sas Central, the Ft. Smith & Western, 
the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & South- 
ern, the St. Louis & San Francisco, the 
Kansas City Southern, the Midland Val- 
ley and other railroads. Fort Smith is 
situated in the coal and natural-gas re- 
gion of the state and is a business center 
of the surrounding farming country. It 
has extensive jobbing and wholesale in- 
terests in cotton and lumber products, 
dry goods, meats, groceries and drugs, 
and carries on a large trade in cotton, 
lumber, coal, hides and live stock. In 
the city are a number of plants connected 
with the cotton industry, saw and planing 
mills, wagon factories, brickyards and 
mattress and broom factories. Several 
furniture factories are also located here 
and the city is called the “Grand Rapids 
of Arkansas.” 

Fort Smith has good public schools 
and contains a Catholic Academy, con- 
vent and infirmary. There is a Carnegie 
library. The first settlement was made 
here in 1817, with the establishment of 
a United States army post. Four years 
later a town was laid out, which was in- 
corporated in 1842; the place was char- 
tered as a city in 1845. . Several skir- 
mishes of the Civil War took place here 
in 1864. The first railway was completed 
in 1871. In 1905 the area of the city 
was more than doubled. Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 28,870. / 


FORTUNA 


Fort Stanwix, a stronghold built in 
1758 on the site of the present city of 
Rome, N. Y., by a British soldier named 
Stanwix. Being situated on the water- 
shed between Lake Ontario and the Hud- 
son, it commanded the main traffic route 
between New York and Upper Cariada, 
and several Indian treaties were arranged 
there. In 1769 it was dismantled, but 
when the Revolution broke out it was 
again fortified and called Ft. Schuyler. 
About ten miles from it, Aug. 6, 1777, 
Herkimer fought the celebrated Battle 
of Oriskany. See ORISKANY, BATTLE OF. 

Fort Sum’ter, a fort guarding 
Charleston Harbor, S. C., named for 
Thomas Sumter, a partisan leader of 
Revolutionary fame. When South Caro- 
lina seceded, December, 1860, Major 
Robert Anderson in command of a small 
garrison moved from Ft. Moultrie to Ft. 
Sumter, which was close by and stronger, 
on Dec. 26. A few days later, on Jan. 
9, as the Star of the West entered the 
harbor bringing supplies to the fort, it 
was fired upon and driven away. This 
was the opening shot of the Civil War, 
which was begun in earnest when nego- 
tiations between Anderson, the South 
Carolina authorities and Washington 
finally resulted in General Beauregard’s 
being ordered to demand the fort and, in 
case of refusal, to reduce it. Before 
daylight, Apr. 12, 1861, Ft. Sumter was 
fired upon. After 34 hours of bombard- 
ment, it fell to the Confederacy. In 
April, 1863, it withstood an attack by 
nine ironclads, and four months later re- 
sisted a heavy bombardment, defending 
itself until Charleston was evacuated, 
Feb. 17, 1865. Two months following, 
on the fourth anniversary of the fall of 
Ft. Sumter, Anderson (then General) 
raised over it the identical flag that he 
had lowered four years before. The 
fort has been rebuilt and modified. See 
ANDERSON, ROBERT. 

Fortu’/na (in Greek Tyche), Roman 
goddess of good fortune, who was often 
represented as holding a cornucopia. In 
her Theban temple she held Wealth in 
her arms. The worship of Fortuna was 
prominent among: Italian observances. 


1070 


a oar >. 
‘a 


FORTUNY Y CARBO 


Fortuny Y Carbo, For too’ ne e 
Kar'bo, Mariano (1839-1874), a cele- 
brated Spanish painter. He studied in 
Barcelona and at Rome. Although not a 
profound master, his skill and facility as 
a craftsman were exceptional, and in the 
numerous Eastern scenes which he de- 
picted, color is used with brilliant effect. 
He produced, among other canvases, 
Choosing a Model, The Snake Charmers 
and Moors Playing with a Vulture. 

Fort Washington, an . important 
stronghold of the Revolution, located on 
the highest part of Manhattan Island, N. 
Y. It fell to the English under William 


LX ne 
oS &, 


FORTUNA 


Howe on Nov. 16, 1776. Following the 
engagement at White Plains, Washington 
crossed into New Jersey, leaving Ft. 
Washington in charge of Colonel Ma- 
gaw. Nov. 15 Howe appeared before the 
fort with a powerful force, declaring 
that if it were not immediately surren- 
dered the entire garrison would be put 
to the sword. On Magaw’s determining 
to defend the position, the British 
opened an attack in four divisions. Ona 
second summons, being outnumbered 
more than five to one, Magaw surren- 
dered about 3000 prisoners of war. The 


~ FORT WAYNE 


loss of Ft. Washington caused wide- 
spread consternation and has been re- 
garded as one of the most crushing blows 
that befell the Americans throughout the 
war, the garrison comprising the best 
troops in the colonial army. 

Fort Wayne, Ind., a city and county 
seat of Allen Co., 148 m. s.e. of Chicago 
and 102 m. n.e. of Indianapolis, at the 
junction of St. Joseph’s and St. Mary’s 
rivers, which unite within the city limits 
to form the Maumee River, on the pro- 
posed Michigan & Erie Canal, a survey 
for which the government has ordered, 
and on the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Day- 
ton, the Pennsylvania, the Wabash, New 
York, Chicago & St. Louis, the Grand 
Rapids & Indiana, the Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern, the Lake Erie & 
Western and other railroads. The city 
is also the center for various lines of 
interurban roads which connect with the 
excellent electric system throughout the 
state. It is situated 770 ft. above sea 
level and covers an area of ten square 
miles. The surrounding country is large- 
ly agricultural; the city is an important 
manufacturing and trade center. 

ParKS AND BouLevarps. There are 
many miles of fine shade trees lining the 
well-paved streets and boulevards. The 
city contains over 100 acres of parks and 
nine miles of river front. There are 
many handsome residences and suburban 
homes. The park system includes the 
Swinney, Lawton, Hayden, McCullough, 
Reservoir, Piqua, Lakeside and Old Fort 
parks. Lawton Park contains a monu- 
ment erected in honor of Maj.-Gen. 
Henry Ware Lawton. Old Fort Park is 
located on the site of the stockade built 
by Gen. Anthony Wayne in 1794. 

Pusiic Burtpincs. Among the note- 
worthy buildings are the courthouse, one 
of the finest structures in Indiana, Fed- 
eral Building, Elks’ Hall, Scottish Rite 
Cathedral, city hall, a number of banks, 
theaters and substantial business blocks. 
There are about 50 churches. The city 
is the see of a Catholic diocese and one 
of the largest constituencies of the Mis- 
souri Lutheran Synod. 

InstituTIONS, The educational insti- 


1071 


FORT WILLIAM 


tutions include the. Concordia College 
(Lutheran), Sacred Heart Academy, 
Bible Training School, Art School, Con- 
servatory of Music, Westminster Sem- 
inary for young ladies, St. Augustine 
Academy, a public library, public and 


parish schools, high school, college of: 


medicine and surgery, school of oratory 
and several business colleges. Other in- 
stitutions include St. Joseph’s, Hope and 
German Lutheran hospitals, Indiana 
School for the Feeble-Minded, several 
orphan asylums, emergency home and a 
refuge for women. 

INDUSTRIES. Chief among the indus- 
trial establishments of the city are large 
railroad repair shops, iron and steel mills, 
car-wheel factories, knitting and hosiery 
mills, sash and door factories, boiler and 
engine works, carriage and wagon fac- 
tories, flour mills, road-construction ma- 
chinery, woodenware factories, electrical- 
machinery works, gas-machinery works 
and manufactories of gloves, caps, pianos 
and organs, shirt waists, paper boxes, 
harness and leather findings, soft drinks, 
oil tanks, cigars, furniture and washing 
machines. 

History. The principal village of the 
Miami Indians, called Kekionaga, was 
situated on the east bank of the St. Jo- 
seph River within thé limits of the pres- 
ent city. A French trading post was 
later established on the St. Mary’s River, 
also within the present city boundary, in 
1680. The Indian village was destroyed 
in 1790 and in 1794 General Wayne built 
the stockade fort which was named in 
his honor. The first permanent settle- 
ment was made in 1815. The town be- 
came the county seat in 1824 and in 1840 
a city charter was granted. Population 
in 1920, U. S. Census, 86,549. 

Fort William, a city of Ontario, sit- 
uated on the north shore of Lake Su- 
perior, 861 m. from Winnipeg. Because 
of its railways and excellent harbor fa- 
cilities it is one of the commercial and 
traffic centers of the province. The lead- 
ing manufactures consist of car wheels, 
iron pipe, tinware, brick tile, wire nails, 
lumber, cigars, flour, oatmeal, cheese and 
aerated waters. Thirteen grain elevators 


‘ 


FORT WORTH 


have a capacity of 20,690,000 bushels. 
The first settlement was made by French 
traders in 1669. Population in 1911, 
16,499. 

Fort William Henry, a stronghold 
built by Sir William Johnson, in 1755, 
on the site of the present Caldwell, NY. 
During the early French and Indian 
troubles it was an important position, 


and from it some of the lesser expedi- 


tions against the French and their allies 
were started. On Aug. 2, 1757, Mont- 
calm with 8000 men, one-fourth of whom 
were Indians, captured the fort. The 
garrison marched out with the honors of 
war, but the following morning, while 
being escorted to Ft. Edward by a 
French detachment, they were attacked 
by Indians and a large number were 
killed and captured in the massacre that 
took place. This episode figures in Coop- 
er’s Last of the Mohicans. 

Fort Worth, Tex., a city and county 
seat of Tarrant Co., 30 m. w. of Dallas 
and 170 m. n. of Austin, at the junction 
of the Clear and West forks of the Trin- 
ity River and on the International & 
Great Northern, the Chicago, Rock 
Island & Gulf, the Ft. Worth & Rio 
Grande, the Houston & Texas Central, 
the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas 
& Pacific, the Colorado & Southern, the 
St. Louis, San Francisco & Texas and 
other railroads. The city is attractively 
situated,on a plain above the river and 
has an elevation of 700 ft. above sea 
level. The surrounding country is large- 
ly agricultural. The city is the center of 
a vast stock-raising and cotton-growing 
region, and it is one of the great distrib- 
uting points of the Southwest. The 
wholesale and jobbing interests are also 
important factors in the city’s progress. 

ParKs AND BouLeEvarps. The city is 
well laid out and contains many miles 
of improved streets and handsome resi- 
dence districts. There are 21 parks with 
an area of 311 acres. 

Pusiic Buitpincs. Among the note- 
worthy buildings are the courthouse, con- 
structed of granite and marble from the 
Texas quarries, a city hall, two fine rail- 
way stations, Elks’ Club Building, a 


1072 ( 


So) ae Fe i eae PE B93 A Dg 
AA. He Pee Cerwin TP be ANS? Ae Pry ‘ 
ae pers ah Pee TIVE eae at ‘ 
by Meee . bit hea Avia Yate ae , 
ae fy ¥ \ y Why 
t ne X ¢ 
. 4 I ¥ 7 . R \ 


- manufactories of woven-wire beds, 


FORUM 


Carnegie library, fine hotels, about 15 
banks, substantial business blocks, mod- 


ern office buildings and about 86 
churches. 
INSTITUTIONS. The city is the seat of 


the Texas Christian University, with a 
medical school department, Polytechnic 
College (Methodist Episcopal South), 
established in 1890, Baptist Theological 
Seminary, St. Andrew’s School (Prot- 
estant Episcopal), St. Ignatius Academy 
(Catholic), the Texas Masonic Manual 
Training School and about 27 other col- 
leges and schools. The benevolent and 
charitable institutions include Jo- 
seph’s Infirmary, Texas State Masonic 
widows’ and orphans’ home, a number 
of private hospitals and sanatoriums and 
All Saints’ Hospital. 

InpustTRIES. Extensive packing houses, 
flour mills, tanneries, machine-shop 
and rolling-mill plants, grain elevators 
and foundries are the chief industrial 
establishments of the city. There are 
fur- 
niture, trunks, mattresses, confectionery, 
overalls, Italian paste, cigars, shoes, ele- 


-vator cages and other diversified prod- 


ucts. The city has just completed a res- 
ervoir for its water supply with a 31,- 
000,000,000-gallon capacity, and has one 
of the largest and most modern electric- 
ower plants in the Southwest, costing 
$2,000,000 and distributing electricity 
commercially 150 m. from the city. 
History. In 1849 a military post was 
established here which was called Camp 
Worth. The name was later changed to 
Fort Worth. The fort and settlement 
were named in honor of Gen. William 
Jenkins Worth, who served in the War 
of 1812. In 1841-42 General Worth 
commanded the 
against the Seminole Indians. The city 
was incorporated in 1873, and in 1907 
adopted the commission form of govern- 
ment. Population in 1920, 106,482. 
Fo’rum (Roman), the central space 
in the city of Rome designed as a meet- 
ing place for the people, “either for busi- 
ness or pleasure. Originally it was 
merely the open space in the lowlands 
surrounded by the Palatine, Capitoline 


United States forces. 


FOSSILS 


and Quirinal hills and served as a com- 
mon meeting ground for the various 
tribes on the hills. When Rome became 
a united city the Forum was improved, 
encircled by shops and made a public 
ground in the business quarter of the 
city. The temples of Saturn, of the Di- 
oscuri and of Concord were built be- 
fore 300 B. C., but it was practically two 
centuries later before the first justice 
courts were constructed there. From this 
time the Forum was crowded with beau- 
tiful buildings and became the meeting 
place of the Senate. Monuments and 
statues adorned the place, but now only 
the ruins remain. The familiar pictures 
of the Forum show: _ __..aaded style 
which was adopted in the construction 
of the buildings and which was later 
copied in other cities. Recently the Ital- 
ian Government has been making exca- 
vations about the Forum and is preserv- 
ing the valuable relics found there. See 
map in the article RoME, ANCIENT. 

Fos’sils, the remains of organic bod- 
ies which were buried in the earth in 
past geologic ages and which are now 
found in rock formations. They are of 
interest and value as showing the succes- 
sive forms and conditions of life which 
have appeared on the earth in the sev- 
eral geologic periods. Fossils show that 
plant life preceded animal life and that 
the simplest forms of each appeared 
first, the more complex forms following 
as conditions prepared the way for their 
development. The earliest plant forms 
were seaweeds and rushes, and the first 
animal species was the Mollusk of the 
simplest structure. 

Each *successive era of the earth’s bi-- 
tory has been marked by the predom- 
inance of some particular life form. Fol- 
lowing the Mollusks the lowest forms of 
Vertebrates appeared in the Silurian 
Period, during the latter part of which 
and in the Devonian Period Fishes were 
the predominating form of life. Rep- 
tiles, Birds and Mammals followed suc- 
cessively, and, after untold ages, the 
species, among them man, which exist at 
the present time. The traces of the suc- 
cessive stages of evolution are fragmen- 


1073 


FOSTER 


tary. In some cases all actual remains of 
a species are lacking, and the only rec- 
ords left for the geologist are fvotprints 
made in sand or other yielding material, 
which afterwards solidified. See GroL- 
OGY; PALEONTOLOGY. 

Fos’ter, George Eulas (1847- ); 
a Canadian statesman, born in New 
Brunswick and educated at New Bruns- 
wick, Edinburgh and Heidelberg univer- 
sities. For some time he engaged in 
teaching, finally becoming classics pro- 
fessor in New Brunswick University; 
from here he resigned, however, in 1879, 
to lecture throughout Canada and the 
United States, chiefly on temperance and 
prohibition. An Independent Conserva- 
tive, he has sat in the House of Com- 
mons for Kings and for York, N. B., 
1882-1900, and for North Toronto since 
the general election of 1904. Meanwhile, 
he was successively minister of marine 
and fisheries and minister of finance, un- 
der Sir John A. Macdonald, and minis- 
ter of finance in the following adminis- 
trations until 1896. As minister of marine and 
fisheries, he prepared the Canadian side of the 
deep-sea fisheries case for the committee that 
sat at Washington, 1888, and which resulted in 
the Chamberlain-Bayard Treaty. In 1903 he 
lectured in the large cities of Great Britain in 
support of imperial trade preference. He was 
Canadian representative on the Dominion Royal 
Commission appointed by King George, 1912. 
“In 1916 he was made one of the four rep- 
resentatives of Great Britain to the Economic 
Conference of the Allies at Paris, and in 1918 
headed the Canadian delegation to the first as- 
sembly of the League of Nations at Geneva, 
being subsequently elected vice-president. 

Foster, John Watson (1836- ie 
an American statesman and diplomat, 
born in Pike County, Ind. He was edu- 
cated at the Indiana State University 
“nd at Harvard, was admitted to the 
bar and practiced law in Evansville, Ind. 
During the Civil War he served with dis- 
tinction. Foster was engaged for some 
time in journalism after the war, and in 
1873-1880 was minister to Mexico. In 
1881 he was minister to Russia and in 
1883, to Spain. In 1893 he went to Paris 
as a member of the court of arbitration 
in the Bering Sea Controversy. By the 
desire of the Emperor of China, he took 
part in. the negotiations of peace to close 


FOUCAULT PENDULUM 


the war between China and Japan. He 
has also acted as envoy of the United 
States in international arbitration. 
Among his writings are A Century of 
American Diplomacy and American D1- 
plomacy in the Orient. 

Foster, Stephen Collins (1826-1864), 
a gifted American song writer, born at 
Lawrenceville, Pa. He was educated at 
Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa., and 
learned when very young to play sev- 
eral instruments. His creative impulse 
received its stimulus in melodies heard in 
the negro cabins. He was irresponsible 
and pleasure-loving; and he died in ab- 
ject poverty. Among his numerous 
negro songs are The Suwanee River, 
Massa’s in the Cold, Cold Ground, My 
Old Kentucky Home, claimed by one E. 
P. Christy and first published with his 


‘name, and Come Where My Love Lies 


Dreaming. 

Fosto’ria, Ohio, a city of Senees 
county, situated 13 m. nw. of Tiffin 
and 35 m. s.e. of Toledo, on the Balti- 
more & Ohio, the Lake'Erie & West- 
ern and other railroads. Ojijl fields are 
found in the vicinity and the surrounding 
country is a fertile farming region. The 
city is an important manufacturing cen- 
ter and contains flour mills, brass and 
iron works, a carriage factory, planing 
mills, stave and barrel factories, glass 
factories, a safe factory, carbon works, 
machine shops and spoke and bending 
works, and numerous other industries. 
The city was named in honor of Charles 
Foster, governor of Ohio in 1879 and 
1881, and secretary of the United States 
treasury in 1891-93. Population in 1920, 
U. S. Census, 9,987. 

Foucault, Foo"ko’, Pendulum, the 
name applied to a simple pendulum so 
mounted as to demonstrate the rotation 
of the earth on its axis. Ifa very heavy 
weight be hung by a long fine cord free 
from twist and set to swinging north 
and south, it will continue to vibrate in 
the same plane passing through the cen- 
ter of the earth, but this plane will grad- 
ually shift its direction on the earth’s 
surface, due to the rotation of the earth 
under it. Such a pendulum at the North 


1074 


FOUNDRY 


Pole would change its direction of vibra- 
tion 360° in 24 hours, as the earth would 
rotate under it once in the 24 hours. 
At the equator it would not change its 
direction at all; at latitude 40° it would 
gradually change its direction 9° 40’ in 
an hour, requiring about 37 hours for its 
plane of vibration to make a complete 
revolution. This experiment was first 
performed by the French physicist Fou- 
cault in 1851; he used a heavy ball of 
copper hung by a wire over 160 ft. long, 
from the dome of the Pantheon in Paris. 
See PENDULUM. 

Foun’dry, an establishment designed 
for making metal castings. When the 
term is used without qualification it 
means a foundry for casting iron. The 
implements required are a cupola for 
melting the iron, patterns of the articles 
to be cast, molds into which the molten 
iron is poured, molder’s sand for packing 
around the pattern to form the mold and 
ladles for carrying the molter. 

The cupola consists of a cylindrical 
furnace lined with fire brick, having a 
bottom which opens downward, a low 
chimney, and air pipes opening into it 
near the bottom and through which the 
blast of air is driven through the fire. 
Just above the hearth is an opening 
— through which the molten iron is drawn 

off. The iron to be melted is broken into 
small pieces, and with the necessary 
amount of coke, is fed into the cupola 
near the top. The fire is lighted at the 
bottom and the blast applied. The molds 
are made by placing the patterns in 
boxes made for the purpose and pound- 
ing damp moider’s sand around them. A 
‘small opening is then made in the sand 
and the mold is ready for use. The iron 
solidifies quickly, and within a few mo- 
ments after the iron is poured, the boxes 
are opened and the castings taken out. 
See IRoN AND STEEL. 

Fountain, Foun’ tin. In the ordinary 
sense the term denotes an ornamental, ar- 
tificial basin having jets of water. Foun- 
tains are usually connected with the 
water system of a city, from which they 
get their water under pressure or by 
means of pumps, and they frequently 


FOURIER 


supply drinking water for man and ani- 
mals. The Greeks and Romans gave 
considerable attention to fountains, as is 
indicated by the remains of fountains in 
many of the ancient cities of the Medi- 
terranean coast. Modern fountains are 
fashioned largely from those of the 
Greeks, which were highly ornamental, 
and in many cities and towns in Europe 
and America there are to be found foun- 
tains justly celebrated for their beauty. 
Those most famous in Europe are the 
Schone Brunnen at Nuremberg, Ger- 
many; the Fontana Maggiore at Peru- 
gia, Italy; the Fontaine des Innocents, 
in Paris; the fountains and cascades at 
Versailles and St. Cloud, in France; and 
the Alameda Fountain at Malaga, Spain. 
In some of the expositions ornamental, 
symbolic fountains were conspicuous, 
among them the Fountain of the Repub- 
lic, by Macmonnies, at Chicago, in 1893; 
the fountains of Man, Nature and Prog- 
ress at Buffalo in 1901 and the Cascades 
at St. Louis, in 1904. See Exposition, 
INDUSTRIAL. 

Electric fountains are those which are 
illuminated through  variously-colored 
glass plates, producing on the jets of 
water many beautiful effects. 

Fouqué, Foo"ka’, Friedrich Heinrich 
Karl, BARON DE LA Motte (1777-1843), 
a German poet and novelist, born in 
Brandenburg. He was a Romanticist, 
and is remembered for his fantastic Un- 
dine, one of the most charming of Ger- 
man fairy stories. Among other produc- 
tions are The Magic king, Aslauga’s 
Knight and Sigurd the Snake-Killer. 

Fourier, Foo"re a’, Francois Marie 
Charles (1772-1837), a French socialist, 
founder of Fourierism, born at Besan- 
con, France. His father was well-to-do 
and gave him a good education in the 
college in his native town. After com- 
pleting his studies, in which he excelled, 
he became a merchant’s clerk, and in this 
capacity made business trips throughout 
France and into Germany and Holland. 
He inherited about $25,000 from his 
father, and engaged in trade at Lyons, 
but lost his property when the city was 
besieged by the troops of the Conven- 


1075 


FOUR-O’CLOCK 


tion in 1793. After serving for two 
years in the army, he secured employ- 
ment in a mercantile house in Lyons, un- 
dertaking later a small brokerage busi- 
ness of his own. During the remainder 
of his life he thus met his expenses and 
devoted his leisure time to elaborating 
his program for the reorganization of 
society, publishing his books out of his 
meager earnings. 

Fourier’s investigations were begun as 
a result of the fact that while a young 
man he had been required by his em- 
ployers to hold a quantity of rice for 
higher prices until it spoiled, while thou- 
sands of the poor were starving for lack 
of food. His social system was aimed 
at the relief of poverty by the elimination 
of the waste of competition and extrava- 
gant methods of selling goods. It advo- 
cated the division of society into com- 
panies, or phalanxes, each of which, sub- 
divided into series and groups on the 
basis of “passional attraction,’ should 
produce as far as possible all the neces- 
saries of life required by its members, 
and distribute them through a common 
storehouse at cost, thus getting rid of the 
middleman. A minimum allowance was 
to be made to each individual, and the 
remaining proceeds of industry were to 
be distributed according to a fixed per- 
centage between capital, labor and talent. 
Colonies founded upon the principles of 
Fourierism have been attempted in Eu- 
rope and America, but without great suc- 
cess. 

Four-o’clock, a native American herb 
of the Marvelwort, or Four-o’clock 
Family. It is found wild in Texas and 
South America and is elsewhere culti- 
vated for ornament. The roots are large 
and thick, the leaves somewhat heart- 
shaped. The showy flowers, which grow 
in profuse clusters, are of all colors, gen- 
erally tubular in form, and open on 
cloudy days or in the late afternoon; 
hence its name. It blooms all summer. 

Fowl, Domestic, a name applied es- 
pecially to the cock and hen when raised 
for food or for the eggs. Occasionally 
guinea fowl are also understood as in- 
cluded under the same term. Fully 96 


1076 


FOWL, DOMESTIC 


per cent of the poultry raised in the 
United States belongs to this class, and 
their eggs even more than their flesh con- 
stitute an important article of food. 
There are over 280,000,000 fowls kept 
upon farms or in small flocks in the 
United States, and their value is esti- 
mated at over $150,000,000. The num- 
ber of eggs produced annually is over 
1,300,000,000 dozens, and yet this pro- 
vides only about 200 eggs per annum for 
each person. The states which produce 
the most of these are Iowa, Ohio, Illi- 
nois, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, Pennsyl- 
vania, New York and Michigan. 

CHICKEN RalisinG. This is an impor- 
tant industry, owing to the great num- 
ber of eggs and fowls needed to supply 
a constantly increasing city population. 
To raise chickens easily and with, finan- 
cial success, arrangements should be 
made to give them clean, comfortable 
quarters near enough to the barnyard for 
them to pick up any scattered grain, The 
buildings should be well ventilated and 
warm in winter, though cool in summer. 
Cement floors and earth floors are apt to 
be damp, and wood floors are apt to be 
too cool unless they are double and lined 
with building paper. Cement floors cov- 
ered six inches with earth are probably 
the most satisfactory, but are also ex- 
pensive. 
If the chickens 
must be continually confined, they should 
have from 6 to 15 sq. ft. for each adult. 

If possible, the yard should be upon a 
gravelly slope, protected from wind and 
seeded with grass or clover. Here the — 
chickens may get plenty of exercise, 
which is a necessity to their growth, In 
the yards ‘there should be from 50 to 120 
sq. ft. of space to an adult. Coops for 
young chickens are of various kinds; 
formerly the most common were the box- 
like or tentlike coops with slatted fronts. 
Modern coops resemble small houses or 
are in the form of rectangular boxes, 
which are divided into two or more com- ~ 
partments. Wire netting is used in place 
of slats, and the boxes are so arranged 
that they are easily cleaned and are well 
ventilated. 


Roosts at a convenient height 
‘should be provided. 


sy yh ie SR een 


FOWL, DOMESTIC 


The most convenient nests are merely 
straw-filled boxes located in various 
parts of the shed. Trap nests are ar- 
ranged to imprison or to separate from 
the rest of the flock the hens which lay; 
they are of different devices, and by 
means of them the farmer may know 
which hens are providing the eggs. 
There is a great difference in hens in 
their desire to set or to hatch their eggs; 
many lay throughout a season without 
showing impulse to remain on the nest. 
Broods are now ordinarily hatched in in- 
cubators, as by this means several hun- 
dred can be hatched at once. Brooders 
are artificially warmed compartments de- 
signed to care for incubator chickens. 
To hatch, eggs require a constant tem- 
perature of about 104°. Great care 
should be taken that fowls have fresh, 
pure water and plenty of grain, green 
food and some animal food. Too much 
corn is fattening and is apt to lessen 
' laying; wheat is now considered a bet- 
ter poultry food. The food should con- 
tain lime and plenty of grit to aid in 
_ digestion. 

Breeps. Among the favorite breeds in 
the United States are Plymouth Rocks, 
- Wyandottes, Orpingtons, Rhode Island 
_ Reds, Cochins, Brahmas and Leghorns. 
- Of these the Plymouth Rock is the most 
popular both for food and for egg pro- 
ducing. The barred Plymouth Rocks 
are especially pleasing in appearance. 
The standard weight of a cock of this 
breed is nine and one-half pounds and 
- of a hen seven and one-half pounds. 
_ The Brahmas are probably best for eat- 
_ ing purposes alone, and the Leghorns are 
_ the most prolific layers. If kept clean, 
given plenty of water, exercise and 
wholesome food, chickens are not diff- 
cult to care for, and, aside from their 
value for their meat, eggs and feathers, 
they do great good in destroying harm- 
ful insects, while their damage to gar- 
‘dens is not apt to be great if they are 
otherwise provided with green food. 
Consult Watson, Fowls, Care and Feed- 
mg; United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Farmers’ Bulletin 41; McGraw, 
y The Plymouth Rock and The Wyan- 


FOX 


dotte; Collingwood, The Business Hen; 
Watson, Farm Poultry. 

Fow’ler, Charles Meaty (1837-1908) , 
an American Methodist Episcopal bishop, 
born in Burford, Ontario, and educated 
at the University of Syracuse and at Gar- 
rett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Ill. He 
was pastor of churches in Chicago for 
several years, but left the pastorate to be- 
come president of Northwestern Univer- 
sity. This position he held from 1872 to 
1876, when he was chosen editor of the 
Christian Advocate, the leading paper of 
the Methodist denomination in America. 
Dr. Fowler became missionary secretary 
in 1880, and was made a bishop in 1884. 
In a tour of the world, which he began 
in 1888, he founded Peking and Nankin 
universities in China, and in Russia or- 
ganized the First Methodist Episcopal 
Church in St. Petersburg. Upon his re- 
turn he assisted in founding the Nebraska 
Wesleyan University. 

Fox, a wild member of the Canine, 
or Dos, Family but differing from other 
members of this family so widely that by 
some authorities it is placed in a class by 
itself. The most common representative 
of this species is the American red fox, 
which is found in the northern regions of 
America and Asia and is probably only a 
variety of the European red fox. It is 
a smaller and more delicate animal than 
the wolf, with pointed muzzle, erect ears, 
slender body and legs; its tail is bushy 
and is the brush prized by English hunts- 
men. Though it is called the red fox the 
color of its fur is variable, being gener- 
ally yellowish-red but often black, frosted 
or pale yellow; in the frosted varieties 
the hairs are black but tipped with white, 
and the pelts of this variety as well as of 
the yellow are very valuable to furriers, 
The red fox is a burrow-dwelling ani. 
mal and often constructs ample under- 
ground apartments of three rooms, one 
of which is often his storeroom. 

The grey fox is a Southern species, 
smaller than the red fox, with beautiful, 
red-tinged, silver-gray fur; it makes its 
home in hollow trees and lives upon eggs, 
poultry and fruit; the latter it secures 
by climbing trees with great agility. The 


1077 


FOX 


Arctic, or blue, fox is a Northern spe- 
cies, common in Alaska, Iceland and 
Greenland, and has been described by all 
polar navigators. Its fur is of great 
value. Other species known in America 
are the big-eared California foxes, Alas- 
kan foxes and the swift kit foxes com- 
mon on the plains. All of these are cred- 
ited with the same cunning given, in the 
old medieval epic, to Reynard the Fox, 
who outwitted all his enemies by his 
stratagems and stealth. 

Although the fox has been noted in 
the legends and folk tales of all lands for 
its slyness and cunning, stories of its skill 
are probably somewhat exaggerated. It 
does, however, display remarkable intel- 
ligence in facing new difficulties and 
adapting itself to new conditions. This 
is partly accounted for in its having to 
act both as hunted and hunter, for it is 
the prey of man, wolves and mountain 
lions, and itself hunts Rodents, poul- 
try, birds, frogs and reptiles. Its meth- 
ods are interesting for it can out-distance 
most animals, and employs numerous 
stratagems in securing its prey or baf- 
fling its enemy. The sport of fox-hunt- 
ing, popular in England, is not widely 
practiced in the United States, though, in 
the South, European foxes, said to dis- 
play more cunning than the American 
varieties, have been imported for the 
hunt. | 

Fox, a tribe of the Algonquians 
whose familiar name was given them by 
the French. They called themselves the 
Muskwakiuks, or Red-Earth People. 
They first occupied the Lake Superior re- 
gion but were driven southward by the 
Ojibways and, later, by the French. In 
self-defense they united with the Sauks, 
and the two tribes gradually fused. The 
members of the tribe are now few in 
number and live in scattered localities in 
Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma and Iowa. 

Fox, or Nee’nah, River, a river of 
Wisconsin, rising in Green Lake County 
in the south-central part of the state. 
It flows southwest almost to the city of 
Portage on the Wisconsin River, with 
which the Fox is united by a canal. 
From there it winds in an east-northeast- 


FOX 


erly direction until it passes through Lake 
Winnebago; thence it flows north, en- 


tering Green Bay, a long arm of Lake © 


Michigan. The stream is important com- 
mercially since it forms one of the chan- 
nels connecting the Mississippi and the 
Great Lakes. Its length is practieally 
250 m. The largest cities upon the 
stream are Oshkosh, Appleton, Green 
Bay and Portage. 

Fox, Charles James (1749-1806), an 
English statesman. He entered Parlia- 
ment in 1768 and was a member of the 
cabinet under North from 1770 to 1773, 
and under Rockingham in 1782 as secre- 
tary for foreign affairs. He opposed the 
coercive policy of Great Britain in re- 
gard to the American colonies, and also 
opposed the war with France. Fox 
ranked among the leading orators of his 
age. He was the friend of Burke, Gib- 
bon and Johnson, and the political rival 
of Pitt. 

Fox, George (1624-1691), the 
founder of the sect called Quakers or 
Friends, born at Drayton in Leicester- 
shire, England. In his youth he was a 
shoemaker’s apprentice, but at the age of 
19 years he became convinced that he 
was called to be a reformer. He wan- 
dered from place to place preaching and 
teaching that the Holy Spirit rather than 
the Bible was the source of divine truth, 
and consequently the authority according 
to which man should live. He taught 
simplicity of religious life, wore his hat 
on all occasions and affected certain pe- 
culiarities of dress. He was persecuted 
and several times imprisoned. Fox trav- 
eled and preached in the West Indies and 
Europe, and visited America with Penn, 
Barclay and Keith. His followers were 
called Quakers from certain trembling 
and shaking motions which they prac- 
ticed, “trembling before the Lord.” Fox 
was distinguished for his doctrine and 
life of “peace on earth, good will toward 
men,” which also characterized his fol- 
lowers. See FRIENDS. 

Fox, John, Jr. (1863-1919), an Amer- 
ican novelist, born in Bourbon County, 
Ky., and educated at Harvard University. 


After spending some time in newspaper — 


1078 


FOXE 


work and business, he settled at Big 
Stone Gap, Va., making here the study 
of mountain life that gives vitality and 
interest to his novels. Among his popu- 
lar stories are The Kentuckians, The Lit- 
tle Shepherd of Kingdom Come, Knight 
of the Cumberland and Trail of the Lone- 
some Pine. He published an account of 
his experiences as a correspondent in the 
Russo-Japanese War under the title Fol- 
lowing the Sun Flag. 

Foxe, Fox, John (1516-1587), an 
English Church historian, educated at 
Oxford. He was a fellow of Magdalen 
College and in 1545 was expelled for 
heresy, but later was ordained deacon of 
the Anglican Church, being variously 
connected with Reigate, the Cathedral of 
Salisbury, Cripplegate and Durham. In 
_ 1575 he interceded with Elizabeth for the 

Dutch Anabaptists. He is immortalized 
by his History of the Acts and Monu- 
_ ments of the Church, or Foxe’s Book of 
_ Martyrs. The first English edition ap- 
peared in 1563, and it was placed in 
every Episcopal palace in England. The 
book has gone through innumerable edi- 
tions, and is very widely known. 

| rns HOXP OVE, a 
corruption of 
folk’s-glove, a 
European herb 
of the Figwort 
Family, which 
has become 
common in the 
United States 
through culti- 
vation and 
escape from 
gardens, It is 
a sturdy plant 
with showy 
flowers, which 
in shape re- 


semble glove 

fingers. The 

Leaves vane 
ee pointed and 


somewhat downy. The flowers, which 
are crowded on a long stalk, are white 
or pale purple and sometimes spotted. 
From the shape of the flower, foxglove 


FOX TERRIER 


has been given many fanciful local 
names, such as fairy-bells, fairy-thimbles, 
lady’s-glove, lady’s fingers, dog’s finger. 
rabbit’s flower, etc. It blossoms all sum- 
mer. Two native American members of 
the same family, whose flowers are yel- 
low and more regularly tubular, have 
been named smooth false foxglove and 
downy false foxglove from their likeness 
to their European cousin. rf: 

Digitalis, a drug derived from the 
leaves and stems of several species of 
foxglove, is valued as a cardiac sedative. 

Foxhound, a species .of hound, a 
cross between the greyhound and the old 
English hound, which has been bred in 
England for the sake of the hunt. It is 
a medium-sized dog with straight pro- 
truding muzzle, long, silky ears, strong 
legs and erect tail; the coat is short- 
haired and smooth, generally black, 
white and tan in color. It is noted for 
its swiftness and endurance and is said 
to travel faster than the fastest horse 
and for a longer distance without rest. 
The foxhounds’ enjoyment in the chase 
and their zeal in its continuance for ex- 
traordinary distances render them favor- 
ites among English lovers of the sport. 

Foxtail Grass, a common member 
of the Grass Family, found growing in 
meadows where it has been self-sown or 
is planted for hay and fodder. Some spe- 
cies are found by roadsides and there, or 
when found among other crops, are 
classed as weeds. It has received its 
name from its bushy spike of stems 
which is really a number of much-con- 
tracted, short-stemmed «clusters. Its 
stems are hollow and its leaves long, 
sheathing the stem in the same manner 
as do those of most grasses. A species 
called bottle grass or green foxtail grass 
is lighter green than the other species; 
and a cultivated species is tall, growing 
three or five feet high, and is locally 
known as Italian millet, Bengal grass or 
Germanica. 

Fox Terrier, a dog of the terrier spe- 
cies common as a pet, but deriving its 
name from its former occupation of driv- 
ing foxes from their holes. It is a bright, 
intelligent dog, full of play and quick 


1079 


FRAMINGHAM 


and active in its movements. The head 
is small, the muzzle black and protrud- 
ing, the ears long and inquisitive. Its 
slender body has a short, silken coat gen- 
erally black and white, or black, white 
and tan in color. The tail is stiff and 
straight. The fox terrier is one of the 
most easily educated of dogs and its 
compact build makes it pleasing in ap- 
pearance. 

Fra’mingham, Mass., a town of Mid- 
dlesex Co., 21 m. s.w. of Boston, on the 
Sudbury River and on the N. Y., N. H. 
& H. and B. & A. Railroads. Saxonville 
and Nobscot are included in the corpo- 
rate limits of Framingham. Framing- 
ham is the chief business and banking 
center. It has manufactories of boots 
and shoes, paper boxes, gummed labels, 
chairs, rubber, straw goods, tags, crape 
paper, carpets, boilers, automobiles, ra- 
diators, woolen yarns, worsted cloths 
and wool blankets. A_ state normal 
school, state reformatory and home for 
the aged are located here. 
settled in 1647 and known as Dan- 
forth’s Plantation until 1700, when it 
was incorporated. An important health 
program has caused Framingham to be 
known as the Model Health town. Pop- 
ulation of the town in 1920, U. S. Cen- 
sus, was 17,033. 

France. A republic of Europe bounded 
on the north by the English Channel and 
the Strait of Dover; on the east by Bel- 
gium, Luxemburg, Germany, Switzer- 
land, and Italy; on the south by the 
Mediterranean Sea and Spain; on the 
west by the Bay of Biscay and the At- 
lantic Ocean. The shape of the country 
is that of a hexagon, with a greatest 
length from the North Sea to the Pyre- 
nees of about 550 miles, and a maximum 
breadth from the Bay of Biscay to the 
Rhine of about 400 miles. Its area in 
Europe including Corsica and other is- 
lands is 212;734 sq. m. It is the second 
European nation in size. 

Owing to its geographical location, 
the western outlet of Europe, France 
became the thoroughfare of commerce 
and ideas between the old and the new 
world. 


1080 


ee was: 


ie 


FRANCE 


SuRFACE, The territory of France 
forms a physical unit, due to its natural 
boundaries on all sides, its boundary 
line being almost equally divided between. 
coast and frontier, On the east a series 
of mountain ranges, including the Alps, 
Jura, Vosges, Rhenish Highlands, and 
Ardennes, form a boundary, broken by 
passes, which facilitate commercial com--° 
munication with the rest of Europe. The 
Pyrenees, on the other hand, are an al- 
most impassable barrier, except around 
the extremities, between France and 
Spain. The coast line, about 1950 m. 
long, is variably one of rocky cliffs or 
low sandy dunes, bordered by barren 
moors. The interior of France consists 
of highlands principally to the south 
and east, a great central plateau, a less 
elevated plateau in Normandy and Brit- 
tany and the plains in the northern and 
the western part. The average eleva- 
tion of the land, about 1000 ft., dimin- 
ishes in the western part to about 650 
ft. and less. Here are the basins of the 
Garonne, the Seine and the Loire. The 
great central, or Archzan, plateau ex- 
tends west of the Rhone and south of 
the Loire River. Near the Mediterra- 
nean is its separated border, called the 
Cévennes, and the mass as a whole — 
stands out boldly against the sea. Near 
the middle of the plateau are gorges, 
deep ravines and inundations showing 
the effects of volcanic eruptions. Be- 
yond it are the fertile plains of western 
and northern France.. 

Rivers AND Lakes, The Rhone, en- 
tering from Switzerland and piercing the 
gap between the Alps and the Jura, is 
the largest river of France. It drains 
the southeastern part of the country into - 
the Mediterranean, and has as its im- 


portant tributaries the Saodne, Ain, Gard, 


Ardéche, Isére, Durance and the Dréme. 
The Garonne, Seine and the Loire con- 
stitute the other important drainage sys- 
tems. The area of the basin of the Loire 
is approximately 46,000 sq. m. It col- 
lects the waters of the Allier, Indre, — 
Vienne-Creuse, Cher, Loir, Mayenne and 

Sarthe, and drains west-central France. 
The Garonne receives the waters of the © 


FRANCE 


southwestern part of the central plateau 
from the Dordogne, the Tarn-Aveyron 
and the Lot rivers, and at its mouth is 
joined by the Gironde, forming a large 
estuary. The Seine is of great commer- 
cial importance, and is navigable from 
Paris to the sea. The whole of France 
is connected by means of natural or ar- 
tificial waterways, and since they carry 
about half the trade of the country the 
rivers of France have great commercial 
significance. 

The lakes are few and unimportant. 
The largest, partly within the boundaries 
of the country, is Lake Geneva, princi- 
pally a Swiss possession. The Alpine 
region and the Rhone basin contain a 
few lakes, among which are Annecy and 
Bourget. 

CLIMATE. In general, the climate of 
France is temperate. The prevailing 
winds are from the west and southwest, 
and they, together with the warm ocean 
gurrents, temper the climate, which 
grows continental when no longer with- 
in reach of their influence. Hence the 
summers on the eastern frontier are ex- 
tremely hot and the winters are long 
and severe. In the neighborhood of the 
Cévennes, as well as the Alps, are bit- 
ter winds and perpetual snows. On the 
Mediterranean coast the temperature be- 
comes subtropical, due to the high 
ranges, which prevent the entrance of 
cold winds. At times, howéver, a local 
wind known as the mistral sweeps over 
this region ‘with such violence as to 
cause great havoc; it is chilling, but a 
general clearing of the atmosphere is the 
beneficent influence attendant upon it. 
The mean annual rainfall of France is 
about 2914 inches, a maximum of 71 
inches falling in the neighborhood of the 
Pyrenees, and a minimum of 19% inches 
along a part of the Mediterranean coast. 

MINERALS AND Mininc. The most 
valuable mineral resources of France are 
coal and iron. The coal fields, compris- 
ing a territory of 2100 sq. m., are widely 
distributed, the principal deposits being 
found in the neighborhood of Valen- 
ciennes and Saint-Etienne. The yield of 
bityminous coal is the largest, though 


FRANCE 


small amounts of anthracite are found in 
the Department of Isére. Despite the 
fact that wood is the chief fuel, the coal. 
supply does not suffice for home con- 
sumption, and large amounts are im- 
ported from England and Belgium to 
meet the demand of industrial France. 
With the return of Alsace-Lorraine the 
iron industry of France will soon become 
prominent for from Alsace came three- 
fourths of the iron used by Germany in 
the days preceding the World War. 
Those rich iron deposits now belong to 
France along with the coal and other 
mineral wealth of the province. France 
also produces lead, copper, zinc, anti- 
mony, and manganese and is rich in 
building stones; marble, slate, cement, 
phosphates and millstones are exten- 
sively quarried. The precious metals 
are few. 

FISHERIES. One of the important in- 
dustries, carried on in France on a vast 
scale, is its fisheries. About 145,000 of 
the inhabitants are engaged in the work. 
The catch consists chiefly of herring, 
oysters, mussels, anchovies, tunnies, pil- 
chards, mackerel and sardines. The 
breeding of oysters is constantly grow- 
ing in importance. 

AGRICULTURE, For centuries agricul- 
ture has been the chief occupation of the 
inhabitants of France, and the French 
peasant and landholder have long been 
significant types. About one-half of the 
territory is under cultivation, and agri- 
culture and forestry give employment to 
8,000,000 people. Along the Garonne 
and the Rhone rivers the land is very 
fertile, while the barren regions belong 
principally to the neighborhood of the 
Alps and the Pyrenees. The forests are 
not important, but pine, spruce, beech, 
ash, oak and other varieties of trees are 
found. The destruction of the national 
forests has been extensive within recent 
years. Arnong cereals, chief prominence 
is given to the cultivation of wheat. 
Oats, rye, barley, potatoes, hemp, flax, 
beets, maize, buckwheat and rape are 
grown. ‘The productions of the vine- 
yards of France, as well as different 
kinds of fruit, are famous. The or- 


38 1081 


FRANCE 


ange, lemon and olive are found in the 
south; the pear, peach, plum, apple and 
cherry in the north. For a long time the 
vine has represented one of the chief 
sources of its agricultural wealth, the 
climate and soil of the country being es- 
pecially favorable for its growth. The 
finest grapes come from Champagne, 
Bordelais and Burgundy, the wines of 
Burgundy being known the world over. 
The apple is grown, chiefly in Nor- 
mandy, and the production of cider is 
fairly large. Among nuts, the chestnut 
forms a staple food among the poorer 
classes in the mountain regions of Cor- 
sica and Auvergne, and is extensively 
exported. The chief industrial plants 
are beets, mulberry tree (for silk pro- 
duction), colza and tobacco. Attempts 
have been made to increase the area of 
natural meadow and pasture lands in 
order to meet the demands of stock 
breeding, which remains of secondary 
importance. The chief attention is given 
to the breeding of sheep and of fine 
horses for the army. Formerly the land 
was in the hands of the peasantry and 
was fairly equally distributed into small 
portions for each farmer. The tendency 
within recent years has been to increase 
these to large estates, which are then 
subplotted. 

Manuractures. Due to lack of nat- 
ural resources, France has been unable 
to hold her own in the industrial compe- 
tition among nations, since the new in- 
dustrial appliances have been intro- 
duced. Beauty, elegance and artistic 
finish are characteristics of her most dis- 
tinctive products, and these yield rather 
pleasure to the eye than a fine net total 
of financial gain.: The most important is 
the textile industry, and the production 
of silk, ranking third in amount, is the 
most superior in artistic finish. Mil- 
linery goods, kid gloves and.small ar- 
ticles are also important. The linen 
goods have reached a high grade of per- 
fection. Chemicals, glass, paper and 
pottery are manufactured. The metal 
industry is significant, chief attention be- 
ing paid to smaller metalware. The 
jewelry, mirrors and surgical instruments 


FRANCE 


are famous. The government monopo- 
lizes the tobacco industry, and alcohol, 
wine, beer and refined sugar are manu- 
factured in large quantities. 

COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. Re- 
cent years have witnessed a marked in- 
crease in both imports and exports. The 
chief imports are coal and raw materials, 
only abowt 18 per cent of the total 
amount consisting of manufactured 
goods. About one-fourth of the exports 
are raw materials, and one-half are man- 
ufactured goods. Textiles, raw wool and 
yarn, clothing, linen, wine, chemical 
products, raw silk and leather goods are. 
among the leading exports. The United 
Kingdom receives the largest per cent 
of the exports of France, and is, in turn, 
drawn upon for the greatest bulk of im- 
ports. Other countries with which im- 
portant commercial communications are 
maintained are the United States, Ger- 
many, Belgium, Argentina, Russia and 
Algeria. . 

Methods of transportation represent a 
high state of perfection. Reference to 
the system of waterways, by means of 
natural river basins and artificial canals, 
has already been made. The largest 
canals are the Canal du Midi, or Canal 
of Languedoc, connecting the Atlantic 


-Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea and 


crossing the southwestern part of 
France; the Rhine and Rhone Canal, 
uniting thé two rivers so named; the 
Canal of Bourgogne, joining the Seine, 
Yonne and Saone rivers; and the Canal 
du Centre, connecting the Saone and the 
Loire. The railway system is one of 
the best in Europe, its mileage being 
surpassed only by that of Germany and 
Russia. The six large trunk lines of 
railway of the country are the Paris- 
Lyons-Mediterranean, the Southern, the 
Paris-Orléans, the Western, the North- 
ern and the Eastern. All except the 
Southern Railway converge upon Paris. 
The railways are in the hands of private 
individuals, but are strictly controlled by 
the government. There are three kinds 
of highroads in the country: national, 
departmental and communal. They are 
admirably maintained and organized, and 


1082 


FRANCE 


are a heritage of magnificent engineer- 
ing skill, dating back to the days of an- 
cient France. The total length of rail- 
way lines in 1909 was 30,000 m.; of tele- 
graph lines, in 1908, over 96,000 m.; of 
navigable rivers, 5480 m.; of canals, 3075 
m.; of roads, 62,540 m. 

INHABITANTS, There are several dif- 
ferent races represented in the country, 
chiefly the Iberian element-in the south- 
west, the Ligurian on the shores of the 
Mediterranean, and the Germanic and 
Scandinavian in the northwest. The 
Celtic type, inhabiting the territory be- 
tween the Garonne and the Seine rivers, 
is short of stature, has dark hair and a 
broad head. The Celts (and this charac- 
terization applies more or less to the 
French people as a whole) are vivacious 
and temperamental, with alternating 
moods of gayety and depression; they 
have a mind that responds quickly to 
logic and organization; they are lively 
and frank and have admirable qualities 
of thrift and industry, as well as genuine 
love of the soil. In Normandy is the 
tall, light-haired and blue-eyed type, re- 
sembling the Teutonic invaders. 
darker type is found in Champagne and 
in the neighborhood of the Vosges and 
the Perche. 
stature and dark hair and eyes prevail. 
Many European countries surpass France 
in density of population, and while at the 
beginning of the 19th century only Rus- 
sia exceeded France in population, by 
the last half of the century France had 
fallen to fifth place among European 
nations, an unusual decline. 

GOVERNMENT. The Government of 
France is a centralized Parliamentary re- 
public. Monarchical traditions prevail, 
however, and the president, or chief ex- 
ecutive, is not elected by popular vote 
but by the two chambers of the legisla- 
tive assembly, a majority of the total 
number being necessary for election. 
The constitution provides for this legis- 
lative body, consisting of a Senate and 
a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is 
nominated by a special electorate; the 
Chamber of Deputies is elected directly 
by universal male suffrage for four 


In southern France, a short 


FRANCE 


years. The local government of France 
is now controlled by departments, at 
the head of each of which is a prefect 
appointed and removed at the pleasure 
of the chief executive. Below the de- 
partment is the arrondissement, four be- 
longing to each department and each 
serving as an administrative and elec- 
tion district. Smaller and less important 
units are the canton and the commune. 
There are 36,000 communes, and all ex- 
cept Paris are administered by a mayor 
elected by the municipal council. - The 
council, elected by universal suffrage for 
a term of four years, is the deliberative 
body of the commune. Central admin- 
istrative control is one of the prevailing 
characteristics of French local govern- 
ment, and an extraordinary degree of 
uniformity is obtained, though at a par- 
tial sacrifice of the fullest freedom in 
local self-government. 

In the judicial system the highest 
court is the Court of Cassation at Paris, 
consisting of a first president, three 
presidents of sections and 45 judges. 
There are 26 Courts of Appeal hearing 
cases from the Courts of First Instance 
in the arrondissements; they in turn deal 
with appeals from decisions made by the 
justices of the peace in the different can- 
tons. The army plays an important part 
in the national life of France, and the 
country has come to be recognized as a 
military republic. There are 2,500,000 
men available of the 4,350,000 liable to 
military duty, and the national system 
of defense is maintained at a high de- 
gree of efficiency. 

EpucaTion. For an account of the 
system see EpucATION, NATIONAL Sys- 
TEMS OF, subHead France. 


LITERATURE. See LITERATURE, sub- 
head French Literature. 
Reticion. The Catholic Church has 


numbered among its adherents 98 per 
cent of the population of France. Until 
1905, when the bond was severed, the 
Catholic Church and the Jewish and 
Protestant confessions were subsidized 
by the State. In recent years there has 
been a movement of opposition to Cathol- 
icism, but both Protestants and Jews are 


1083 


FRANCE 


likewise gradually diminishing in number. 

CHIEF CITIES. Foremost among the 
cities of France is Paris, the largest city 
of the Continent. Other important cities 
are Marseilles, Bordeaux, Havre, Lisle, 
Lyons, Versailles, Toulouse and Nantes. 
The three important seaports on the 
north are Dunkirk, Calais and Boulogne. 
The ports of the Seine are Paris, Rouen 
and Havre. On the Atlantic coast are 
Saint-Malo, Morlaix, Brest, Lorient and 
Nantes. The southeastern part contains 
many old- Roman towns, including Or- 
ange, Avignon, Beaucaire, Nimes, Cette 
and Marseilles. 

History. In the time of the Romans 
the country was called Gaul and was in- 
habited by a people called Gauls, who 
had conquered the Celts, the earliest in- 
habitants. When Czsar came into the 
country (58-50 B. C.) the quarreling 
tribes were subdued and Gaul came with- 
in the circle of Roman civilization and 
even furnished three Roman emperors. 

Invasions. In the fifth century began 
a furious pouring in of the barbarians, 
which continued for over 100 years. 
Vandals swept over Gaul beyond the 
Pyrenees, while Franks, Visigoths and 
Burgundians settled within its borders. 
In 451 these tribes all united under the 
Roman general Aétius and drove back 
the devastating Huns at the famous Bat- 
tle of Chalons. 

Church and Barbarians. 
part of the barbarians were not ortho- 
dox, being Arians in faith, but this es- 
trangement was happily changed for the 
Roman Church and for Gaul by the con- 
version of Clovis (See Ciovis). This 
Frankish ruler and his sons conquered 
almost all Gaul. Under his descendants, 
called the Merovingian kings, the royal 
power declined and was absorbed in the 
office called mayor of the palace. Fi- 
nally this office was made hereditary by 
the famous Pippin of Heristal. The 
family renown was increased by Charles 
Martel, who succeeded to his father’s 
office, and who stood as the champion 
of the Church. Charles Martel saved 
Europe for Christendom and drove the 
Arab Mohammedans into Spain by the 


The greater 


FRANCE 


Battle of Tours in 732. The son of 
Charles Martel, Pippin the Short, sent 
the puppet Merovingian ruler to a mon- 
astery, and, seeking alliance with the 
Church, was crowned king by the Pope 
(See CAROLINGIANS). His son, Charle- 
magne, succeeded him and made even_a 
closer alliance with the Church (See 
CHARLEMAGNE). 

The empire of Charlemagne was di- 
vided into three parts by his descendants, 
in the Treaty of Verdun (843), and his 
grandson Charles received the territory 
of modern France as his share. The 
history of France proper begins at this 
time. The invasion of the Northmen in- 
creased the power of the nobles and 
feudalism secured a firm hold. The 
Carolingian kings, or descendants of 
Charlemagne, ruled with the royal power 
steadily declining until at the death of 
Louis V in 987, Hugh Capet, one of the 
greatest nobles of the country, founded 
the Capetian dynasty. For 200 years 
these kings struggled unsuccessfully to 
establish the royal power over the tur- 
bulent nobles. Louis the Fat (1108) was 
the first to succeed in controlling his 
own duchy. He tried to keep the high- 
ways free from robbers, but it was left 
for his grandson, Philip Augustus, to 
make the Duchy of France expand into 
a kingdom (See PHitip AuGustus). At 
the death of Charles IV (1328), as the 
Salic law excluded female succession, the 
crown passed to another branch of the 
Capetian family. Philip VI of the House 
of Valois became king. This led to a 
series of wars with England called the 
Hundred Years’ War. France came out 


of this long conflict in an impoverished | 


condition but with the English prac- 
tically driven from the country, as they 
retained only the seaport Calais. See 
HuNpDRED YEARS’ WAR; JOAN OF ARC, 

Louis XI (1461-1483), an unscrupu- 
lous king, put down the powers of the 
nobles and thus began the foundation 
of the absolute monarchy of France. 
Large fiefs came under his control and 
Brittany was added during the reign of 
his son Charles by ‘his marriage with 
Anne of Brittany. Charles began the 


1084 


ee 


FRANCE 


series Of Italian invasions. These were . 


expensive campaigns and resulted in no 
addition of territory, but the invaders 
carried back the seeds of the Renaissance 
which was soon to flower in France un- 
der Francis I (See RENAISSANCE). This 
ruler began his reign by a successful 
campaign in Italy and was the generous 
patron of art and literature. He was 
defeated by Charles V, who claimed his 
conquered Duchy of Milan. When his 
son Henry II came to the throne he con- 
tinued the war with Austria, as well as 
the persecution of the Huguenots (See 
REFORMATION, THE). Savoy was lost, 
but Calais was taken from the English. 
During the short reign of his son, Fran- 
cis II, the House of Guise rose to power. 
His second son, Charles IX, was dom- 
inated by Catherine de’ Medici, wife of 
Henry II, and there was a struggle be- 
tween the Huguenots and Catholics. The 
religious wars continued tinder Henry 
III and ceased only when his cousin, 
Henry IV, became King of France. 

With Richelieu as prime minister a 
new policy was adopted. The internal 
troubles were suppressed, nobles were 
put down and the power of France was 
extended abroad (See THirty YEARS’ 
War; RICHELIEU, ARMAND JEAN). Dur- 
ing the minority of Louis XIV, Mazarin 
was minister. Though more cautious 
than Richelieu, he carried on the plans 
of the great cardinal. Mazarin died 
when Louis XIV was a young man, and 
Louis undertook the task of ruling with- 
out a minister. By his extravagant court 
and reckless wars he left France bur- 
dened with an enormous national debt 
and with declining industries. Still an- 
other long minority of his grandson, 
Louis XV, followed, during which the 
public money was wasted, while the 
reckless extravagance was even worse 
during his long reign. 

Thus France had reached the verge 
of financial ruin when Louis XVI, well 
meaning but incompetent, became king. 
Minister after minister tried to reform 
the finances until, as a last resort, a 
States-General was called in May, 1789 
(See FRENCH REVOLUTION). ; 


FRANCE | 


Napoleon became first consul in 1799, 
and the history of France and that of 
Napoleon are virtually the same until 
1815 (See Napoteon 1). Louis XVIII, 
brother of Louis XVI, ruled after the 
first abdication of Napoleon and was 
again restored after his-fall at Waterloo. 
He at first made no attempt to destroy 
the great work of the French Revolu- 
tion, but the emigrant nobles tried to 
bring about a reaction. The King was 
led by their influence to pass several op- 
pressive measures. His brother, Charles 
X, who succeeded him in 1824, had been 
the leader of these reactionaries. He 
was overthrown in 1830, when the min- 
istry tried to enforce ordinances sup- 
pressing the liberty of the press, and to 
give the people less choice in the elec- 
tions. Louis Philippe was proclaimed 
constitutional king, but, elected as leader 
of the popular party, he soon began to 
oppose reform and was driven into ex- 
ile in 1848. The new government was a 
republic with Louis Napoleon as presi- 
dent; four years later, he overthrew the 
republic and proclaimed himself emperor. 

The modern history of France centers 
around two events. The first is the 
Franco-German War of 18/0, which is 
considered elsewhere. At the conclusion 
of that unfortunate war, the republic was 
revived and France enjoyed forty years 
of peace. 

The War of 1914. Germany’s vast 
scheme of world conquest finally led to 
the.war of 1914 in which France was at 
once involved. At this point, French his- 
tory suddenly becomes of great interest 
to Americans. . When we entered the Eu- 
ropean War,France was the field of activ- 
ity. Millions of our soldiers fought with 
those of our other allies on the blood 
soaked fields of France. Rivers and 
hamlets of that country are invested with 
vivid interest since there, American sol- 
diers untried in the arts of war, showed 
themselves not inferior to the disciplined 
veterans of Germany. America will not 
forget the self-sacrificing valor there dis- 
played. Clement Arman Fallieres presi- 
dent from 1906 to 1913 was succeeded 


1085 


FRANCE, BANK OF 


by Monsieur Raymond Poincaré in Feb- 
ruary, 1913. Population in 1911, 39,- 
601,509. 

France, Bank of. See BANKS AND 
BANKING, subhead Continental Banks. 

Francis I (1494-1547), King of 
France, succeeding his uncle and father- 
in-law, Louis XII, in 1515, and reign- 
ing for 32 years, a contemporary of 
Henry VIII of England and Charles V 
of Germany. He regained Milan in 1515, 
and on the field of battle accepted knight- 
hood from the famous Bayard. . He 
failed of election as Emperor of Ger- 
many in 1519, and declared war on his 
successful rival, Charles V. Defeated 
at Pavia and taken prisoner in 1525, he 
was released on hard terms a year later 
and renewed the war, exciting the in- 
dignation of all Christendom by form- 
ing an alliance with the Turks. A treaty 
for ten years was finally concluded be- 
tween Charles and Francis in 1538, but 
when Charles undertook an unsuccessful 
expedition against Algiers, the King of 
France began war again in 1542. Charles 
won the aid of Henry VIII, and Francis 
was compelled to sign the Treaty of 
Crespy in 1544. He fostered art and 
learning, and built several of the finest 
palaces in Europe. 

Francis II (1768-1835), Holy Roman 
emperor from 1792 to 1806 and ruler of 
Austria until 1835. He became Em- 
peror of Austria in March, 1792, upon 
the death of his father, and in July of 
the same year was elected to the throne 
of Germany. His reign occupied the 
troublous years of the French Revolu- 
tion, and under his direction the allied 
Prussian and Austrian armies invaded 
France, from which they were driven 
out. Later the war was continued on 
German territory, and in 1797 Napoleon 
entered Austria. By the, Treaty of 
Campo Formio Francis was obliged to 
surrender Belgium and Lombardy, but 
received in return the lands of the Re- 
public of Venice. In 1799 Francis 
formed an alliance with Russia and Eng- 
land and again took up the war against 
Napoleon, but was disastrously defeated 
at Marengo and Hohenlinden, and later 


FRANCIS JOSEPH I 


at Austerlitz; this battle lost for Fran- 
cis the Venetian territories and Tyrol, 
and the Holy Roman Empire was wholiy 
dissolved. On Aug. 6, 1806, Francis 
laid down his imperial crown and there- 
after ruled as Francis I, Emperor of 
Austria. Through the years of Napo- 
leon’s power Francis frequently hoped 
to regain his lost possessions, although 
by the marriage of his daughter with the 
French ruler a temporary peace was 
made. After the defeat of Napoleon at 
Waterloo, Francis joined in the forma- 
tion of the Holy Alliance, whose reac- 
tionary policy he largely dictated under 
the guidance of his counselor, Metter- 
nich. 

Franciscans, Fran sis’ kans, (Minor- 
ites, also called Gray Friars), the first 
mendicant order of preachers, estab- 
lished by St. Francis of Assisi (1182- 
1226), a man of boundless piety and 
charity. They were the union of his 
first 12 followers, who were bound by a 
severe rule, which, to great learning 
added poverty so rigorous as to neces- 
sitate complete dependence on alms. In 
1210 Innocent III gave verbal approba- 
tion to the new order which Honorius 
III confirmed in 1223. The Francis- 
cans have done their greatest missionary 
work in Mexico, South America and in 
the East, where St. Francis himself 
labored. With. St. Clare he established 
the Poor Clares for women. The order 
had a rapid growth in Italy, France, and 
Spain. At the first general chapter held 
at Assisi in 1219, upwards of 5000 
friars were present. 

Francis Joseph I (1830-1916). Em- 
peror of Austria, nephew of Ferdinand 
I, whom he succeeded in 1848. At the 
time of his accession, Hungary was in 
a state of revolt, and in April, 1849, the 
country was declared a republic, with 
Kossuth as governor. In Italy, Charles 
Albert of Sardinia took up arms against 
Austria, but the Emperor was success- 
ful in quelling the outbreaks in both 
countries. In 1855 a concordat was con- 
cluded with Pope Pius IX, which was 
favorable to the Catholic Church 
throughout Austria. In 1859 Francis 


1086 


FRANCIS OF ASSISI 


Joseph engaged in a war with France 
and Sardinia, through which he lost 
Lombardy, and in 1866 occurred the dis- 
astrous Seven Weeks’ War with Prussia. 

In 1867, Austria and Hungary made a 
compact (Ausgleich) for a dual mon- 
archy (See Austria-Hungary), and 
from thenceforth Francis Joseph was em- 
peror of Austria and king of Hungary. 
Into his domestic life obtruded the sin- 


ister shadows of three tragedies. In 


1899, his wife, the Empress Elizabeth, was 
assassinated; in 1899 his only son and 
heir suffered a mysterious death; in 1914, 
his heir apparent, the Archduke Francis 
Ferdinand, was murdered at Sarajevo, 
which last event was the ostensible cause 
of the war on Servia, the hasty prelude 
to the great European War itself. He 
was succeeded in 1916 by his nephew 
Charles I. 

Francis of Assisi, Saint (1182-1226), 
founder of the Order of St. Francis, 
was born in Assisi, Italy. When he was 
about 28 years of age he formed a band 
of 12 companions and drafted rules for 
their government and mode of life. Pope 
Innocent III sanctioned the order in the 
year of its formation, and shortly after- 
wards they established themselves in a 
little house adjoining the Chapel of St. 
Mary of the Angels, in Assisi. The 
members of the order have acted as mis- 
sionaries, unsupported, living by alms. 
St. Francis traveled in the East. He died 
in Assisi, and was canonized in 1228. 

Francke, Frahn' ke, August Hermann 
(1663-1727), a distinguished German 
theologian and educator, founder of the 
Francke Institute at Halle, born at Lu- 
beck. He graduated at Leipsic in 1685, 
became lecturer on theological subjects 
there in 1689, and in 1691 was called to 
_ the chair of Greek and Oriental lan- 
guages in the new University of Halle. 
In 1698 he was transferred to the more 
congenial chair of theology. He re- 
mained in Halle for 36 years, teaching 
and acting as pastor of a small church 
in a neighboring town. Greatly moved 
by the ignorance in which children were 
growing up, he established a school, first 
for the poor, and later for the well-to-do. 


' FRANCO-GERMAN WAR 


It grew rapidly. New buildings were 
erected, able teachers gathered around 
him, a school for girls was added and a 
department for the training of teachers. 
The success of Francke’s Institute led 
to the founding of others and greatly 
influenced the Prussian public school 
system established by King Frederick 
William I. 

Franco-German War, a war be- 
tween France and Prussia, occurring in 
1870-1. The Prussian defeat of Austria 
in 1866 aroused the jealousy of Napo- 
leon III, and in 1870, when a Prussian 
prince of the House of Hohenzollern was 
considered as candidate for the throne 
of Spain, the French nation was dis- 
pleased. The Hohenzollern candidate 
withdrew, but William I refused to yield 
to the French demand that no member 
of the House of Hohenzollern should 
ever, with his consent, be a candidate 
for the Spanish crown. The French 
were led to believe that their ambassador 
at the Prussian court had been dismissed, 
and war was declared. 

The Germans were fully prepared. 
Three armies were immediately sent into 
France. The French imperial adminis- 
tration was revealed in all its hollow- 
ness, and nearly all the generals were 
incompetent. Defeat followed defeat 
until General MacMahon was completely 
overcothe at Sedan, Sept. /1,. 18/0. 
Napoleon III was taken prisoner, and 
as soon as the news of Sedan reached 
the capital, there was a revolution and 
the Third Republic was proclaimed, with 
Trochu, Favre and Gambetta acting for 
the national defense. 

The Germans now besieged Paris, and 
the French made the most strenuous 
efforts to relieve the city with armies 
raised in the provinces. Strassburg fell 
before the close of September, and, 
though the French won a few victories, 
the Germans had too securely invested 
the country to be driven out. After a 
four months’ siege, Paris was taken Jan. 
28, 1871, and peace was signed May 10, 
whereby Alsace, German Lorraine and 
Metz were surrendered by France, which 
also promised to pay a war indemnity 


1087 


FRANKFORT 


of $1,000,000,000. It was three years 
before all German troops were with- 
drawn from France. The chief results 
of the war were the establishment of the 
Third Republic of France and the Ger- 
man Empire. See France, subhead His- 
tory; GERMANY, subhead History. 
Frank’fort”, Ind., a city and county 
seat of Clinton Co., 24 m. s.e. of La- 
fayette and 40 m. n.w. of Indianapolis, 
on the Lake Erie & Western, the Chi- 
cago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Van- 
dalia Line and other railroads. It is 
situated in a productive agricultural re- 
gion and has a supply of natural gas 
which is used extensively for light and 
heat. The city contains manufactories 
of lumber, brick and tile, flour, agricul- 
tural implements, crackers and furniture. 
Railway repair shops are also located 
here. There is a large trade in grain, 
vegetables and fruit. Frankfort has a 
fine library and courthouse. Population 
in 1920) UU, SCensnsw Ise: 
Frankfort, Ky., the capital of the 
state and the county seat of Franklin 


Co., 55 m. e. of Louisville, on the Ken-' 


tucky River and on the L. & N., the C. & 
O., the F. & C. and K.-H. railroads, and 
on The Dixie, The Jackson Highway and 
the Midland Trail. An electric traction 
railway connects the city with neighbor- 
ing points. The river, here spanned by 
a suspension bridge 400 ft. long, is navi- 
gable for steamboats, which ply between 
Frankfort and Cincinnati, Louisville and 
other ports. Frankfort is in. the famous 
Blue Grass section of ithe state; the 
land is highly productive and hemp and 
tobacco are extensively cultivated. It is 
surrounded by valuable timber tracts. 
By means of a lock and dam abundant 
water power is derived from the river 
and used for manufacturing purposes, 
the leading articles of manufacture being 
lumber, hemp, chairs, brooms, twine, 
shoes, carriages, etc. An extensive trade 
is maintained in Frankfort through 
these industries. 

Situated upon a series of hills over- 
looking the river, the city is picturesque 
and healthful; and its beauty is enhanced 
by numerous fine buildings. The prin- 


FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN 


cipal buildings include the capitol, erected 
at a cost of $2,000,000; the governor’s 
mansion; the state arsenal; and those 
used for important institutions, such as 
the state penitentiary, the state home for 
feeble-minded children and the state nor- 
mal school for negroes, the last just be- 
yond the city limits. The state library 
here has over 100,000 volumes. Frank- 
lin cemetery, near the city, is a beautiful 
burying ground, in which are buried 
Daniel Boone, Theodore O’Hara, Rich- 
ard M. Johnson (vice-president of the 
United States, 1837-1841), Joel T. Hart 
and others identified with the history of 
the state. 

Frankfort was founded in 1786 by 
Gen. James Wilkinson, who made it a 
base of his commercial operations and 
intrigues with the Spanish at New Or- 
leans. [t became the capital of the state 
in 1794. Here in the autumn of 1862, 
while a force of Confederates under 
Gen. Braxton Bragg occupied the city, 
Richard J. Hawes was inaugurated gov- 
ernor. The city is administered under 
a charter of 1839. Population in 1920, 
U. S. Census, 9,805. 

Frankfort-on-the-Main, a city of 
Prussia located on the river Main 24 m. 
above its juncture with the Rhine. Up 
to 1866 it was one of the four free cities 
of Germany, and it has always been an 
important financial and trading center 
as well as a popular residence city. The 


streets are broad and pleasant and lined . 


with attractive buildings of both public 
and private character. Situated as it 
is near the region of the great medicinal 
springs, it attracts a large floating popu- 
lation. 

Frankfort is one of the old Roman 
towns of Germany and was probably 
founded as early as the first century 
and contains many places of historic in- 
terest. The cathedral of red sandstone 
surmounted by a classic central tower 
300 ft. in height contains the room in 
which the Roman emperors were elected, 
and the Leonhardskirche is situated upon 
the site of the palace of Charlemagne. 
This famous old church was begun in 
the year 1219 and was restored in 1882. 


1088 


FRANKING 


Other important and interesting build- 
ings are: the Romer, or town hall, where 
the German kings were chosen and 
crowned; the Saalhof, the oldest build- 
ing in the city; the Goethehaus, where 
Goethe spent the first 26 years of his 
life; the magnificent opera house com- 
pleted in 1880; the Municipal Library, 
having a Gutenberg Bible and an illumi- 
nated manuscript Bible; and various 
educational institutions, as the Bethmann 
Museum, the Museum of Arts and 
Crafts, the Municipal Museum and the 
Stadel Art Institute. The city has many 
_ beautiful groups of statuary, several of 
which were executed by Thorwaldsen. 
The industries are varied and consist of 
printing, brewing and the manufacturing 
of quinine, type, machinery, soap, per- 
fume, etc. Population, 414,600. 
Frank’ing, the sending of postal 
matter free of charge. Members of the 
British Parliament had this privilege up 
to 1840. In the United States, up to 


1873, Revolutionary War soldiers, some 


government officials, senators and con- 
gressmen could frank mail matter. A 
few years later, the privilege was re- 
stored; and, though not infrequently 
abused, it has been continued in force 
because people like to receive, and con- 
gressmen, especially, like to send, official 
reports and public documents, which 
otherwise might not be generally dis- 
tributed. © 

Frank’land”, State of. Frankland, 
or Franklin, is a name given to a state 
organized in 1784 by the inhabitants of 
what is now Tennessee, in revolt from 
the control of North Carolina. A con- 
stitution was framed and ratified by 
popular vote, and a Legislature and gov- 
ernor elected. Civil war with the older 
parts of North Carolina seemed immi- 
nent, but. after a somewhat bitter strug- 
gle the new government was suppressed 
in 1788. The Territory of Tennessee 
was known as the “Territory South of 
the Ohio” until June 1, 1796, when it 
was admitted into the Union. See TEN- 
NESSEE, subhead History. 

Frank’lin, Benjamin (1706-1790), a 
famous American diplomat, statesman 


FRANKLIN 


and philosopher, born at Boston, in a 
house opposite the Old South Church. 
His father, Josiah Franklin, was a na- 


tive of Ecton in Northamptonshire, Eng- 


land, where his ancestors had lived for 
nearly four centuries. The family was 
strongly Protestant, and Josiah accom- 
panied a small Puritan migration to 
America in 1685 to escape persecution, 
He settled in Boston, where he became 
a soap and candle maker. He was twice 
married and had in all 17 children, of 
whom Benjamin was the 15th. 

Earty Lire. Since he was the tenth 
son, his father destined him for the min- 
istry as a tithe of his sons. This did not 
suit Benjamin, however; neither was 
there money for the necessary educa- 
tion; and so he was taken from school 
at the age of ten to assist in his father’s 
business by cutting wicks and filling 
candle molds. 

The work was so distasteful to the 
lad that he thought of running away and 
going to sea, but his father apprenticed 
him at the age of 12 to his older brother 
James, who was a printer. He was a 
precocious boy, and had been able to 
read ever since he could remember. At 
an early age he had made himself fa- 
miliar with The Pilgrim’s Progress, Rob- 
inson Crusoe, Plutarch’s Lives, Locke’s 
On the Human Understanding and other 
standard works, and had practiced prose 
after the model of Addison’s Spectator. 
In 1721 his brother started the New Eng- 
land Courant, one of the first newspa- 
pers established in America. Benjamin 
tried his hand at writing for this paper 
anonymously, and with much success. 
After his authorship became known, 
however, he fell into disfavor with the 
authorities for the independent character 
of his political and religious utterances. 
He also became dissatisfied with his 
brother’s treatment of him, and he de- 
cided to leave home at the earliest op- 
portunity. 

A Journauist. At the age of 17, by 
the sale of his books Franklin raised a 
little money and sailed for New York; 
from there he proceeded to Philadelphia. 
Here he arrived one Sunday morning, 


1089 


FRANKLIN 


after various adventures by land and 
water, cold and friendless, with a single 
Dutch dollar in his pocket. His first 
meal was made from a loaf of dry bread 
which he munched as he walked along 
the street, much to the amusement of 
his future wife, then a young girl watch- 
ing him from her father’s doorway. But 
he had learned his trade thoroughly, and 
soon found employment in a printing of- 
fice. His excellent workmanship and 
good sense early attracted the attention 
of Sir William Keith, governor of the 
colony, who offered him the government 
printing if he would set up in business 
for himself. Franklin went to London 
to buy presses and type, at the instance 
of Sir William, who promised to send 
him letters of credit for that purpose. 
The latter failed to keep his promise, 
however, and Franklin was forced to 
seek work in a printing office in London 
to meet his expenses. Here he remained 
for a year and a half, gaining much use- 
ful knowledge and making valuable ac- 
quaintances, and returned to Philadel- 
phia in the autumn of 1726. 

By 1730 he had become sole manager 
of a printing house, and soon became 
known as the most accurate, capable and 
reliable printer in the colony. The pre- 
ceding year he had purchased the Penn- 
sylvania Gazette, a weekly newspaper, 
which he at once converted into one of 
the ablest journals in America, and which 
he edited for more than 35 years. In 
1732 he began the publication of Poor 
Richard’s Almanac, a distinctive feature 
of which was its fund of homely proverbs 
and witty sayings. This Almanac he 
continued for 25 years. It reached an 
annual circulation of 10,000 copies, far 
exceeding that of any other publication 
in the colonies, and gave Franklin a wide 
reputation. 

Through the columns of the Gazette 
and by the exercise of personal influence 
Franklin now entered heartily into the 
life of the colony and had a hand in 
most of the public enterprises and re- 
forms of the day. The organization of 
the militia, of a police system, and of 
fire companies; the development of pav- 


FRANKLIN. 


ing and street cleaning as municipal 
functions; the founding of the Philadel- 
phia Library, one of the first, if not the 
first, in America, and of a city hospital; 
the, establishment of the American Phil- 
osophical Society and of the University 
of Pennsylvania,—these were among the 
conspicuous enterprises in which he was 
leader. , 

Franklin early took a special interest 
in scientific investigations. During his 
life he also invented many useful de- 
vices, but refused to patent them for his 
own personal gain. By simple experi- 
ments with a key and a kite in a thun- 
derstorm he proved the identity of light- 
ning and electricity; and for this bril- 
liant discovery he received the Copley 
medal from the Royal Society and the 
plaudits of the learned world. He-in- 
vented the lightning rod; the Franklin 
open stove; a remedy for smoky chim- 
neys; and improvements in the print- 
ing press, in ship rigging, in carriage 
wheels and in windmills. 

Pusiic Lire. For more than half a 
century Franklin served the colonies in 
public office. In 1736 he was made clerk 
of the General Assembly of Pennsyl- 
vania. The following year he was ap- 
pointed postmaster of Philadelphia, and 
in 1753 deputy postmaster-general for 
the colonies ; and vastly increased the ef- 
ficiency of the postal service. He be- 
came a conspicuous figure in interco- 
lonial politics in 1754 by proposing at the 
Albany Congress (called by the royal 
governor to devise concerted action of 
the colonies in the approaching war with 
France) the first definite scheme for 
uniting the colonies in a permanent fed- 
eral union—a plan of much political in- 
sight and practical merit (See ALBANY 
ConvENTIONS). In 1757 Franklin was 
sent to London by the Pennsylvania As- 
sembly to urge its claims in favor of _ 
taxing the lands of the proprietors of the 
colony, the descendants of William 
Penn. Here he was most cordially re- 
ceived for his literary and scientific at- 
tainments, was given the freedom of the 
city of Edinburgh, was granted the de- 
gree of doctor of laws by the universi- 


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FRANKLIN 


ties of St. Andrew’s and Oxford, and 
was made a member of the Royal So- 
ciety of London. He formed the ac- 
quaintance of the foremost Englishmen 
of the day, successfully accomplished his 
special mission for Pennsylvania, em- 
phasized as far as possible the rights of 
the colonies, and.returned home in 1762. 

Colonial Agent. This service was the 
first of many diplomatic missions which 
Franklin undertook in. the interests of 
the colonies, work for which he was em- 
inently fitted by his varied knowledge, 
his good sense and his great personal 
reputation abroad. In 1764 he was 
again sent to England by the Pennsyl- 
vania Assembly, in an effort to defeat 
the passage of the Stamp Act. While 
he did not succeed in doing. this, he was 
instrumental in securing its repeal the 
following year. The colonies of Massa- 
chusetts, New Jersey and Georgia now 
united with Pennsylvania in making 
Franklin their agent in England. He 
used his great powers to prevent a sep- 
aration between England and America, 
but was always independent and out- 
spoken in his declaration of unwholesome 
truths. This led George III to call him 
“that crafty American who is more than 
a match for you all” (his ministers). 
When Franklin saw that war was inevi- 
table, he returned to America in May, 
177): 

Member of Congress. On the day af- 
ter his arrival the Pennsylvania Assem- 
bly elected him to the Second Continen- 
tal Congress, then about to assemble. He 
was a member of the committee of five 
chosen to draft the Declaration of In- 
dependence, of which he was one of the 
signers. It is related that as he dipped 
his pen in the ink he remarked, “We 
must indeed all hang together, or as- 
suredly we, shall all hang separately.” 
A few months later Congress appointed 
him to go to Europe for the purpose of 
seeking foreign alliances for the new 
nation. 

Mission to Europe. Upon his arrival 
in Paris he was greeted with a popular 
enthusiasm such as no other man of let- 
ters except Voltaire had ever received. 


FRANKLIN 


He was now one of the best-known men 
in the world; three editions of his scien- 
tific writings had already been published 
in Paris, he was a member of the French 
Royal Academy and of every important 
learned society in Europe, and he was 
the embodiment of the American spirit 
of liberty for which all France also was 
yearning. Franklin’s services in France 
cannot be overestimated. Through his 
efforts large sums of money were loaned 
or given to the American Government 
(amounting to about $60,000,000), with- 
out which it is difficult to see how the 
war could have been carried to comple- 
tion; arms and ammunition were sent 
over; and on Feb. 6, 1778, the Treaty of 
Alliance was signed at Paris which se- 
cured the active cooperation of France 
that made ultimate success possible. 

Preliminary steps looking to a peace 
treaty with England were taken by 
Franklin immediately after the fall of 
Lord North’s ministry in 1782; and he 
had the great satisfaction of seeing these 
bear fruit in the remarkably favorable 
treaty with the Mother Country, signed 
in Paris the following year, secured by 
his efforts and those of his colleagues, 
John Adams and John Jay, one of the 
most brilliant triumphs in modern diplo- 
macy (See Paris, TREATIES OF). After 
negotiating a satisfactory treaty with 
Prussia, Franklin was permitted to re- 
turn to America in September, 1785, in 
response to repeated requests to be re- 
lieved. The month after his return, al- 
though now in his 80th year, he was 
elected president of Pennsylvania, a po- 
sition corresponding to the present gov- 
ernorship, and served in that capacity 
for three years. 

Constitutional Convention. One more 
national task awaited him. When the 
immortal convention met in 1787 that 
formed the Federal Constitution, the 
gathering would have been incomplete 
without the presence of the venerable 
“sage of America.’ His was the only 
signature attached to all four of the great 
documents that marked our nation’s 
birth: the Declaration of Independence, 
the Treaty of Alliance with France, the 


1091 


FRANKLIN 


Treaty of Peace with England, and the 
Constitution of the United States. The 
last public act of Franklin was a fitting 
conclusion of his long life of usefulness 
—the signing of a memorial to Congress, 
as president of the Abolition Society, 
petitioning for the abolition of slavery. 
A few months later, weighted with years 
and with honors, his long life came to 
an end. 

EsTIMATE OF HIS CHARACTER. “No 
Englishman of his generation can now 
be said to have established a more en- 
during fame, in any way, than Franklin 
established in many ways. As a printer, 
as a journalist, as a diplomat, as a states- 
man, as a philosopher, he was easily first 
among his peers.”’ His unusual literary 
ability, best represented by his remark- 
able Autobiography, his scientific and 
philosophical acumen, his broad mental 
grasp of critical situations, his charm- 
ing wit and humor, his devoted patriot- 
ism, his ardent love and service of hu- 
manity,—all of these are tokens of the 
greatness and richness of that unique 
personality whose name has become a 
household word in American homes. 

Franklin, Sir John (1786-1847), an 
Arctic explorer, born in Lincolnshire, 
England. When he was 14 he became 
a midshipman in the navy; was in the 
Battle of Copenhagen, 1801; went with 
Captain Flinders to the coast of Aus- 
tralia in 1801-1803; and had charge of 
the signals on the Bellerophon in the 
Battle; of Trafalgar, 18055)" In. 1819 
Franklin set out on an expedition to the 
Arctic Sea by way of Hudson Bay. He 
was absent about three years, having 
surveyed the mouth of the Coppermine 
River and the shores of Coronation Gulf, 
making careful observations that have 
been of great value. In 1822 Franklin 
was made port captain and a fellow of 
the Royal Society. For subsequent dis- 
coveries in the Far North he was 
knighted by his sovereign, received the 
degree of D. C. L. from Oxford, the 
gold medal of the French Geographical 
Society and was made a member of the 
Institute of France. In 1845 Franklin 
went forth on his last expedition, seek- 


FRANKS 


ing the Northwest Passage, from which 
he did not return. About 20 expeditions 
were sent out at different times to search 
for him, and in 1859 a document was 
found which gave the latest details of 
the expedition. This paper disclosed that 
Franklin had died in 1847, and that the 
ships were abandoned in 1848. Many 
relics of the party have been recovered. 

Franklin, Pa., county seat of Ve- 
nango Co., 9 m. s.w. of Oil City and 125 
m. n.e. of Pittsburgh, on the Allegheny 
River, at the mouth of French Creek, ° 
and on the Pennsylvania, the Erie and 
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 
railroads. The growth of the city has 
been largely determined by its position 
as the center of the chief oil region of 
the state. Natural gas is also abundant. 
The city occupies the site of the French 
Ft. Venango, built in 1753. The chief 
interest of Franklin is oil, but it has 
also flour mills, machine shops, brick- 
works and manufactories of steel cast- 
ings, oil-well supplies, tools and other 
articles. It was settled about 1753 and 
incorporated in 1795. Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 9,970. 

Franklir, Battle of, an engagement 
of the Civ | War, fought Nov. 30, 1864, 
at Franklin, Tenn., between some 25,000 
Federals, under General Schofield, and 
about 40,000 Confederates, under Gen- 
eral Hood. Hood had hoped to divert 
Sherman from his march through 
Georgia by advancing into Tennessee 
and attacking Thomas at Nashville. 
Schofield, however, had been sent to 
hinder the Confederates, and retreating 
before them to Franklin, made a stand 
in a bend of the Big Harpeth River. 
After several desperate assaults by the 
Confederates, which continued till mid- 
night, Schofield was not dislodged from 
his position. Nevertheless he withdrew, 


_and soon joined Thomas. This was one 


of the most sanguinary battles of the: 
Civil War, the loss in generals far ex- 
ceeding that of any other engagement. 
The Confederates’ loss, all told, was 
about 6000; the Federals’, about 2300. 
Franks, a fusion of Teutonic tribes 
which from about the year 250 dwelt 


1092 


FRANKS 


on the Middle and Lower Rhine. AIl- 
though before that time the name 
Franks had not been applied to them, 
the various tribes from which the new 
nationality was formed were known sep- 
arately to the Romans much earlier. 
Later the Franks upon the Lower Rhine 
were called the Salian Franks and 
those on the Middle Rhine were called 
the Riparian Franks, or Riparii. The 
Franks first became powerful under 
Clovis (486), a leader of the Salian 
Franks who overthrew the Roman gov- 
ernor in Gaul and later took the Valley 
of the Seine and conquered the Alemanni 
(496). After this victory he became 
an orthodox Christian and received the 
favor of the Roman Church. After the 
death of Clovis the kingdom was divided 
among his sons, but one stronger than 
the rest, succeeded in holding together 
his father’s possessions. Gradually the 
Salian Franks conquered or absorbed 
all other Frankish tribes and occupied 
all of central and western Europe. Some 
of the most powerful of the Frankish 
kings after Clovis were Pippin of Her- 
istal, Charles Martel and Charles the 
Great, or Charlemagne. After the death 
of Charlemagne the Frankish Kingdom 
was divided and never again became 
united. Its place in later history was 
taken by the German, French and Italian 
nations. 

The Franks are described as a stalwart 
Warrior race, fierce in aspect, huge in 
limb, with blue eyes and long, flowing 
hair. In time of peace they led an agri- 
cultural life but ordinarily they were 
given up to the pursuit of war. They met 
in council once a year, where, fully 
armed, they discussed and voted upon 
important public questions. 

Because of their ability to absorb the 
culture of the Romans and pass it on 
to the countries of the North, the Franks 
were a strong influence in the building 
of the European nations. They were 
_the civilizers of the German people, and 


their laws, which provided for the rights. 


of subjects as well as for the power of 
the sovereigns, were the basis of Euro- 
pean law. Of great importance, too, 


FRECHETTE 


was the close connection established be- 
tween the Frankish people and the 
Church, a connection which later had 
vital influence upon the development of 
Europe. : 

Fraser, Fra’ ger, River, the most im- 
portant river of British Columbia, flow- 
ing through the central and southern part 
of the province. The river rises in the 
western slopes of the Rocky Mountains 
and flows in a northwesterly direction 
until it finds its way through the Cari- 
bou Mountains and flows southwest into 
the Straits of Georgia. The current of 
the river is rapid, and the many large 
tributaries sweeping down their rocky 
courses add to its force and swiftness. 
The chief of these are the Chilcotin, 
Thompson and Quesnel. The Fraser 
flows through many large lakes and 
through canyons of great depth and. 
beauty. Above the city of Quesnel in a 
great bend of the river there are rich 
deposits of gold. New Westminster, 
Yale and Lytton are the chief cities on 
its shores. The steamers which navigate 
the Fraser are small but fitted with 
powerful engines. : 

Fraud, in law, all practices which 
have for their object the defrauding of 
another of his property or rights, through 
deceit. Most frauds are recognized in 
common law and are punishable in law 
courts. Those not amenable to common 
law are recognized in courts of equity. 
In each case the perpetrator of the fraud 
is punishable according to the laws of 
the state in which the act was done. 
Selling unwholesome foods and using 
short weights and measures are classed 
as public frauds, which, in most states, 
are severely punished. 

Fraunhofer, Froun’sho fer, Lines. See 
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 

Fréchette, Fra’shet’, Louis Honoré 
(1839-1908), a French-Canadian poet, 
born at Point Levi, Quebec. After study- 
ing at Quebec Seminary and Laval Uni- 
versity he was called to the bar in 1864. 
He took up newspaper work in Chicago 
for some time, and in 1874 was elected 
to represent his native town in the Do- 
minion Parliament. In 1879 he returned 


1093 


FREDERICK II 


to journalism and edited French papers 
in Quebec, Montreal and Chicago. For 
a long time he was an ardent advocate 
of the political union of Canada and the 
United States. He was made a knight 
of the Legion of Honor, was honored 
by the French Academy and the Impe- 
rial Institute, London, and served as 
president of the Royal Society of Canada 
and of the Canadian Society of Arts. 
He was generally known as the “Cana- 
dian laureate,’ being the representative 
poet of French Canada. He translated 
Howell’s Chance Acquaintance and 
Cable’s Creole Days, and wrote Veron- 
ica, Christmas in French Canada, My 
Leisure Hours, The Legend of a People, 
Pell-Mell, The Voice of an Exile, Pap- 
ineau and Felix Poutré. 

Frederick II, also named the Great 
(1712-1786), King of Prissia and suc- 
cessor of his father, Frederick William 
I. At the age of 18 Frederick tried to 
escape to Great Britain. The plan was 
discovered and but for the intervention 
of the Emperor, the youth would have 
been executed by his father, who con- 
sidered his son guilty of treason. He 
was confined at Custrin Castle for a 
while, and a little later he began his 
rigid discipline in the Prussian army. 

He succeeded his father, Frederick 
William I, in 1740. When Maria The- 
resa became Empress of Austria, Fred- 
erick used an obsolete Prussian claim to 
Silesia as a pretext to invade the prov- 
ince. Then ensued the War of the Aus- 
trian Succession. He was successful, 
and by the Treaty of Breslau in June, 
1742, Maria Theresa was obliged to give 
up nearly all Silesia to Prussia. The 
war with Austria was renewed two 
years later, and when it closed, in 1748, 
by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Fred- 
erick had the reputation of being one of 
the greatest generals of his day. 

Peace continued for eight years, but 
Austria was unresigned to her loss and 
at last found allies in France, Sweden 
and Russia. When Frederick found that 
war was inevitable, he invaded Saxony, 
and thus began the struggle known as 
the Seven Years’ War, involving both 


FREDERICK II 


the European powers and their colonies. 
He thought of suicide more than once, 
as he realized the danger into which he 
had plunged Prussia. In the darkest 
hour he was saved by the death of his 
relentless foe, Elizabeth of Russia, and 
by the exhaustion of France. By the 
Treaty of Hubertsburg in 1763, Fred- 
erick came out of the fearful struggle 
still holding Silesia. It was his resource- 
fulness during this struggle that won him 
his title of the Great.’ 

Frederick now turned his attention to 
the development of the resources of his 
country. In 1772, by the partition of 
Poland, he shrewdly managed to acquire 
West Prussia. He prevented Joseph II, 
a little later, from adding Bavaria to Aus- 
tria. In his foreign policy Frederick fol- 
lowed expediency as a rule. In his do- 
mestic policy, however, he placed the in- 
terest of his people first. He constructed 
canals and roads, drained marshes and 
encouraged manufactures and agricul- 
ture. Moreover, he called to his court the 
greatest writers, scientists and philoso- 
phers of the time. By his masterful 
reign Prussia was made the equal of 
Austria. With Prussia as a center, a 
union of German states, which consti- 
tuted the beginning of the present Ger- 
man Empire, was formed. 

Frederick II (1194-1250), the son of 
Henry VI and Constance of Sicily. He 
was the King of Sicily from 1197 until 
his death, but was under the guardian- 
ship of Pope Innocent III until 1208. 
He began an attempt to secure the throne 
of Germany from Otho IV in 1212, and, 
with the aid of the Pope, he was crowned 
at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215. At his coro- 
nation he took a vow to go on a crusade, 
which, when he was finally able to un- 
dertake it, resulted in the Sultan’s giv- 
ing up Jerusalem and in Frederick’s 
coronation as King of Jerusalem. Fred- 
erick was an able sovereign, building up 
his Italian dominions, encouraging learn- 
ing and advocating political reforms. 
His interest in his Southern possessions, 
however, involved him in costly wars for 
their sake, and led him to be neglectful 
of the welfare of his German subjects. 


1094 


FREDERICK VIII 


Frederick VIII (1843-1912), King of 
Denmark, son and successor of Chris- 
tian IX. He succeeded to the throne in 
1906. His short reign was uneventful, 
but he endeared himself to his subjects 
because of his active interest in public 
questions and his kindly disposition and 
democratic manner. A man of wide 
cultivation, he was associated with many 
learned organizations, and was at one 
time chancellor of Copenhagen Univer- 
sity. His second son, Charles, in 1905 
became King of Norway as Haakon VII. 
Frederick was succeeded by his eldest 
son, Christian X. 

Frederick, Md., a city and the county 
seat of Frederick Co., 60 m. nw. of 
Baltimore, on Carroll’s Creek and on 
the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pennsylvania 
and other railroads. It is situated in 
a picturesque and fertile valley and has 
a number of important industries. The 
industrial establishments include can- 
ning plants, planing mills and_ brick- 
works and manufactories of hosiery, 
leather, shoes, shirt waists, fiber brushes, 
coaches, tobacco, flour and shutter fast- 
eners. At Frederick is located a state 
institution for the education of the deaf 
and dumb, and Women’s College (Re- 
formed Church), founded in 1893. 
Other institutions are Frederick College, 
St. John’s Literary Institute and the 
Frederick City and Emergency hospitals. 
-In the vicinity are the famous battle- 
fields of Monocacy and South Mountain. 
Frederick has been made famous as the 
scene of Whittier’s poem, Barbara Friet- 
chie. In Mt. Olivet cemetery, near the 
city, Francis Scott Key, author of The 
Star Spangled Banner, lies buried, and a 
worthy monument to his memory stands 
at the entrance to the burying ground. 
Roger B. Taney also is buried here in 
the graveyard of the Roman Catholic 
Church. Washington met Braddock here 
in 1755 to plan the expedition against the 
French. Settled in 1745, Frederick was 
incorporated in 1817. 
£208, S.Census, 11,066. 

Frederick Bar’’baros’sa (1123-1190), 
Holy Roman emperor and first of the 
Hohenstaufen dynasty. He succeeded 


Population in ° 


FREDERICKSBURG 


Conrad III as King of Germany in 1152, 
and was crowned emperor by Pope 
Adrian IV in 1155. The northern cities 
of Italy rebelled against him, but he re- 
duced Milan in 1162 and took Rome five 
years later. In 1174 he was again free 
to attend to Italian affairs. The Lom- 
bard League had grown strong in the 
meantime and it won a complete victory 
over him at the Battle of Legnano, in 
1176, and forced him to give up con- 
trol over the cities of Italy. He was also 
forced to seek conciliation with Pope 
Alexander III, as he was pressed at home 
by the Guelph family. He returned and 
banished Henry of Saxony and confis- 
cated his lands. A few years later he 
married his son Henry to Constance, 
heiress of the Kingdom of Sicily. It was 
through this union that Sicily became a 
part of the German Empire. By this 
time Frederick had regained some power 
and influence in Italy, on account of dis- 
union in the Lombard League. He started 
at the head of the Third Crusade, but 
was drowned before reaching Palestine. 

Frederick Barbarossa won the affec- 
tion of his German subjects and _ his 
memory still lives in the songs and leg- 
ends of his country. Around his name 
clustered for centuries the aspirations 
for the long-deferred national unity. 

Fredericksburg, Battle of, an impor- 
tant engagement of the Civil War, 
fought between 116,000 Federals, under 
Burnside, supported by Sumner, Hooker 
and Franklin, and 80,000 Confederates, 
under Lee, aided by Jackson and Long- 
street, Dec. 13, 1862. After his retreat 
from the North, Lee stationed himself 
in the high bluffs overlooking Fredericks- 
burg and on the south side of the Rappa- 
hannock River, which, by Dec. 12, the 
Federals had crossed over from Fal- 
mouth. The following day Burnside 
recklessly threw his army against the 
stronghold of Lee’s position, on Marye’s 
Heights, withdrawing after six ineffec- 
tual assaults, with a loss of 12,500 men to 
the Confederates’ 5400. In consequence 
of this defeat Burnside was relieved of . 
command of the Army of the Potomac. 
See Crviz WAR IN AMERICA. 


1095 


FREDERICTON 


Fred’ericton, a city of Canada, port 
of entry of New Brunswick and capital 
of the province, situated on the St. John 
River, 84 m. from its mouth. It is reg- 
ularly built and has many handsome pub- 
lic edifices, including the government 
house, the Parliament Buildings, the 
Anglican Cathedral and the provincial 
university. There is a large trade in 
lumber ; other industries include tanning, 
canning and the manufacture of machin- 
ery and woodenware. The city was 
founded by Sir Guy Carleton in 1785. 
Population in 1911, 7208. 

Frederick William (1620-1688), 
Elector of Brandenburg, generally known 
as the Great Elector. When he suc- 
ceeded his father at the age of 20, his 
territory had suffered severely from the 
Thirty Years’ War. His vigorous policy 
soon filled the treasury and made it 
possible to strengthen the means of de- 
fense of his country. In 1675 he won 
a decisive victory over the Swedes at 
Fehrbellin. He left his country larger 
and far more prosperous than he had 
found it, and is considered as second 
only to Frederick the Great in establish- 
ing the power of Prussia. 

Freedmen’s Bureau, a bureau of the 
United States Department of War, estab- 
lished by act of Congress, March 3, 1865, 
to meet special needs, as Congress faced 
the gigantic problem of caring for the 
colored people, whose liberation from 
slavery had thrown them on the country 
without the means of self-support. The 
title was “Bureau of Refugees, Freed- 
men and Abandoned Lands,”’, and the 
bureau was given power to assign small 
tracts of land of not more than 40 acres 
to each deserving refugee. The original 
law provided that the bureau continue 
one year after the war, as a trial of the 
system. In 1866 and 1868 additional 
bills were passed extending the powers 
and term of the bureau, which ended its 
main work in 1869. Its educational 


work lasted until 1872, and bounty pay- . 


ments continued some years _ longer. 
During the years that the work continued 
over $20,000,000 was expended. 

Free Lances, companies of roving 


FREEMAN > 


knights and men-at-arms who engaged 
in plunder or sold their services. These 
bands were prominent during the Mid- 
dle Ages, particularly in Italy and 
France. In Italy, where they were 
known as the Condottieri, they developed 
from the feudal wars. In France, where 
they were called Compagnies Grandes, 
they were brought out by the long and 
terrible wars between that country and 
England. These free lances of France 
were exceedingly dangerous to the coun- 
try, and were finally persuaded to sell 
their services to Spain; thus France was 
freed from their depredations. 

Free’man, politically, one who has 
inherited the» full rights and privileges 
of citizenship. The term is of ancient 
origin. Among the Romans it included 
all classes who were not slaves. From 
the time of the Romans thé distinction 
continued through the Middle Ages, and 
it was also recognized from time im- 
memorial among the Germanic nations. 
Among these nations the privileges of 
the freeman were based on ownership 
of land; thus in England the freeman 
was strictly a freeholder. 

The term freedman is usually applied 
to those who have been liberated from 
bondage but do-not share full political 


rights with the freeman. 


Freeman, Edward Augustus (1823- 
1892), an English historian, born at 
Harborne, Staffordshire, England. He 
was educated at Oxford College and be- 
came a fellow in 1845. During 1881-2 
he traveled in the United States, chron- 
icling his views of the nation in his book 
Some Impressions of the Umted States. 
In 1883 he was called to the regius 
professorship of modern history at Ox- 
ford. Freeman was the leader of the 
Teutonic School of English history, and 
wrote voluminously, not only on _his- 
torical but also on antiquarian and 
topographical subjects, architecture and 
politics. The History of the Norman 
Conquest is his most important work. 

Freeman, Mary Eleanor Wilkins 
(1862- ), an American story-writer, 
born in Randolph, Mass., and educated 
there and at Mt. Holyoke Seminary. 


1096 


——— 


FREE MASONS 


She was married to Dr. Charles M. Free- 
man in 1902. At an early age she began 
to contribute short stories and poems to 
magazines, later becoming widely known 
for her stories and novels descriptive of 
New England life and character. The 
charm of her work lies in her faithful 
and vivid power of portrayal. The most 
important of her writings include Young 
Lucretia, A New England Nun, The 
Love of Parson Lord, Jane Field, Pem- 
broke, The Portion of Labor, By the 
Light of the Soul, The Jamesons, and 
People of Our Neighborhood and The 
Poor Lady. 

Free Masons, a secret society orig- 
inating in the Middle Ages. The present 
system of Freemasonry dates back to 
1717, when the Mother Grand Lodge was 
inaugurated i in London. The first lodge 
was ‘opened in the United States in Bos- 
ton, Mass., 1733. In 1919 the member- 
ship in the various lodges throughout 
the United States was over 2,000,000. 
Charity, brotherly love and mutual assist- 
ance are the principles on which the 
order is founded. 

Free’port”, Ill., a city and county 
seat of Stephenson Co., 120 m. n.w. of 
Chicago, on the Pecatonica River and 
on the Illinois Central, the Chicago, Mil- 
waukee & St. Paul, the Chicago & North 
Western and other railroads. It manu- 
factures hardware, windmills, pumps, 
carriages, spring wagons, paints, leather, 
gasoline engines and novelties, and con- 
tains railroad shops. The city has a 
public library. Freeport was settled in 
1835 and chartered as a city in 1885. 
It was here that Douglas in one of his 
debates with Lincoln enunciated his fa- 
mous slavery doctrine known as the 

“Freeport heresy,” which held, in spite 
of the Dred Scott Decision, that the 
citizens of a territory possessed the 
right to decide through its representa- 
tives whether or not slavery should be 
allowed in that territory. Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 19,969 

Free-Soil Party. See Poriricat Par- 
TIES IN THE UNITED STATES, subhead 
Free-Soil Party. 


Free Trade. See TARrirr. 


FREMONT 
Freez’ing Mix’ture. See Cotp Stor- 
AGE. 

Fremont’, John Charles (1813-1890), 
an American soldier and explorer, born 
in Savannah, Ga., and educated at 
Charleston College. From 1833 to 1835 
he was instructor of mathematics in 
the United States navy, and in 1837 he 
entered upon a survey of the Cherokee 
country, thus beginning his famous ex- 
plorations. He explored the region from 
the Missouri River to the British pos- 
sessions and later, as second lieutenant 
of topographical engineers, mapped out 
an overland route to the Pacific. He 
ascended, while thus engaged, what was 
afterwards called Fremont’s Peak, ex- 
plored the Great Salt Lake region and 
penetrated to the mouth of the Columbia 
River. In 1845 he led another govern- 
ment expedition to the Rocky Mountain 
region, and the following year became 
involved with the Mexican authorities 
on the Pacific coast. Shortly afterwards 
he assisted in the conquest of Cali- 
fornia, becoming its commander and civil 
governor. When, toward the close of 
1846, General Kearny reached California, 
Fremont refused to recognize his. au- 
thority and was thereupon court-mar- 
tialed, convicted and sentenced to dis- 
missal. Though this penalty was remitted 
by President Polk, Fremont resigned 
from the service. Subsequently he led 
another exploring expedition over the 
Rockies, and, upon the admission of 
California, became its first United States 
senator. At his own expense he made 
his fifth and last exploration in 1853. 
For his scientific researches he had been 
honored by the King of Prussia and by 
the Royal Geographical Society of Lon- 
don, and had become popularly known 

s “the Pathfinder.” 

In 1856 Fremont was _ presidential 
candidate of the newly-formed Repub- 
lican Party, but received only 114 
electoral votes to the 174 given for 
Buchanan. Returning from Europe in 
May, 1861, he was appointed major-gen- 
eral, with command of the Western De- 
partment ; but in the course of six 
months he was removed because of an 


1097 


FREMONT 


ill-advised order of confiscation. Later 
he commanded another department, but 
in 1862 he resigned, as he refused to 
serve under an officer of inferior rank. 
In 1864 he was candidate for president 
for the Radical Republicans, but with- 
drew his name before the election. Fol- 
lowing the war he was interested in con- 
structing a transcontinental railway, and 
from 1878 to 1882 he was governor of 
Arizona. See Fremont’s Memoirs of 
My Life. 

Fremont, Neb., a city and the county 
seat of Dodge Co., 46 m. n.w. of Omaha, 
about 2 m. distant from the Platte River, 
on the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Bur- 
lington & Quincy, the Chicago & North 
Western and other railroads. Fremont 
is surrounded by rich farm lands and has 
an extensive wholesale grain trade and 
dairy and live-stock interests of impor- 
tance. There are numerous industrial 
plants, including flour mills, canning 
factories, machine shops, planing 
mills and manufactories of saddlery, 
carriages, furniture and incubators. Fre- 
mont is attractively situated amidst the 
picturesque scenery of the Platte River, 
which is lined with high bluffs and dotted 
with wooded islands. The city is the 
seat of Fremont College; of the Com- 
mercial Institute and School of Phar- 
macy, a private institution, founded in 
1875; and has a public library. Founded 
in 1856, Fremont became the county 
seat in 1860, in 1871 receiving its char- 
ter as a city. Population in 1920, 9,605. 

Fremont, Ohio, a city and county 
seat of Sandusky Co., 30 m. s.e. of To- 
ledo, on the Sandusky River and on the 
Lake. Shore & Michigan, Southern and 
the Lake Erie & Western and other rail- 
roads. Sandusky county is a rich agri- 
cultural section of Ohio, its location near 
the lake makes it possible to raise fruits 
more successfully than in some sections 
of the state. To its advantageous situa- 
tion, we must add that Fremont is situ- 
ated in an agricultural region and is a 
busy industrial center, having manufac- 
tories of cutlery, agricultural implements, 
cigars, engines, boilers, electrocarbons, 
carriages and carriage hardware, The 


FRENCH 


Birchard Public Library, founded by an 
uncle of Ex-President Hayes, is located 
here. The public school system is modern 
and excellent. Fremont occupies the site © 
of a trading post established in 1785. 
In 1850 its former name was changed 
from Lower Sandusky to Fremont in 
honor of J. C. Fremont. Populatiorrin 
1920, U. S. Census, 12,468, 

French, Alice (1850- ), an Amer- 
ican novelist, better known as Octave 
Thanet, born in Andover, Mass. She 
published articles on economics and social 
science in 1878, and after her removal 
to Arkansas and Iowa began to write 
short stories. The new scenes and in- 
terests furnished her with fresh themes 
for literature which attracted attention 
because of their very novelty. She has 
written The Bishop's Vagabond, Whit- 
sun Harp, Knitters in the Sun, Otto the 
Knight, A Book of True Lovers, Stories 
of a Western Town, Expiation, We All 
and The Man of the Hour. She also 
edited The Best Letters of Mary Wori- 
ley Montague. 

French, Daniel Chester (1850-1912), 
one of the foremost American sculptors, 
born at Exeter, N. H., the son of a 
judge in the New Hampshire courts. He 
studied at the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, with J. Q. A. Ward and 
with Thomas Ball at Florence, Italy. 
Returning to America he opened a studio 
and worked in Washington, Boston and 
Concord, finally settling in New York. 
He is a versatile genius, and his output, 
including portraits, ideal figures and re- 
liefs, is considerable. Busts of Emerson 
and Alcott; the marble statue of Lewis 
Cass, in the Rotunda of the Capitol, 
Washington; the monument to John 
Boyle O’Reilly, Boston; The Minute 
Man, made for the town of Concord, 
Mass.; the Hunt Memorial, Central 
Park, New York; Alma Mater, for Co- 
lumbia University; the statues History 
and Herodotus for the Congressional Li- 
brary, Washington; the bas-relief me- 
morial, entitled Death and the Sculptor, 
are among his noteworthy productions. 
He designed the fine bronze doors of the 
Boston Public Library ; and, among other 


1098 


FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 


pieces of decorative statuary for the Co- 
lumbian Exposition, Chicago, the colossal 
gilded figure of the Republic. His 
brother, W. M. R. French, was director 
of the Art Institute, Chicago. 

French and Indian Wars, a name 
given to a series of wars between the 
French and the English in America in 
the 17th and 18th centuries. 

KinG WILLIAM’s War, 1689-1697, 
was the American movement in the Eu- 
ropean War of the Palatinate. The con- 
flict opened with French expeditions un- 
der Governor Frontenac of Canada, who 
sent forces composed mostly of Indians, 
to raid the border towns of New York 
and New England. In retaliation the 
English colonists sent out two expedi- 
tions, one overland against Montreal and 
one by way of the sea against Quebec. 
Sir William Phipps, commander of. the 
fleet, made a temporary capture of Port 
Royal, Acadia. Otherwise the expedi- 
tions were failures. The Treaty of Rys- 
wick made mutual restoration of all con- 
quests in America. 

QUEEN ANNE’S War, 1702-1713, was 
the American action of the European 
War of the Spanish Succession. It 
opened in the South, when an attack 
from South Carolina against Spanish set- 
tlements in Florida brought on a counter- 
charge upon Charleston. In the North 
there were the usual French and Indian 
raids upon New England towns. In 
Massachusetts, the town of Deerfield, in 
1704, and Haverhill, in 1708, suffered 
especially. The English sent three expe- 
ditions to capture Port Royal, Acadia, 
the last of which, 1710, was successful. 
A subsequent attempt to capture Canada, 
by taking Montreal and Quebec, proved 
pmeatmiliatine.failure. . The’ Peace of 
Utrecht, April, 1713, gave to England 
the Hudson Bay region, Acadia and 
Newfoundland. Moreover, by it the Iro- 
quois were recognized as British sub- 
jects. 

KING GeEorGE’s War, 1744-1748, con- 
sisted of the American operations in the 
War of the Austrian Succession. The 
early movements were French incursions 
against English settlements in New Eng- 


FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 


land and Newfoundland; but the event 
of the war was the capture of Louisburg, 
Cape Breton Island, in 1745. This was 
the strongest coast fortress in America; 
it took 25 years to build it and it had cost 
$6,000,000. The expedition against 
Louisburg was conducted by a force of 
4500 under William Pepperell, a mer- 
chant from Maine. The Treaty of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, October, 1748, restored 
Louisburg, despite the indignation of 
New England, and all other conquered 
territory. 

FRENCH AND INDIAN War. The last 
of the four wars, 1754-1763, was an 
American phase of the Seven Years’ 
War waged by England and France. 
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had been 
just a truce, and the committee which 
had been appointed to settle the bound- 
ary dispute in America had accom- 
plished nothing after three years of de- 
liberation. Trouble on the border line 
between Nova Scotia and Maine early 
became serious, and after 1748, the great 
Western movement brought French and 
English jurisdiction into conflict. Each 
country was anxious to secure the terri- 
tory at the head of the Ohio River. The 
French, through Céloron, took formal 
possession of it in 1749, and when the 
Ohio Company proposed peopling its 
royal grant of 500,000 acres there with 
Englishmen, the French began to erect 
forts. One at Presque Isle (Erie, Pa.) 
was erected in 1753, as were Ft. LeBoeuf 
and Ft. Venango on branches of the Al- 
legheny River. Governor Dinwiddie of 
Virginia, through Washington, ordered 
the French to vacate their posts. They 
refused. In May, 1754, a skirmish oc- 
curred while Washington was attempt- 
ing to build a fort at the junction of 
the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. 
This “cannon shot fired in the woods of 
America was_the signal that set Europe 
in a blaze.” Hostilities had commenced. 
Later Washington built, but had to sur- 
render, Ft. Necessity. The next year, 
an English expedition under Braddock 
attempted to retrieve this disaster by at- 
tacking Ft. Duquesne (Pittsburgh). 
This force was surprised in ambush and 


1099 


FRENCH BROAD RIVER 


routed with great loss (See BRADDOCK, 
EDWARD). 

The same year the British Government 
exiled about 7000 Acadians, whose loy- 
alty to the Crown was suspected. Expe- 
ditions subsequently made against Can- 
ada, by way of Lake Champlain and Ft. 
Niagara, were failures, and the English 
were nearly despondent when, in 1758, 
through the efforts of the elder William 
Pitt, new life was put into their waning 
cause. That year generals Amherst and 
Wolfe captured Louisburg; and Ft. 
Frontenac, on the western shore of Lake 
Ontario, and Ft. Duquesne were also 
taken. Ticonderoga, Crown Point and 
Niagara fell to the English the following 
summer. The crowning event of the 
war was the capture, September, 1759, 
of the almost invincible Quebec by an 
English force under General Wolfe (See 
WoLFE, JAMES; Montcatm, Louis Jo- 
SEPH; QUEBEC). This practically ended 
the war, though skirmishes were kept 
up, and in the spring of 1760, the French 
made a desperate though unsuccessful at- 
tempt to regain Quebec. 

The Treaty of Paris, February, 1763, 
stipulated that France give to England 
all its territory east of the Mississippi, 
including Canada, Newfoundland and 
Cape Breton Island; to Spain it gave 
Louisiana and all possessions west of the 
Mississippi together with the Isle of Or- 
leans. Spain gave England Florida, in 
exchange for Havana. Thus French 
power in North America was annihilated, 
and Spain alone was a rival of England 
in the New World. 

French Broad River, a picturesque 
river rising in the Blue Ridge Mountains 
in North Carolina and flowing east into 
the Holston, a few miles above Knox- 
ville. Through the Smoky Mountains 
the scenery along the river is especially 
beautiful, for the deep mountain gorges 
are cut in cliffs whose walls are from 200 
ft. to 300 ft. in height. The river is 250 
m. long, but is not of especial value for 
navigation. 

French Congo. 
TORIAL AFRICA. 

French Equatorial Africa, formerly 


See Frencu Eoua- 


FRENCH INDO-CHINA: 


known as the French Congo, a French 
possession upon the coast of West Af- 
rica. It lies between Kamerun and 
Congo State and is made up of three col- 
onies, Gabun, Middle Congo and Ubangi- 
Shari-Chad. In 1910, when its new 
name was given it, its boundaries were 
accurately defined. The country is trav- 
ersed by mountains, which run parallel 
to the coast and are covered with great 
forests. The rivers are large and are 
mostly tributary to the Congo. Libre- 
ville, the capital, has one of the finest 
harbors of Africa. Other important 
cities are: Loango, Franceville and Braz- 
zaville. Coffee, cocoa, vanilla, rubber, 
palm oil and kola nuts are largely pro- 
duced and exported. Gold, copper and 
iron are mined. The population is esti- 
mated at 1,498,000. = 

French Guinea, Gin'y, a colony of 
French West Africa, lying between 
Portuguese Guinea and Sierra Leone and 
having about 175 m. of coast upon the 
Atlantic Ocean. The country is very 
fertile and has many rivers intersecting 
it. India rubber is the chief product, but 
bamboo, sesamum, kola nuts, coffee, palm 
oil, rice, millet and fruits are also abun- 
dantly produced. The area of French 
Guinea is about 98,000 sq. m. Konakry, 
the capital, is its largest port. The ad- 
ministrative affairs are under charge of 
a lieutenant-governor, subordinate to the 
governor-general of French West Af- 
rica. Its population is estimated at 
1,498,000. 

French Indo-China, the collective 
name applied to the French possessions 
in southeastern Asia. It includes Cochin 
China, Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia and 
Laos. Hanoi, the capital, lies in Tonkin 
and is the official residence of the gov- 
ernor-general, who is appointed by the 
French Government. The agricultural 
products consist of rice, corn, pepper, 
silk, cotton, tea, sugar, rubber and to- 
bacco; coal, lignite, zinc, antimony, tin, 
tungsten and gold are mined. Kwang- 
chauwan, on the coast of China, was 
made a dependency of French Indo- 
China in 1900, and its governor is subject 
to the governor-general. The area of 


1100 


/ 


FRENCH LANGUAGE 


French Indo-China is 310,000 sq. m.; its 
population is 16,315,000. 
French Language. See LANGUAGE, 
subhead Modern Romance Languages. 
French Revolution, the great social 


‘and political upheaval in France during 


the last decade of the 18th century. It 
is usually regarded as covering the period 
from the meeting of the States-General 
in 1789 to the establishment of the Con- 
sulate in 1799. The primary cause of 


the Revolution was the survival of medi- 


eval ideas and practices in the midst of 
modern conditions; and its chief result 
was the overthrow of these remnants of 
an outgrown civilization and the inaugu- 
ration of a new social epoch in France. 
When the Revolution began there were 
two privileged classes in France, the no- 
bility and the clergy. Together they 


numbered about a quarter of a million, 


out of a population of over 25,000,000; 
but they owned half of the land and en- 
joyed practically all of the special privi- 
leges and immunities. The burden of 
taxation fell almost wholly upon the 
peasant class. Taine has estimated that 
four-fifths of the fruits of the peasants’ 
labors were taken by the government. 
Under the old regime the administration 
of government was arbitrary, antiquated 
and cumbersome, both at the court and 
in the provinces. The growing discon- 
tent was fanned by a brilliant company 
of critics, including such men as Mon- 
tesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau, who 
satirically arraigned existing conditions. 

The luxurious extravagance of the 
French court could not be maintained 
upon the taxes wrung from the peas- 
antry, and the imminent bankruptcy of 
the nation brought matters to a crisis and 
forced Louis XVI to convene the States- 
General, which had not met since 1614. 
When this body assembled at Versailles 
in 1789, the Third Estate, constituting 


half of the representatives, rejected the 


old custom of having the social orders 
meet and vote separately, claiming that 
this would effectively block reform. 
They insisted upon joint sessions and 
majority decisions. When the others de- 


murred, they declared themselves to be 


FRENCH REVOLUTION 


the National Assembly. The King finally 
yielded, and at his bidding the two upper 
orders—nobility and clergy—joinéd with 
them in organizing the Constituent As- 
sembly. 

When the King dismissed Necker, the 
popular minister of finance, and concen- 
trated troops on Paris, an immense 
crowd on July 14 stormed the Bastille, 
the national prison and symbol of gen- 
erations of tyranny, and brought on the 
tragic scenes of the Revolution. The 
Constituent Assembly abolished the old 
feudal privileges, adopted the Declara- 
tion of the Rights of Man, and organized 
the National Guards. The nobles who 
were unwilling to accept the situation left 
France, and became known as the Emi- 
grés. In October a mob marched to Ver- 
sailles, killed the royal guards and com- 
pelled the King and Queen to return to 
Paris and take up their residence in the 
Tuileries. 

The Constituent Assembly also re- 
moved to Paris, where it decreed the 
transfer of the property of the Church 
to the State, suppressed all titles of no- 
bility and completed the constitution. 
This was signed by the King on July 
14, 1790, although his oath of acceptance 
was regarded with suspicion,—a suspi- 
cion that was increased by the attempt 
of the King and Queen on the night of 
June 20, 1791, to escape from France to 
the protection of the Queen’s brother, 
Emperor Leopold II of Austria. They 
were captured and brought back to Paris. 
A revised constitution was adopted, to 
which the King took oath in September, 
1791. The Constituent Assembly then 
dissolved, and was succeeded on Oct. 1 
by the Legislative Assembly. The retire- 
ment of Necker and the death of Mira- 
beau having left France without experi- 
enced statesmen, new leaders came for- . 
ward in the Legislative Assembly. The 
delegates divided into two groups, the 
Girondists, who were moderate repub- 
licans, and the Mountain (so called be- 
cause they occupied high seats in the 
hall), the party of more radical reform. 

And now, at a time when France 
greatly needed peace in order to adjust 


1101 


FRENCH REVOLUTION 


her internal affairs, complications had 
arisen with Prussia and Austria through 
the efforts of the Queen and Emigrés to 
enlist these nations in the defense of the 
royal family; and war was declared on 
mpr./\20, 1/92. Early “defeats tot "the 
French forces caused outbreaks of the 
Paris mobs. On Aug. 10 the Tuileries 
was stormed, and the King threw himself 
upon the mercy of the Legislative As- 
sembly, which suspended him and im- 
prisoned the royal family in the Temple. 
Further military defeats led to the mas- 
sacres of September, in which 1000 Roy- 
alists were slain by the mob. The tide 
of disorder was temporarily stayed by the 
French victory in the Battle of Valmy. 
The National Convention, elected by 
universal suffrage under a new consti- 
tution adopted after the imprisonment of 
the King, succeeded the Legislative As- 
sembly on Sept. 21, 1792. It showed its 
radical character by promptly abolishing 
the monarchy and declaring a republic. 
In December the King was brought to 
trial on a charge of treason, convicted, 
and beheaded on Jan. 21, 1793. The di- 
vision of parties in the Convention now 
became bitter. The Girondists, as the 
party of moderation, had voted reluctantly 
for the death of the King, and could not 
cope with the situation. The King’s exe- 
cution had united the nations of Europe 
against the Revolution. Hostile armies 
were pressing toward Paris. Within was 
anarchy. Bold measures became neces- 
sary, and the Girondists were overthrown 
by the fierce champions of democracy. 
Before the end of the year their leaders 
were put to death, leaving the Jacobins of 
the Mountain Party in complete control. 
The court known as the Revolutionary 
Tribunal was established in March, 1793, 
for the trial of persons charged with 
crimes against the nation. In April the 
Convention appointed an executive com- 
mittee, known as the Committee of Pub- 
lic Safety, which assumed dictatorial 
powers and inaugurated the Reign of 
Terror. More than 2500 prominent per- 
sons, including Queen Marie Antoinette, 
were sent to the guillotine. The Worship 
of Reason was established, and the re- 


FRENCH REVOLUTION 


straints exercised by religion became in- 
operative. But the iron rule of the Com- 
mittee saved France. Civil war was 
suppressed, new legal codes were 
adopted, the army was reorganized, the 
invaders were driven out and the Aus- 
trians were defeated. Gradually one man 
stood out preeminent—Robespierre. At 
his instigation the Committee had exe- 
cuted Danton, one of its chief leaders, for 
suggesting that the Terror had gone far 
enough; and shielded by his great popu- 
larity, the Committee continued its work. 
But Robespierre’s own time finally came. 
A plot was formed against him, and he 
was tried and beheaded in July, 1794, 
bringing the Reign of Terror to an end. 

The Convention now resumed its au- 
thority, restricted the powers of the Com- 
mittee of Public Safety, dissolved the 
Revolutionary Tribunal, closed the Jaco- 
bin Club and recalled the Girondists and 
conservatives. The Constitution of the 
Year III was adopted in the summer of 
1795, placing the government in the 
hands of a Directory of five persons and 
two legislative bodies, the Council of An- 
cients and the Council of Five Hundred. 
The establishment of this constitution led 
to an uprising in Paris, the suppression 
of which by Napoleon Bonaparte brought 
him into prominence. 

The military success of the last months 
of the Convention promised the continue 
under the Directory. Napoleon won bril- 
liant campaigns against Austria in Italy, 
and became the popular idol. But the 
Egyptian campaign, which he now under- 
took, was a failure, and Austria took ad- 
vantage of his absence to recover the 
lost ground in Italy. Neither was the 
Directory succeeding at home. There was 
friction with the legislative bodies, the 
finances were mismanaged and discontent 
became prevalent. The leaders turned to 
Napoleon as the only man who could save 
France fromruin. At their invitation he 
returned from Egypt, and with their co- 
operation overthrew the Directory and 
Councils on Nov. 9, 1799. A new consti- 
tution was drawn up establishing the 
Consulate, to consist of three men; and 
Napoleon was made first consul with dic- 


1102 


FRENCH SOMALILAND 


tatorial powers, thus bringing the Revo- 
lution practically to a conclusion. 

For the subsequent history see NAPo- 
LEON I and FRANCE, subhead History. 
See also MiIRABEAU, GABRIEL HONORE 
RiguetTI; Marat, JEAN PAuL; DAn- 
TON, GEORGE JACQUES; ROBESPIERRE, 
MAXIMILIEN; NECKER, JACQUES; Ma- 
RIE ANTOINETTE; GIRONDISTS; JACO- 
BINS. 

French Somaliland, So mah’ le land’, 
or Somali Coast Protectorate, a small 
group of French possessions in eastern 
Africa on the Gulf of Aden. Jibuti, the 
capital, is also the chief city. The coun- 
try consists of about 1000 sq. m. of fer- 
tile plateau, but is only sparsely inhab- 
ited. 

Frenchtown, Battle of. 
RAISIN, BATTLE OF THE. 

French West Africa, a name applied 


See RIVER 


to the French possessions known sepa- 


rately as Senegal, French Guinea, Ivory 
Coast, Dahomey, Upper Senegal and the 
Niger. Its total area is 1,330,887 sq. 
m. The country is under the rule of a 
French governor-general, whose resi- 
dence is at Dakar, a fortified naval sta- 
tion in Senegal. The colonies making 
up French West Africa are described 
under their separate titles. See FRENCH 
GUINEA; Ivory COAST; SENEGAL. 

Freneau, Fre no’, Philip (1752-1832), 
an American poet, born in New York 
City. He wrote satiric verse and prose, 
and in 1791 Jefferson induced him to 
take charge of the Anti-Federalist Na- 
tional Gazette. He preferred life on the 
sea to journalism and soon abandoned 
that profession. As the first American 
poet of distinct ability he wrote The Ris- 
ing Glory of America, The Indian Bury- 
ing-Ground, The Wild Honeysuckle and 
Eutaw Springs. 

Fresno, Frez' no, Cal., a city and the 
county seat of Fresno Co., 209 m. s.e. 
of San Francisco, on the Atchison, To- 
peka & Santa Fe, the Southern Pacific 
and other railroads. It is situated in the 
San Joaquin Valley (about 300 ft. above 
sea level), which is naturally arid, but 
which is under an extensive system of 
irrigation. Grains and fruits are grown 


FREY 


in abundance, peaches, figs and raisins 
being among the leading crops. Apricots, 
oranges and olives also are extensively 
cultivated, and there are numerous wine- 
making and fruit-drying establishments. 
Stock raising is an important industry, 
special attention being given to sheep 
and horses; lumbering and mining are 
extensively engaged in, and the oil in- 
terests are important, producing one- 
thirtieth of the world’s supply. In ad- 
dition to the industrial features, there 
are several noteworthy objects of inter- 
est, among them the United States Gov- 
ernment Building and a Carnegie library. 
There are a number of fine hotels. 
Fresno was laid out and incorporated in 
1872 and two years later became the 
county seat. It was chartered as a city 
in 1885. Population in 1920, 45,086. 
Frey, Fra, in Scandinavian mythol- 
ogy, loving god of sunlight and of warm 
summer rains, was son of the sea king, 
Niord, and brother of Freya. Accord- 
ing to Northern custom, Frey received 
many valuable gifts when he cut his 
first tooth: the beautiful realm of Fairy- 
land; a magic sword, invincible, which 
fought, on being unsheathed, of its own 
accord; a golden-bristled boar of in- 
credible speed; a dauntless horse which 
could leap through fire and water; and 
a most marvelous ship which could sail 
as well on land as on water, if need be 
could accommodate all the gods, and 


‘could be folded up, like a napkin, and 


tucked out of sight. Frey fell in love 
with beautiful Gerda. Being diffident, 
he left his wooing to a trusty servant, to 
whom he lent his horse and to whom 
reward for success was his magic sword. 
Frey was later slain by the dazzling 
blade of the mighty flame-giant. Not 
only was Frey god of sunlight, fruitful- 
ness, peace and prosperity, but he 
guarded horses and horsemen and res- 
cued all prisoners. Oxen and ‘horses 
were the principal sacrifices in his 
shrines, where no weapons ever entered. 
Yule month, when boar’s flesh was eaten, 
was sacred to him. 

Freya, Fra’ ya, in Scandinavian my- 
thology, sister of Frey, was martial god- 


1103 


FRIARS 


dess of beauty and love. She often ac- 
companied the Valkyrs to battle, where 
she selected and claimed half the slain 
warriors. This accounts for the breast- 
plate, helmet, shield and spear with 
which she is represented. When de- 
serted by her roving husband, Odur, the 
summer sun, Freya hunted him through 
all the worid, the while shedding tears 
which turned to gold or to amber. She 
-owned a dazzling necklace fashioned by 
the dwarfs, and falcon plumes, which 
enabled her to fly across the sky like a 
bird. Cats drew her chariot. The swal- 
low and cuckoo were her favorites. Fri- 
day was sacred to her worship. Charle- 
magne destroyed the last of her many 
temples at Magdeburg, Germany. 
Fri’ars. See DoMIN’ ICANS.' 
Fric’tion, in physics, the resistance, 
due to its contact with other bodies, 
which a body offers to actual or possi- 
ble motion. The surfaces of bodies, 
though seemingly perfectly smooth to 
sight and touch, have many minute in- 
equalities which cannot be removed. 
Thus, when the surface of one slides 
upon the surface of the other the eleva- 
tions of one project into the other’s 
depressions and tend to retard the mo- 
tion. There are two kinds of friction, 
known respectively as sliding and rolling 
friction; the first is exerted when a 
book is pushed across a table; the sec- 
ond, when a wheel rolls along a surface. 
In machines sliding friction occurs more 
commonly than rolling friction. 
Experiments for investigating friction 
are easily performed. A block, having 
its three dimensions unequal, placed upon 
a table and connected by a string pass- 
ing over a pulley, with a weight, serves 
as apparatus. If the block is pulled 
across the table first upon its broadest 
side and then upon its others in succes- 
sion, the force required to overcome the 
friction will be found to be the same in 
each case. Weights placed on the block 
show that friction increases in propor- 
tion to the total force pressing the two 
surfaces together and that it is inde- 
pendent of the area of the surfaces in 
contact. It is also shown by experiment 


FRICTION 


that the force required to overcome fric- 
tion is the same for all ordinary speeds; 
but it is greater for exceedingly slow 
speeds, especially noticeable in starting 
one body to slide along another, and it 
appears to be less for very great speeds. 
Friction varies greatly with different 
substances, and in engineering work the 
coefficient of friction between two sur- 
faces of the same or different materials 
is defined as the force required to slide 
one surface along the other divided by the 
total force pressing the two surfaces to- 
gether. The coefficient for iron sliding on 
iron is about 0.2; that for oak wood on 
oak wood about 0.4. Thus a locomotive 
pressing with a weight of 100,000 Ib. on 
the driving wheels can exert a pull of .2 
of this weight, that is, 20,000 Ib. pull; 
practically, however, somewhat less. In 
rolling friction, the force required to 
overcome friction decreases as the di- 
ameter of the wheel increases. A wagon 
with large wheels is more easily pulled 
along a road than one with small wheels. 
Rolling friction is very much less than 
sliding friction; hence the great use of 
roller and ball bearings wherever prac- 
ticable. The bicycle would have been 
almost impossible without ball bearings. 

In all journal bearings like the axle 
in the hub of a wagon wheel or the pivot 
of a watch in its jeweled bearing, we 
have sliding friction; the smaller the 
diameter of the axle or pivot, the less 
is the surface. The rubbing surfaces 
must be made to slide over one another ; 
hence the less the energy that must. be 
spent in overcoming friction. In fine 
pivot bearings and in most journal bear- 
ings of machinery it has been found that 
it is better to have the shaft or pivot of 
one material and the journal or socket 
of another. In this manner friction and 
wear are both decreased. In all such 
bearings the use of oil between the rub- 
bing surfaces greatly reduces the fric- 
tion. 

In machinery, friction is generally con- 
sidered a great hindrance, since it uses 
up force in overcoming it which might 
be otherwise employed; practically, how- 
ever, friction is of great value. It holds 


1104 


FRIDAY 


objects firm and causes the heavier, by 


their very weight, to stand more solidly ; 


a 


| flesh meat. 


mous increase in engine power. 


‘tion with the crucifixion. 


it holds bolts and screws in place, keeps 
the fibers of thread tight and even makes 
it possible for us to stand, to walk and 
to hold objects in our hands. 

FLuip FRicrion. - When a solid 
moves through a fluid, either a liquid or 


a gas, the resistance encountered is not 


independent of the speed, as is the case 
for one solid sliding on another. Fluid 
friction increases with the speed; it is 
very little at low speeds; it increases 
about proportionally to the speed for 
moderate speeds; and it increases very 
much more rapidly for high speeds. 


Thus, it requires only a small force to 


push a boat through the water at a speed 
of a few feet per minute, while to in- 
crease the speed of an ocean liner from 
20 to 25 m. per hour requires an enor- 
Like- 
wise, the friction of wheels on the rails 
and the axles in their journals is much 
Preater than the friction of the train 
against the air at low speeds of a few 
miles per hour; but at high speeds of 50 
to 60 m. per hour, the air friction is by 


_ far the greater resistance to overcome. 


Fri’day, the sixth day of the week. 
The name is derived from that of 
Frigga, Scandinavian goddess, wife of 
Odin. This day among Germanic peo- 
ples was sacred to Frigga. In very early 
times in the Christian Church Friday was 
consecrated to the commemoration of 
the death of Christ, which occurred on 
that day. Good Friday, the Friday be- 
fore Easter, is quite generally observed 
among Christians, and the Roman Cath- 
olic and Anglican churches designate all 
Fridays (except those on which. Christ- 
mas falls) as days of abstinence from 
The somewhat prevalent 
superstition that Friday is an unlucky 
day originated probably with its connec- 
See FRIGGA. 
Friendly Islands. See Tonca Is- 
LANDS. 

Friends, or The Society of Friends, 
a Christian sect commonly called Quak- 
ers. The name Quaker was ‘originally 
applied in derision. Their founder, 


FRIGATE 


George Fox, began to preach in England 
about 1647, soon gathering about him a 
following of those dissatisfied with the 
religious teaching of the day and de- 
sirous of a higher spiritual life. During 
the reign of Charles II the Friends suf- 
fered severe persecution, and it was not 
until after the Revolution of 1688 that 
they were free from serious interference. 
Spreading to America, the Quaker move- 
ment exercised considerable influence in 
the colonies, and it was a Quaker, Wil- 
liam Penn, who established the Pennsyl- 
vania Colony. The Quakers were sub- 
jected to persecution in the New World, 
but persevered in establishing their 
Church. In 1827-28 a division occurred, 
under the preaching of a Friend of Uni- 
tarian tendencies, named Elias Hicks. 
The two bodies are frequently called 
Orthodox and Hicksite, though the latter 
and smaller party preferred to be known 
as the Liberal Branch. 

The Friends hold views very similar 
to those of other Christian bodies, but 
they have a distinguishing doctrine. This 
is the belief in the immediate personal 
teaching of the Holy Spirit to the indi- 
vidual, often called the Inner Light. In 
conducting their public worship they de- 
pend entirely on the guidance of the 
Holy Spirit, usually sitting in silence 
until someone feels that he has been 
called upon by the Spirit to speak. They 
believe in a spiritual baptism and com- 
munion service, not an outward ordi- 
nance; they refuse to take and adminis- 
ter oaths; they protest against warfare 
in any form and advise the refusal to aid 
in military affairs. The ministry to them 
is not a profession and is not put upon 
a pecuniary basis. Their form of gov- 
ernment is simple. In 1919 the Ortho- 
dox Friends in the United States num- 
bered about 100,000; the Hicksites, 
19,595. 

Frig’ate, a warship of great speed. 
In olden times the frigate was a long, 
narrow warship propelled by sails and 
oars, used on occasions where great 
speed was necessary. The term was later 
applied to a larger class of ships smaller 
than the regular battleships. They were 


1105 


aa BIRD 


used in the 18th and 19th centuries as 
cruisers and scouts, usually joining the 
line of battle in an engagement. In mod- 
ern times the name is applied to ironclad 
vessels of great speed and power. See 
Navy; Scour. 

Frigate Bird, a bird of the Man-of- 
War Family. The frigate birds are sea 
birds and may be known by their large 
size (over 40 inches) and long, narrow 
wings, which have a spread of 12 ft., 
forked tail, long, hooked bill, partly 
webbed feet and black color. The sides 
and breast are white in the female. The 
nest is very large, made of sticks, and is 
placed in the tops of low trees and in 
bushes. One white egg is laid. The 


young are naked when hatched and are » 


brooded by the parents. Later, they are 
covered with a white down which pre- 
cedes the true feathers. The frigate 
bird is abundant on tropical and sub- 
tropical portions of the Atlantic and Pa- 
cific coasts. It is casual as far north as 
Wisconsin and Nova Scotia. The name 
is given on account of the bird’s swift 
flight. 

Frig’ga, a queen of the gods and 
goddess of the clouds, was the wife of 
the Norse Odin, with whom she sat on 
royal Hildskialf, whence they could see 
over the entire world. She spent most 
of her time spinning  bright-colored 
clouds on what is known as Frigga’s 
Spinning Wheel in the North, 
Orion’s Girdle in the South. Heron 
plumes decked Frigga’s hair, and her 
white robe was bound with a golden 
girdle from which were suspended her 
household keys. Although an influential 
goddess, she had no shrines and worship 
was accorded her only as Odin’s favor- 
ite wife. 

Fro’bisher, Sir Martin (about 1535- 
1594), a famous English navigator. In 
the hope of reaching the East by a 
northwest passage, he made three trips 
to the Arctic regions, where he failed in 
attempting to settle a colony. It was in 
1576-78 that he sailed into what is known 
as Frobisher Bay. Subsequently he en- 
gaged in expeditions against Spain and 
was killed while attacking Brest. 


; 
/ 


and 


FROG 


Froebel, Frub’ bel, Friedrich Wil- 
helm August (1782-1852), a German 
educational reformer, a true lover of 
children, the originator of the kinder- 
garten and its system of instruction. 
Born at a small village in the Thuringian 
forest, the son of a Lutheran minister, 
left motherless in early childhood, -and 
in boyhood enjoying few educational ad- 
vantages, he began teaching at the age 
of 21 in a model school at Frankfort-on- 
the-Main, where it soon appeared that 
he was, as the Germans love to say, “a 
teacher by the grace of God.” He later 
studied at Berlin and Gottingen, and 
spent three years in study and teaching 
under Pestalozzi at Yverdun. Although 
not a Prussian, he was heart and soul 
a German. Hence, he dropped his stud- 
ies at Berlin in 1813, and served in a 
volunteer corps against Napoleon; for, 
as Froebel said, “How could any young 
man capable of bearing arms become a 
teacher of children whose Fatherland he 
had refused to defend?” 

His attitude throughout life is indi- — 
cated by the statement that “his hands 
were made for giving not for receiving.” 
Like many other great men, he was not 
understood by those of his time. In 
youth he was called “a -moon-struck 
child;” in. his ‘mature years)) atom 
fool.” But now men see that he clearly 
understood the requirements of educa- 
tion, and that the child’s training should 
be a development from within, not a pre- 
scription from without. Hence, his life 
and work have already modified educa- 
tional methods in schools of all grades. 
Hewn deep in the solid rock of the 
Glockner Mountain, the word Froebel, — 
in great letters, today reflects his fame. 
But the kindergartens of the world are 
his best memorial. See KINDERGARTEN, 

Frog, a small animal that lives part 
of the time in the water and part of the 
time on land. Frogs belong to the Ranid 
Family. They have large heads and 
mouths, and long sturdy legs by means 
of which they hop about on land. Frogs 
differ from toads by having a smooth 
skin, generally of a green color, but of- 
ten beautifully striped or spotted. They 


1106 


FROGFISH 


have a small tongue and well-developed 
teeth. The eggs are deposited in water 
in the spring, where they form a thick 
jellylike mass. Before reaching the stage 
of complete development the young are 

1 2 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG 


called tadpoles or polliwogs. They live 
in streams and ponds and feed on 
grasses and seaweeds. 

Gradually the head enlarges, the tail 
becomes narrower and shorter and the 
legs break through the enveloping skin 
as the gills disappear. In place of swim- 
_ ming as before, by means of a tail, they 
now leap through the water with a long 
stroke of the hind legs; their prey con- 
sists, of insects, worms and small fishes. 
_ This course of development is common to 
_all members of the order. - 

Frogs, like toads, shed their skins fre- 
quently, pulling them off over their heads. 
See Toap; BATRACHIA; TREE Toap. 

Frogfish. See ANGLER. 

Froissart, Frwah"sar’', Jean (about 
1338-about 1410), a French poet and his- 
torian, born in Valenciennes. Whatever 
is known of his life is gained from his 
own chronicles and poetry. At the age 
‘of 20 he began to write a history of the 
wars of his time, and traveled exten- 
sively over Europe to gain material for 
his work. He wrote verses for queens 
and ladies, and in England Queen 
Philippa was his patron until her death. 
His Chronicle covered the period from 
1326 to 1400. He considered his poetry 
superior to his prose, but later criticism 
has reversed this judgment, and it is for 
the faithful, graphic accounts of the life 
and customs of his own age and not for 
his mechanical verse that he is remem- 
bered. 

Frontenac, Fron”te nak’, Louis de 
Buade, ComTE DE (about 1620-1698), 
a French soldier and early governor of 
New France in America. After winning 


FROSTBITE 


distinction in Italy, Germany and Flan- 
ders, he was made governor of New 
France in 1672. The following year he 
commissioned Joliet to find the Missis- 
sippi. For him, La Salle named Ft. 
Frontenac at Kingston, on Lake Ontario. 
He was tactful with the Indians, and 
New France prospered under his rule. 
However, he was recalled in 1682, only 
to be reinstated by Louis XIV in 1689. 
It was then, during King William’s War, 
that he undertook his great plan of con- 
quering the English settlements in New 
York, New Hampshire and Maine, but 
without any permanent success. Later, 
attacking the Iroquois of New York, he 
dealt them a blow from which they never 
recovered, and they were glad to sue 
for peace, 1696. 

Frost. When the air is cooled to 
the dew point, it is saturated with mois- 
ture at that temperature. If cooled still 
further, some of the contained moisture 
will condense as rain, fog, snow, hail, 
dew or frost. Frost is formed on the 
surface of the ground or other exposed 
objects when the dew-point temperature 
of the air is below 32° F. and the radi- 
ation of heat from the ground cools the 
ground and the air immediately next to 
the ground, below the dew point. The 


excess moisture in the air is then depos- 


ited directly as frost without passing 
through the condition of liquid drops. 
Such frost is frequently called white 
frost, or hoar frost. The heavier hoar 
frosts occur under weather conditions 
similar to those under which the heavi- 
est summer dews are formed; namely, 
on clear, calm nights when there are no 
clouds or smoke banks to hinder the cool- 
ing of the ground and other exposed sur- 
faces by radiation. See Dew; Vapor. 

Frostbite, the frozen or partly frozen 
condition of a part of the body caused 
by exposure to intense cold. The feet, 
hands, nose and ears are the parts often- 
est frostbitten. In cases of slight injury, 
cold treatments, such as rubbing with 
snow or the use of cold water, are effi- 
cacious in restoring vitality to the chilled 
member. When the part has been com- 
pletely frozen as the result of long ex- 


1107 


FROUDE 


posure to severe cold, it may die or de- 
cay, making amputation necessary. 

Froude, Frood, James Anthony 
(1818-1894), an English historian, 
born in Dartington. In 1689 he was 
made the rector of St. Andrews Univer- 
sity, and a short time afterwards visited 
South America in the interests of the 
British Government, publishing reports 
relative to his investigations. He made 
extended tours through the United 
States, West Indies and Australia. His 
historical writings are distinguished by 
brilliancy and picturesque narrative 
rather than accuracy, and because of his 
prejudices he cannot be ranked among 
the best historians. He published The 
Nemesis of Faith, The History of Eng- 
land from the Fall of Wolsey to the 
Death of Elizabeth, Short Studies, Rem- 
iniscences of Thomas Carlyle, Letters 
and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, 
and Life of Lord Beaconsfield. 

Fruit, the part of a plant which 
ripens with the seeds and either encloses 
them or bears them upon its surface. 
Technically, it is the matured ovary and 
its coverings. In common usage, a fruit 
differs from a vegetable in being the 
product of any plant, herb, shrub or tree 
having a decided flavor and generally 
being eaten raw as dessert. Fruits are 
botanically classified according to their 
composition as follows: simple, when 
they arise from a single, simple pistil, as 
thé peach, and this may or may not in- 
clude the old calyx of the flower; ag- 
gregate, when a cluster of simple pistils 
have ripened in a mass, as the raspberry ; 
accessory, when the supports of the pistil 
have ripened with it, as the wintergreen ; 
multiple, when formed from several con- 
solidated flowers, as the pineapple. 

In regard to texture, fruits are classi- 
fied as fleshy, having a juicy covering; 
drupes, or stone fruits; and dry fruits. 
Fleshy fruits are subdivided into the 
berry, the pepo, of which the melon is 
an example, and the pome, or applelike 
fruits. Stone fruits have hardened cen- 
ters surrounded by juicy coverings. 
Dry fruits are grains, nuts, pods, cones, 
key fruits, or akenes, and capsules. 


FUCHOW 


In reference to the dissemination of 
their seeds, fruits are said to be dehiscent 
or indehiscent according to whether they 
do or do not open at maturity. Pods are 
dehiscent fruits. Fleshy and stone fruits 
are indehiscent and depend for the dis- 
semination of their seeds upon the decay 
of the fleshy part or upon their being 
set free by the animals that eat them. 

The production of new and choice 
fruit with better flavors and fewer ined- 
ible parts is becoming one of the chief 
aims of horticulturists in the United 
States and other countries. See Bur- 
BANK, LUTHER. 

Fruit Thrush. See BuLBUL. 

Frye, Fri, William Pierce (1831- 
1911), an American statesman, born at 
Lewiston, Me. He graduated at Bow- 
doin College in 1850 and entered the pro- 
fession of law. He was a member of the 
State Legislature in 1861-62 and again 
in 1867,’meantime serving as mayor of 
Lewiston in 1866-67. The next two 
years he was attorney-general of the 
state, after which he served in the lower 
house of Congress for ten years (1871- 
81), when he became United States sen- 
ator, to succeed James G. Blaine. In 
1898 he was one of the commissidners to 
negotiate the treaty of peace with Spain. 
In 1901 Frye became president pro tem- 
pore of the Senate. 

Fuchow, Foo’ chou’, or Foochow, a 
city of China, capital of the Province 
of Fukien, situated on the Min River, 
140 m. n. of Amoy. A stone wall 30 
ft. high surrounds the city and the so- 
called “Bridge of Ten Thousand Ages” 
spans the river. 
dwells a large floating population. ‘The 
arsenal on Pageda Island, established in 
1867, formerly turned out a number of 
small gunboats; it is now the point at 
which seagoing vessels anchor. Sev- 
eral missions have been established in 
the city since 1846. The European com- 
merce is significant, as also is that with 
America, while the trade with Australia 
and New Zealand is on the increase. Ex- 
ports consist principally of opium and 
tea; native merchants bargain over the 
staples, timber, cotton and woolen goods, 


1108 


‘ 
j Je Wi 
ae 


On the river itself | 


, 


‘4 
F 


‘ 


FUCHS 


paper, olives and oranges. Population, 
estimated at 700,000. 

Fuchs, Fooks, Leonhard. See Fuen- 
SIA, 

Fuchsia, Fu’ shi a, a name applied to 
a class of plants of the Evening Prim- 
rose Family, whose individuals are herbs, 
shrubs or trees, chiefly natives of the 
Andes. Our most common species is a 
garden plant cultivated for its beautiful 
flowers, which drop from their stems and 
give the plant the apt name, ladies’ ear 
drops. There are many varieties, but the 
flower most commonly known has a 
white or pale pink tube, surrounding the 
base of the red, blue or violet petals, 
from the midst of which extend the long, 
drooping stamens. The tree fuchsia is 
found in Mexico and is a stout shrub 
with rose-colored flowers. The name 
fuchsia is derived from that of a noted 
German botanist, Leonhard Fuchs, who 
named the parts of flowers. 

Fu’el, a substance used for produc- 
ing heat by combustion. Fuels are of 
three classes, solid, liquid and gaseous. 
The solid fuels most extensively used 
are coal, wood, peat, charcoal and coke. 
Coal and wood are used in the natural 
state, but charcoal and coke are manu- 
factured fuels. They are used exten- 


sively in smelting ores and reducing met- 


als, since they contain no impurities that 


will injure the metal, and produce in- 
tense heat. Briquettes are small bricks 
of coal slack cemented together by clay 
or some other adhesive substance. In 


some localities they are used for warm- 


ing houses. The liquid fuels are certain 
animal and vegetable oils, crude petro- 
leum and its products, kerosene and gas- 
oline. Fuels of this class contain the 
greatest amount of heat energy. They 
are used chiefly in producing steam in 
steam engines and as a source of power 
in gas engines. 

The gases used for fuel are natural 


gas, coal gas, water gas, producer gas 


and blast-furnace gas. Gaseous fuels 
are very convenient, and in cities are 
used for cooking and to some extent for 
warming dwellings. In the manufacture 
ot glass and some other products, a gas- 


FULLER 


eous fuel is essential for melting the 


raw material. See CoaAL; CHARCOAL; 
PETROLEUM ; KEROSENE; GASOLINE; AL- 
COHOL; NaturAL Gas; Gas, ILLUMi- 
NATING; COMBUSTION. 

Fugitive, Fu’ ji tiv, Slave Law. Pre- 
ceding the Civil War, Congress in 1850 
passed an act known as the Fugitive 
Slave Law, which provided for the re- 
turn of slaves who had escaped from one 
state to another. Under the provisions 
of this act any slave escaping should be 
returned as soon as apprehended, and it 
became the duty of every officer to exer- 
cise great diligence in the pursuit and 
capture. The North never gave the 
measure its approval and some states 
passed special “personal liberty” acts to 
counteract if possible the effect of the 
act of Congress. There was also a fugi- 
tive slave law passed in 1793, but in the 
early days of the nation it excited little 
comment, as the institution of slavery at 
that time had not gained public interest. 

Fujiyama, Foo’ je yah’ ma. See Ja- 
PAN, subhead Physical Features. 

Fuller, Melville Weston (1833-1910), 
apenier justice of the, Unitedy states 
Supreme Court, born at Augusta, 
Me. He graduated at Bowdoin College 
in 1853, studied law at Harvard and was 
admitted to the bar in 1855. He was 
editor of the Augusta Age, served on 
the city council, and was city attorney. 
In 1856 he moved to Chicago, where he 
practiced law successfully for 32 years. 
He was elected to the Illinois Legislature 
in 1863. President Cleveland appointed 
him chief justice of the Supreme Court 
in 1888, where he served until his death. 
In 1899 he was one of the arbitrators in 
the Anglo-Venezuelan controversy. As 
a jurist and judge he ranks among the 
most distinguished in America. 

Fuller, Sarah Margaret, MarcHIon- 
Ess Ossoxti (1810-1850), an American 
author, born in Cambridgeport, Mass. She 
was the eldest child of Timothy Fuller, a 
prominent lawyer, who conducted her 
education so zealously that she became 
a youthful prodigy to the permanent in- 
jury of her health. After teaching in 
private schools in Boston and Providence 


1109 


FULLER’S EARTH 


she conducted The Dial, the magazine 
representing the ideas and aims of the 
Transcendentalists, in 1840-42. She re- 
moved to New York in 1844 at the re- 
quest of Horace Greeley, to write liter- 
ary criticisms for the Tribune. In 1846 
she went to Europe, and in the following 
year she was married to the Marquis 
Giovanni Angelo Ossoli, whom she met 
in Rome. Both took active part in the 
Italian struggle for independence in 1848- 
49, she taking charge of two hospitals. 
They sailed for America in 1850, but 
were drowned off Fire Island Beach. 
Her brilliant conversational powers and 
personality revealed a depth of sympathy 
and intellectual power not so apparent in 
her writings. She was an especial friend 
of Emerson and one of the Brook Farm 
visitors. Her works include Summer on 
the Lakes, Woman in the Nineteenth 
Century, Papers on Literature and Art, 
letters and translations. See TRANSCEN- 
DENTALISM ; BRooK FARM. 

Fuller’s Earth, a clay composed of 
oxides of aluminum, iron, calcium, so- 
dium, magnesium, etc., and once widely 
used in cleansing wool and cloth of 
grease. This process, called fulling, gave 
the name to the clay. Now it is more 
commonly used for purifying cottonseed 
oil and lubricating oil by filtering them 
through the clay.’ Fuller’s earth is fine- 
grained, soapy to the touch and of a vari- 
ety of colors. It was once mined only at 
Reigate in England, but recently deposits 
were found in Florida, South Dakota 
and other localities in the United States. 

Fulling Mill, a contrivance for 
cleansing, scouring and pressing woven 
woolen goods so as to render them 
stronger, firmer and closer. It consists 
of a wheel, with its trundle, which gives 
motion to the tree, or spindle, whose 
teeth communicate that motion to the 
stampers. These fall into troughs, 
wherein the cloth is put, with fuller’s 
earth, soap and water. 

Ful’mar, sea birds related to the al- 
. batross and the petrel. They are web- 
footed, with rather long bills, hooked at 
the end, and with tubelike nostrils. <A 
number of species are known, several 


FULTON _ 


of which inhabit both the Atlantic and 
Pacific oceans. The giant fulmar of the 
Pacific Ocean measures three feet in 
length and has a wing spread of seven 
feet. This bird has two phases of plum- 
age; a light phase, with white under 
parts, and a dark phase in which the 
whole bird is brownish. The white eggs 
of the fulmars are laid on the bare rocks 
of high cliffs. The eggs of the fulmar 
petrel of the Atlantic Ocean are highly 
prized as food, and the fish oil in its 
stomach is an article of commerce. 

Fulton, N. Y., a city of Oswego Co., 
25 m. n.e. of Syracuse, on the Oswego 
River, the Oswego Canal, the New York 
Central and the New York, Ontario & 
Western railroads. In 1902, the villages 
of Fulton and Oswego Fails were con- 
solidated and chartered as a city. Fulton 
has a fine library and public buildings 
of interest. The city carries on a large 
trade in tobacco and milk and its manu- - 
factures include flour, woolen goods, ex- 
celsior, water motors, motor boats, ca- 
noes and yachts. Population in 1920, 
U. S. Census, 13,043. 

Fulton, Robert (1765-1815), an 
American mechanical engineer and in- 
ventor of the steamboat, born at Little 
Britain, Pa. He began life as a portrait 
and landscape painter, and went to Lon- 
don to study under West. While in 
England he turned his attention to me- 
chanics, for which he had a great liking 
and decided ability. In 1796 Fulton went 
to Paris, where his principal work was 
the preparation of torpedoes to be used 
in naval warfare, and the invention of a 
submarine torpedo boat. He did not suc- 
ceed at that time and he turned his at- 
tention to the application of steam to 
navigation. He launched a small steam- 
boat on the Seine River in 1803, but the 
boat sank almost immediately. A second 
trial, however, was more successful, al- 
though no considerable speed was at- 
tained. 

Nevertheless Fulton considered that 
his inventions were deserving of more 
recognition than they were receiving in 
Paris, and in 1806 he returned to New 
York; he perfected his torpedo system, 


" 1110 


= 
= 


FUNDY, BAY OF 


which was Jater adopted by the United 
States Government ; and in 1807 launched 
the steamboat Clermont upon the Hud- 
son River, in the presence of thousands 
of spectators. It was a success. Steam 
had been successfully used in navigation 
before this in Scotland, where Fulton is 
said to have secured his plans. Fulton’s 
reputation was now thoroughly estab- 
lished, and he entered the employ of the 
United States Government. In 1814 he 
constructed the first steam warship. His 
numerous patents were often infringed 
and he became involved in many law- 
suits, so that he never reaped any large 
fortune from his inventions. He died in 
New York while improving his torpedo. 
See STEAMSHIP. 

Fun’dy, Bay of, an inlet of the At- 
lantic Ocean, separating Nova Scotia 


from New Brunswick and, the State of 


Maine. It extends 180 m. from northeast 
to southwest and varies in breadth from 
30 to 50m. At.its inner extremity it di- 
vides into two inlets, Chignecto Bay and 
the Minas Channel. It receives the St. 
John and the St. Croix rivers; its strong 
tides render navigation dangerous, as 
they rise at certain seasons to a height 
of 53 ft. At low tide the mud flats and 
estuaries along the shore are completely 


- drained. The Grand Manan is one of 


several islands. 

Fungicide, Fun’ ji side, a substance 
that kills fungi. Its use is most common 
among horticulturists who have learned 


that when a tree or shrub supports a 


‘parasite its own productive ability is im- 


paired and a diseased condition results. 
The protection of shade trees, grains and 
ornamental shrubs, as well as of the 
fruit-bearing plants, is also attracting at- 
tention. To use fungicides effectively 


. some knowledge of the fungus causing 


the disease is necessary, since the same 
fungus is apt to assume many different 
forms. For instance a pear-leaf fungus 
spends one period of its existence upon 
the juniper and may be eradicated by de- 
stroying the juniper shrubs. Many a 
fruit grower has cut down his valuable 
pear trees in a vain attempt to drive out 


the disease, while the unsuspected juni- 


FUNGICIDE 


per, the real cause of the trouble, has been 
allowed to live. In the same way wheat 
rust cannot live except in the neighbor- 
hood of barberry bushes, upon which it 
spends one season of its growth. Knowl- 
edge of a few such facts often avails 
more than the knowledge of poison 
sprays. 

If trees or shrubs are affected a de- 
scription of the symptoms shown may be 
sent to the state department of agricul- 
ture, which in turn will send pamphlets 
discussing the difficulty and its mode of 
treatment. Too frequently, however, a 
plant disease shows itself only in the last - 
stages, when it is too late to save the 
affected plant. There is still time then 
to check its spread and to save other 
plants. As in most affairs, eternal vigi- 
lance is the prime necessity and an ounce 
of prevention is safer and easier than 
later attempts at curing. 

There are a few fungicides which may 
be recommended for general use. To be 
of value they should have the following 
points: ability to destroy the fungus 
without destroying the host; compara- 
tively simple means of preparation and 
application ; moderate cost. Those which 
have been proved to be the most effective 
are: Bordeaux mixture; ammoniacal so- 
lution of copper carbonate; solution of 
potassium sulphide; solution of iron sul- 
phate ; Condy’s fluid; sulphur; and quick- 
lime. 

BorpEAUX MixtTuRE. Of thesé, Bor- 
deaux mixture is most widely used. The 
50-gallon formula for its preparation is 
as follows: water 50 gal., copper sulphate 
6 lb., unslacked lime 4 Ib. To prepare 
put in a barrel or large crock 25 gal. of 
water; suspend the 6 lb. of copper sul- 
phate in a coarse gunny sack just be- 
neath the surface of the water. In an- 
other vessel slack the lime by adding a 
quart or more of water at a time, taking 
care not to let the lime at any time get 
too dry. When a smooth paste has been 
made add sufficient water to bring the 
whole up to 25 gal. When the lime is 
cool and the copper sulphate dissolved 
pour the two together, constantly stirring 
the milk of lime and continuing the stir- 


1111 


-PUNGICIDE 


ring for at least three minutes after mix- 
ing. To test the mixture insert the blade 
of a penknife for one minute. If the 
surface of the steel takes on a coppery 
appearance more lime must be added. If 
the blade is unchanged the mixture is 
probably safe. Sometimes soft soap is 
added to render the mixture better able 
to spread upon and cling to the leaves. 
In using this mixture in the early spring 
it should be diluted somewhat, as the 
newly-formed leaves and buds are more 
tender than later ones. Fruit trees may 
be sprayed until the fruit is half grown, 
but then the operation should cease or 
the fruit will be imperfect. 

Hor WATER TREATMENT FOR WHEAT 
AND Oat Smut. The following by 
Swingle, taken from the United States 
Department of Agriculture Yearbook for 
1894, gives. the hot-water method for 
treating before planting seeds of cereals 
which may be affected by fungus dis- 
eases, such as smut: 

“Provide two large vessels, prefer- 
ably holding at least 20 gallons. One of 
the vessels should contain warm water, 
say at 110° to 120° F., and the other 
scalding water, at 132° to 133°. F. The 
first is for the purpose of warming the 
seed preparatory to dipping it into the 
second. Unless this precaution is taken 
it will be difficult to keep the water in 
the second vessel at the proper tempera- 
ture. A pail of cold water should be at 
hand, and it is also necessary to have a 
kettle filled with boiling water from 
which to‘add from time to time to keep 
the temperature right. Where kettles 
are used, a very small fire should be kept 
under the kettle of scalding water. The 
seed which is to be treated must be 
placed, half a bushel or more at a time, in 
a closed vessel that will allow free en- 
trance and exit of water on all -sides. 
For this purpose there can be used a 
bushel basket made of heavy wire, in- 
side of which is spread wire netting, say 
12 meshes to the inch. A sack made of 
loosely-woven material, as gunny sack, 
can be used instead of the wire basket. 
In treating stinking smut of wheat, the 
grain should first be thrown into a vessel 


FUNGICIDE 


filled with cold water; then, after stir- 
ring well, skim off the smutted grains 
that float on the top, and put the grain 
into the basket or other vessel for treat- 
ment with hot water. This skimming is 
entirely unnecessary with other grains, 
and even with wheat when only affected 
by the loose smut. Now dip the basket 
of seed in the first vessel containing 
water at 110° to 120° F.; after a mo- 
ment lift it, and when the water has for 
the most part escaped, plunge it into the 
water again, repeating the operation sev- 
eral times. The object of the lifting and 
plunging, to which should be added a 
rotary motion, is to bring every grain 
in contact with the hot water. Less than 
a minute is required for this preparatory 
treatment, after which plunge the bas- 
ket of seed into the second vessel, con- 
taining water at 132° to 133° F. If the 
thermometer indicates that the temper- 
ature of the water is falling, pour in 
hot water from kettle of boiling ‘water 
until the right degree is maintained. If 
the temperature should rise higher than 
133°, add a little cold water. In all cases 
the water should be well stirred when- 
ever any of a different temperature is 
added. The basket of seed should very 
shortly after its immersion be lifted, and 
then plunged and agitated in the manner 
described above. This operation should 
be repeated six or eight times during 
the immersion, which should be contin- 
ued ten minutes. In this way every por- 
tion of the seed will be subjected to the 
action of the scalding water. 

“After removing the grain from the 
scalding water, spread on a clean floor or 
piece of canvas to dry. The layer of 
grain should not be over three inches 
thick. 

“The important precautions to be 
taken are as follows: (1) Maintain the 
proper temperature of the water (132° 
to 133° F.), in no case allowing it to rise 
higher than 135° F.; (2) see that the 
volume of scalding water is much greater 
(at least six or eight times) than that of 
the seed treated at any one time; (3) 
never fill the basket or sack containing 
the seed entirely full, but always leave 


1112 


PO Cee rt SS } eS, Fe eee 7 hy 
PRA at ye ee 
i 


FUNGUS 


\ 


FUR 


room for the grain to move about freely; *uated from the high school at Iola, Kan- 


(4) leave the seed in the second vessel of 
water ten minutes.” 

OTHER Precautions. Although it 
would be impossible to give the formula 
for all effective solutions, a few general 
methods of treatment are here suggested. 
Burn all diseased plants, fruits and bulbs. 
Gathering them and throwing them upon 
refuse heaps or to stock only aids in 
spreading the disease. Remove all dis- 
eased plants immediately and spray the 
remaining ones with Bordeaux mixture. 
Never use any but old, thoroughly-rotted 
manure about the roots of trees, shrubs 
or any perennials. Cuttings or seeds 
from diseased plants should never be 
sown. As far as possible avoid massing 
plants. Protect wounds made by prun- 
ing by an immediate coat of tar. Avoid 
spreading soil from diseased orchards. 
Rotation of crops and planting of trap 
crops are advised. Massee’s Text-Book 
of Plant Diseases is a helpful book on 
this subject. See INSECTICIDE. 

Fungus, Fun’ gus, a name given toa 
low order of plants all of which are char- 
acterized by containing no chlorophyll, 
the green coloring matter of higher 
plants, and by reproducing by means of 
spores rather than seeds. In classifica- 
tion they are placed between the alge, or 
seaweeds, and the mosses. At present 
there are over 40,000 species of fungus 
known and they vary in size from micro- 
scopic cells to long, threadlike structures 
many yards in length. Fungi are divided 
into two general classes: saprophytes, 
those living upon dead plants or ani- 
_mal tissue; and parasites, those growing 
upon living organisms. Among those of 
the first class are such plants as. the 
mushrooms, puffballs and the bracket 
fungi found on dead trees. Those of the 
second class are more numerous and in- 
clude smuts, rusts, mildews and molds. 
In structure each fungus is merely a cell 
or a group of cells, made up of a fluid 
called protoplasm and surrounded by a 
thin cell wall. See Mortp; YEAST; 
MusHROOMS; FUNGICIDE. 

Fun/ston, Frederick (1865-1917), an 
American soldier, born in Ohio. He grad- 


gis, and from the state university at 
Lawrence. He became an expert botan- 
ist and was sent to Alaska to study the 
flora of that country. His predilections 
were for a military life and he was en- 
gaged on the side of the insurgents in 
Cuba in 1896. Afterwards he went to 
Manila as colonel of the 20th Kansas 
volunteers, but was soon promoted to 
brigadier-general of volunteers. He or- 
ganized and was in command of the dar- 
ing expedition that captured Aguinaldo. 
In consideration of this act he was made 
brigadier-general in the regular army and 
afterwards became major-general. He 
was in charge of the troops in San Fran- 
cisco at the time of the earthquake in 
1906. Military operations on the Mexi- 
can border in 1916, including the Mexi- 


‘can expedition, were under his charge. 


Fur, the dressed skins of animals 
containing short, soft hair, and used for 
wearing apparel or-robes. With few ex- 
ceptions the most valuable furs are ob- 
tained from animals inhabiting the land 
and water of cold regions. The most 
important fur-bearing animals of North 
America are the muskrat, hare, squirrel, 
beaver, mink, sable, weasel, ermine, rac- 
coon, fisher, skunk, badger, lynx, several 
species of fox, two species of wolf, 
bears, the fur seal, the musk ox and the 
otter. Some of the most valuable fur- 


‘bearing animals of other countries are 


the chinchilla, several monkeys, the kan- 
garoo and the coypu, or nutria. 

The skins of most fur-bearing animals 
contain two kinds of hair, a soft, silky 
covering next to the skin, and a longer, 
coarser hair known as the overhair. The 
overhair of some furs add much to their 
richness and beauty. In preparing furs 
for the market, the pelts are usually 
salted and dried, when taken from the 
animal, and in this state shipped to New 
York, London or Leipsic, the three lead- 
ing fur markets. The final dressing of 
the fur depends upon the pelt and the 
purpose for which it is intended. lf 
the fur is to be used in its natural state 
and has been taken from small animals, 
such as the fox and mink, the skin is 


o 1113 


FUR 


treated so as to preserve it from decay 
and make it soft and pliable, and is then 
ready for use. From some furs, such as 
those for the fur seal, the overhair is 
removed, and the fur is then colored. 
The pelts are scraped or shaved to make 
them thinner before curing. This method 
of treatment adds greatly to the expense 
of the fur. Other conditions adding to 
the expense are the scarcity of the ani- 
mals from which the fur is taken, the 
difficulty of hunting and trapping these 
animals and the popular demand for a 
particular kind of fur. 

History. From the earliest times men 
have used the skins of animals for cloth- 
ing. When the American Indians were 
discovered, they were wearing garments 
made from the fur of the deer, the bear, 
the wolf, the buffalo and the beaver, and 
soon after the discovery of North Amer- 
ica the French carried on a lucrative 
trade with the Indians, in which they ex- 
changed tools, household utensils and 
ornaments for furs. In pursuit of this 
trade, the French fur traders explored 
most of the territory now constituting 
the Dominion of Canada and the north- 
ern part of the United States. In 1670 
the Hudson’s Bay Company was char- 
tered, and in the course of time gained 
a monopoly of the fur trade of the north- 
ern part of North America. See Hup- 
son’s Bay CoMPANY. 

About a century later the Northwest 
Fur Company was formed by a num- 
ber of Canadian merchants, and soon 
became a formidable competitor of the 
Hudson’s Bay Company. In 1821 the two 
companies were united. The American 
Fur Company, organized by John Jacob 
Astor in 1810-12, carried on an extensive 
trade. Astoria, Ore., was founded as one 
of the principal stations, and later the 
operations and claims of this company 
were important factors in securing the 
Oregon country to the United States. 
The purchase of Alaska in 1867 gave 
the United States control of the most 
important fur-seal fisheries. For the 
next 40 years, this industry was prose- 
cuted with such vigor that the seals were 
nearly exterminated. The governments 


FURNACE 


of the United States and Canada have 
united in placing restrictions upon tak- 
ing seal, but the problem has never been 
satisfactorily solved. See Fur SEAL. 

Fu’ries (Erinyes, E rin’ i eez, or Eu- 
menides, U men’ 1 deez), three Greek 
goddesses who punished such crimes as 
perjury, murder and filial thanklessness 
by stinging remorse. They were held in 
such dread that they were usually hon- 
ored as kind or revered goddesses, these 
terms being used in a propitiatory sense. 
The Furies were variously represented 
as having serpent-wreathed heads and 
lolling red tongues, or as brandishing a 
flaming torch in one hand and a bunch 
of snakes in the other. 

Furlough, Fur'lo, leave of absence 
granted to the rank and file of the army. 
It does not apply to commissioned offi- . 
cers. It may be granted by commanding 
officers of posts or by commanders of 
regiments to those under their control. 
The regular furlough is 20 days, and six | 
weeks of furlough in all may be granted 
yearly to qualified men. The number of 
men on furlough at the same time must 
not exceed five per cent of the whole 
number enlisted. 

Fur’nace, any arrangement in which 
heat may be produced by burning fuel. 
Usually it is a structure of iron or brick 
lined with fire brick in order to with- 
stand intense heat. Furnaces may be 
used for domestic purposes, as heating 
rooms and cooking, for metallurgical 
and chemical processes and for power 
uses, as for steam boilers. Metallurgical 
furnaces are of two kinds: those in 
which the burning fuel and material to 
be treated are mixed, and those where 
the fire grate 1s separate from the flame 
chamber, in which the materials to be 
heated are placed. The blacksmith forge 
and the blast furnace are of the first 
kind, while the reverberatory furnace is 
of the second kind. A very small amount 
of heat is utilized in furnaces, as the 
greater part is lost in the escaping gases 
and by radiation. See StovE; HEATING 
AND VENTILATION; BoILeR; Biast Fur- 
NACE ; REVERBERATORY FURNACE; FORGE, 
FORGING. 


1114 


o 


FURNESS _ 


Fur’ness, Hlorace Howard (1833- 
1912), an American Shakespearean 
scholar, born in Philadelphia, Pa. He 
graduated at Harvard in 1854, continued 
his studies in Europe, returned home to 
take up law and was admitted to the bar 
in 1859. His great service to the world, 
however, was in the field of literature, 
consisting of his Variorum edition of 
Shakespeare. Confessing to an enthusi- 
astic love of Shakespeare from his boy- 
hood, Dr. Furness began at the age of 35 
to prepare the monumental work of com- 
bining into one authoritative edition the 
result of the critical studies of the schol- 
ars of the world, including the comments 
found in the works of such authors as 
Coleridge and Goethe. Fifteen volumes 
were issued before advancing years com- 
pelled him to give up the work; the first 
volume appeared in 1871, the last in 1907. 
Associated with him in his labor were 
his wife, herself author of a Concord- 
ance to Shakespeare, and his son. Dr. 
Furness ranks as one of the few Ameri- 
cans who have made original contribu- 
tions to scholarship, a fact that several 
leading universities have recognized by 
conferring upon him honorary degrees. 

Fur Seal, or Sea Bear, a member of 
the Seal Family whose fur furnishes the 


- valued sealskin of commerce. There are 


many herds found in the Northern Pa- 
cific and a few in the extreme South, 
where, because of its value, this seal was 
being rapidly exterminated. The coat of 
the seal is of two kinds, a short, soft fur 
of dark brown and a longer of gray- 
brown hairs. When being prepared for 
the market, the long hair is removed by 
scraping the underside of the pelt until 
the hairs are loosened and fall. A herd 
of some 2,500,000 seals came into the 
possession of the United States with 
Alaska in 1867 and formerly yielded an- 
nually 100,000 skins. The animals are 
killed by being clubbed as they come to 
the shores of the islands, for on land 
they are comparatively helpless. The 
skins alone are packed, and these are 
shipped to London, where they are 
dressed and made into coats, caps and 
muffs. Destructive fishing of seals has 


FUSION 


reduced the herd and has caused a great 
loss to the United States financially. 

The fur seal is a large species and the 
males greatly outweigh the females. 
They are affectionate animals among 
themselves, but when in water defend 
themselves gallantly against attack. See 
SEAL. 

Fuse, Fuze, a casing or tube enclos- 
ing combustible materials used to set off 
or ignite explosives. Fuses are chiefly 
employed in blasting, exploding mines 
and igniting the charges of projectiles. 
The form used in quarrying and mining 
is a tarred rope or cord containing in its 
core small quantities of gunpowder and 
other materials, so mixed that they burn 
slowly. The time is set for the flame to 
reach the explosive by cutting the cord 
the proper length. Concussion fuses used 
in projectiles are generally devices hav- 
ing a cap containing a fulminating pow- 
der arranged to fire the explosives when 
the projectile strikes the object. The 
fuses of firecrackers and those used in 
fireworks consist of a tube of soft paper, 
filled with slow-burning combustibles. 
See BLASTING; ELecrriciry; FIRE- 
CRACKERS; FIREWORKS; TORPEDO. 

Fusel, Fw’ cel, or Fusel Oil, an impu- 
rity found in spirits distilled from fer- 
mented potatoes, barley, rye, etc. It is 
an oily liquid, with aa offensive odor and 
an acrid, pungent taste; it possesses 
stronger intoxicating effects than alcohol 
and is very injurious to the health. It is 
highly inflammable, and its cemposition 
depends upon the materials used in the 
manufacture of the spirit. Fusel oil may 
be detected in whiskey or brandy by rub- 
bing them on the hand; the alcohol will. 
evaporate and the fusel oil remains. 

Fusion, Fu’ zhun, the conversion of a 
solid, at its melting temperature, into a 
liquid. The amount of heat, measured in 
calories, required to melt one gram of a 
substance without changing its temper- 
ature is called the heat of fusion of that 
substance. Thus it requires 80 calories 
to convert one gram of ice at O°C into 
water at O°C, so the heat of fusion of ice 
is 80 calories per gram. See CALORIM- 
ETRY. 


. 1115 


FUSTIAN 


Fustian, Fus’ chan, the name of cer- 
tain cotton and woolen fabrics used 
chiefly for men’s clothing. Such, fabrics 
as jean, velvet, velveteen, moleskin and 
corduroy are all included under the class 
fustian. FFustians are usually dyed and 
can be obtained in a number of differ- 
ent colors. The name is supposed to be 
derived from El-Fustat, a suburb of 
Cairo, where the fabric was first made. 
Formerly fustian was used for robes 
worn by priests and royalty, but it 4s now 
confined almost entirely to the clothing 
manufactured for laborers. 

Fustic, Fus’ tik, the name of two sorts 
of dyewood used for coloring yellow. 
Old fustic is obtained from a large tree 
belonging to the Mulberry Family and 
found in the West Indies and the trop- 
ical regions of North and South Amer- 
ica. It is a large handsome tree, and its 
wood is sometimes used in cabinetwork. 
The dyewood is placed on the market 
in blocks, which have a brownish color. 
Young fustic is obtained from the Vene- 
tian sumac, a shrub common in southern 
Europe. As a dyestuff, fustic is exten- 
sively employed with other substances to 
produce various colors. Mixed with in- 
digo and the salts of iron, it produces 
green and olive. It also furnishes the 
coloring matter known as moritannic 
acid, which is prepared in the form of 
yellow crystals. At present coal-tar 
dyes have to a great extent displaced 
fustic. 


FYFFE 


Fux, Fooks, Johann Joseph (1660- 
1741), an Austrian musician. 
is known of his early life. He was or- 
ganist of one of the leading churches 
in Vienna, when he was appointed im- 
perial court composer by the Emperor, 
Leopold I. It seems that he remajned 
in this position until his death, Fux 
composed many operas, but his sacred 
compositions were his most enduring 
works, Asa musical scholar he was not 
surpassed by any musicians of his time. 
His theoretical work, Gradus ad Parnas- 
sum, became a classic and was_ trans- 
lated into most of the languages of 


Europe. , 
Fyffe, Fife, Charles Alan (1845- 


1892), an English historian, born at. 


Blackheath, England, and educated at 
Balliol College. For several years he 
was bursar of University College. Dur- 
ing the early part of the Franco-German 
War he was war correspondent for the 
London Daily News. His first historical 
venture was the publication of a short 
History of Greece, which was one of a 
series of historical primers. Between 
1880 and 1890 he produced his most 
important work, the History of Modern 
Europe. It is a scholarly and vigorous 
account of the political history of Eu- 
rope from the beginning of the French 
Revolution to the conclusion of the 
Treaty of Berlin, 1878. For the period 
which it covers, this history is consid- 
ered as a standard authority. 


1116 


But little. 


Pe Ee toh ee 


Aas oa PF RM Fras sea Se ge 4 


G 


A/BION, a cylinder filled with 
loose material and used to sus- 
tain an embankment. The 
gabion is made of basketry, 


_ staves with iron hoops, a barrel with the 


heads out, or an entanglement of brush 
or wire, anything that will suffice to be 
placed on end and be filled with stones 
and rubbish, so that it will help to sus- 
tain a loose embankment. Gabions are 
often constructed on the field of battle 
from whatever material may be at hand. 

Gab’bro, the name of a large group 
of evenly crystalline, igneous rocks of 
granite texture, composed chiefly of lime- 
soda feldspar and pyroxene. They are 
heavy and dark-colored, usually green- 
ish and of much the same composition 
as basalt. Varieties which contain large 
quantities of olivine are called olivine 
gabbros. In the Lake Superior region 
and in the islands off the coast of Scot- 
land gabbros occur in great abundance. 

Gabun, Gah boon’, a short river of 
French Congo in western Africa. So 
many tributaries unite to form it that it 
may be more accurately said to be a 
great estuary by which these enter the 
ocean. The stream is 40 m. in length and 
is open to the largest vessels for the en- 
tire distance. Its mouth, which is but a 
short distance north of the equator, has 
the settlement of Libreville upon its 
north bank. 

Gad, a-son of Jacob and the head of 
one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Of this 
son little that is definite is told, but he is 
supposed to have been among those who 
sold Joseph into slavery. The tribe of 
Gad had nearly 50,000 adult male mem- 
bers at the time they left Egypt, and their 
large possessions of sheep and cattle led 
to their settlement in the grazing lands 
of Gilead, east of the Jordan. The tribe 
is frequently commended for its courage 
and activity, but so far as is known it 
furnished no judge, ruler or prophet. 


Gad was also the name of a prophet of 
David’s time. He is mentioned several! 
times in First Chronicles as the medium 
through whom David received divine 
messages. Consult J Chronicles xx1:9 
and I Chronicles xxix :29. 

Gade, Gah’ de, Niels Wilhelm (1817- 
1890), a Danish musician and composer, 
born in Copenhagen. In 1833 he made 
his début as a concert violinist, and eight 
years later, by his overture Echoes of 
Ossian, won a prize offered by the Co- 
penhagen Musical Union. He succeeded 
Mendelssohn as director of the Gewand- 
haus concerts at Leipsic and later be- 
came court musical director for the King 
of Denmark. His compositions include 
symphonies, overtures, sonatas, lyrical 
dramas, an oratorio, an opera and sev- 
eral vocal selections with orchestra ac- 
companiments. Of the last, the best 
known are The Erl King’s Daughter, 
The Crusaders and The Springtide 
Phantasy. 

Gadfly, or Horsefly, a family of irri- 
tating and dangerous insects classed in 
the order Diptera. They are small insects, 
having strong, biting mouths with which 
a severe wound may be inflicted. The 
gadflies are annoying to cattle and are 
likely to spread infection and even carry 
disease to man. The bite of the gadfly 
which comes from cattle having anthrax 
causes a festering sore. Gadflies are lo- 
cally known as breeze flies. See Drp- 
TERA; INSECTICIDE, 

Gads’den, Ala., a city and the county 
seat of Etowah Co., 60 m. n.e. of Bir- 
mingham, on the Coosa River, and on 
the Louisville & Nashville, the Southern, 
the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis, 
the Chattanooga Southern and other 
railroads. The surrounding region is rich 
in timber and mineral resources, chiefly 
coal and iron, and a large trade is carried 
on. In the city are steam mills (for the 
production of yellow-pine lumber), steel 


1117 


GADSDEN TREATY 


mills, foundries, car works, machine 
shops, cotton mills, cottonseed-oil mills, 
a pressed-brick plant, gins and manufac- 
tories of sashes, doors, blinds, handles, 
wire and steel nails, pipe and flour. Gads- 
den contains a number of fine buildings, 
banks, newspapers, churches, hospitals 
and good schools. The place was settled 
in 1845 and incorporated in 1867. Popu- 
lation in 1920, U. S. Census, 14,737. 

Gadsden Treaty, a treaty negotiated 
with Mexico by the United States in 
1853 through the agency of James Gads- 
den. By this treaty, which was ratified 
in 1854, a tract of land in the southern 
part of New Mexico and Arizona was 
purchased. Its average width is about 
120 m., with an area of about 45,000 
sq.m. It is bounded on the north by the 
Gila River, on the east by the Rio Grande, 
on the west by the Colorado and on the 
south by an arbitrary line. The United 
_ States paid Mexico $10,000,000 and made 
other concessions. The treaty caused 
much opposition in Mexico. 

Gad’ski, Johanna (1871- ), a Ger- 
man opera singer well known to English 
and American audiences. She was born 
in Anclam, Prussia, and received the 
ereater part of her musical training in 
Stettin. She first appeared in grand op- 
era in New York, where she took the 
part of Brtinhilde in Die Walkiire, and 
she has since taken various Wagnerian 
roles. She has a voice of great richness 
and power, and is a favorite in England, 
where she has appeared at the Worcester 
Festivals and at Covent Garden. She has 
made several tours of the United States 
and is always enthusiastically received. 

Gad’wall, a bird of the Duck and 
Goose Family, over 20 inches long. The 
body is grayish, with white, wavy lines 
on the back, white under parts, black, 
white and brown wings, and black rump 
and upper and lower tail coverts. The 
female is without a crest on the head; 
the head and neck are whitish, with fine, 
dark spots; the chin and under parts are 
white, the rest of the body being dusky, 
with buff-bordered feathers. The nest 
is placed on the ground and is made of 
grass, lined with down. It contains 8 to 


GAGE 


12 crearny-white eggs. The gadwall is 
a duck of the marshes and smaller ponds 
and ranges throughout the greater part 
of North America. It is a well-known 
game bird in many localities. 

Gael, Gale, the branch of Celts living 
in the Highlands of Scotland, in Ireland 
and on the Isle of Man. Gaelic is a dia- 
lect of the Celtic language and is spoken 
in the Highlands of Scotland, while Irish 
and Manx are spoken respectively in 
Ireland and the Isle of Man. 

Gaff, a strong, iron hook with a long 
handle used by fishermen to aid in draw- 
ing in fish too heavy for the line. It must 
be used deftly and expeditiously when 
the fish is drawn near to the boat, for if 
the fish feels the point of the gaff but is 
not firmly caught it is apt to break away. 
Fishermen become exceedingly dexterous 
in “gaffing’”’ fish and take pride in the 
skill which may be displayed in the per- 
formance. Small gaffs are used by an- 
glers on the larger rivers and a some- 
what similar instrument is used by 
whalers in handling blubber. 

Gage, Lyman Judson (1836- ), 
an American financier, born in De Ruy- 
ter, N. Y. He removed to Chicago with 
his parents in 1855; in 1858 secured a 
position with the Merchants Savings 
Loan and Trust Company ; became man- 
ager of the Chicago clearing house; was 
elected vice-president of the First Na- 
tional Bank in 1882; and its president in 
1891. He was the first president of the 
World’s Columbian Exposition, and was 
twice president of the Chicago Civic 
Federation. President McKinley ap- 
pointed him secretary of the treasury in 
1897, which position he resigned in 1902 
to accept the presidency of the United 
ae Trust Company in New York 

ity. 

Gage, Thomas (1721-1787), a British 
general and colonial governor of Mas- 
sachusetts, born in Sussex, England. He 
entered the army in 1741, serving in 
Scotland, Flanders and in America, 
where he took part in Braddock’s disas- 
trous expedition in 1755. As colonel he 
operated against Montreal in 1758, soon 
became governor of that city, was pro- 


1118 


ae a 
uc ge peas . \ 


* GAIL HAMILTON 


moted major-general and by 1763 suc- 
ceeded Amherst as commander of the 
English troops in America. In 1768 he 
was placed at the head of a British force 
in Boston, two years later he became 
lieutenant-general and in 1774 was ap- 
pointed military governor of Massachu- 
setts, in which capacity he aroused much 
bitter feeling by his methods of enforc- 
ing the Boston Port Act and the Navi- 
gation Acts. The Battle of Lexington 
resulted from his order to seize the colo- 
nial supplies stored at Concord. After 
commanding at Bunker Hill, he was su- 
perseded by Howe and returned to Eng- 
land, October, 1775. He became a gen- 
eral in 1782. 

Gail Hamilton. 
ABIGAIL, 

Gainesville, Fla. a city and the 
county seat of Alachua Co., 70 m. s.w. 
of Jacksonville, on the Seaboard Air 
Line, the Atlantic Coast Line, the 
Gainesville & Gulf and other railroads. 
The section in which the city is situated 
produces sea-island cotton, oranges, mel- 
ons, citrus, vegetables and other farm 
products. The principal manufacturing 
establishments include bottling works 
and manufactories of lumber, fertilizer, 
ice and coffins. Rich phosphate deposits 
occur a short distance from the city, and 
the water supply is derived from a min- 
eral spring about two miles distant. 
Gainesville is chiefly distinguished as a 
winter health resort and as the seat of 
the Florida State University. In the city 
is held, the Florida Winter Bible Con- 
ference and Chautauqua. Among the in- 
teresting features of the vicinity are Ala- 
chua Sink, an intermittent lake, Payne’s 
Prairie, Newman’s Lake and the Devil’s 
Mill Hopper. Gainesville was settled in 
1850 and incorporated in 1869; it was 
named in honor of Gen. E. P. Gaines. 
The city is governed under a charter of 
1907. Population in 1920, 6,860. 

Gainesville, Tex., a city and the coun- 
ty seat of Cooke Co., 65 m. n. of Fort 
Worth, on the Gulf, Colorado & Santa 
Fe, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and 
other railroads. It is situated in an ag- 
ricultural and stock-raising district, of 


See Dopcr, Mary 


GALATEA 


which it is the commercial center. In the 
city are meat-packing plants, carriage 
works, cottonseed-oil presses, hide and 
leather factories, brickyards, flour mills 
and foodstuff factories. A fine city hall 
and post office are among the prominent 
structures. Gainesville was settled in 
1851 and was incorporated in 1873; it is 
administered under a revised charter of 
1879. Population in 1920, 8,648. 

Gainsborough, Gainz'b’ro, Sir 
Thomas (1727-1788), one of the great- 
est of English portrait painters, born in 
Sudbury, Suffolk. When 14 years of age 
he began the study of art in London and 
in time won recognition as a portrait 
painter having an unusual gift of por- 
traying likenesses. In lightness of spirit 
and graceful handling he excelled, and 
he holds rank with Sir Joshua Reynolds 
among the great English masters of por- 
traiture. Landscape painting also occu- 
pied his attention, and in this field, too, 
he was preeminent. Gainsborough was 
one of the 36 original members of the 
Royal Academy, founded in 1768. Among 
his famous paintings are The Duchess of 
Devonshire, Mrs. Siddons and The Blue 
Boy. 

Gal’ahad, Sir, in legends of the Holy 
Grail, son of Launcelot and Elaine, a 
celebrated knight of the Round Table, 
surnamed the Chaste. He alone suc- 
ceeded in clearly seeing the Holy Grail. 

Galapagos, Gah lah’ pah gos, Islands, 
a group of 13 islands of the Pacific 
Ocean belonging to Ecuador and lying 
730 m. from its coast. The largest of 
these, Albemarle, has a length of 60 m., 
while Charles has the largest population, 
numbering about 400. The islands are 
volcanic, but are fertile in the low re- 
gions, where cotton, tobacco, oranges and 
figs are raised. Galapagos is the Spanish 
name for turtle, and is given because of 
the numbers of turtles that haunt these 
shores. Other animals such as cattle, 
horses, pigs and dogs, elsewhere domes- 
ticated, here run wild. Population, 600. 

Gal’’ate’a, a sea nymph, daughter of 
Nereus and Doris, loved by the Cyclops 
Polyphemus. When she spurned him, he > 
killed his rival, Acis. See AcIs. 


1119 


GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO 


Gala’tians, Epistle to the. See PauL- 
INE EPISTLEs. 

Ga’len, Claudius (131-200), a Greek 
physician, born at Pergamus, in Mysia. 
He studied medicine as thoroughly as 
the opportunities of his age permitted 
and was surgeon to the school of gladia- 
tors in Mysia for six years. He then 
went to Rome, where he was physician 
to Marcus Aurelius. He was a prolific 
writer, 83 of his writings being extant. 
Those which treat on anatomy and physi- 
ology are among his best. Galen was the 
first to take the pulse into consideration 
in determining the nature of disease. 
He was the authority in medicine up to 
about the middle of the 16th century. 

Gale’na, the most important ore of 
lead, containing, when pure, 86.6 per 
cent of that metal; but it is usually mixed 
with copper, zinc, antimony or celenium. 
It crystallizes in the form of cubes, but is 
frequently found massive or granular; 
and is often found in veins or beds of 
- amorphous or crystalline rock. It has a 
pure lead color and a metallic luster. Al- 
most the entire lead supply of the world 
comes from this ore. It is widely dis- 
tributed, and is found in Germany, Bo- 
hemia, Austria, England, Mexico and 
parts of the United States. .Argentifer- 
ous galena, so called because of the large 
proportions of silver ore which it con- 
tains, is extensively mined in the Rocky 
Mountains. Certain varieties, called pot- 
ter’s ore, are used for glazing. See Leap. 

Gales’burg, Ill., a city and county 
seat of Knox Co., 53 m. n.w. of Peoria 
and 163 m. s.w. of Chicago, on the Atch- 
ison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago & 
North Western, the Chicago, Burlington 
& Quincy and other railroads. The city 
is attractively situated in a fertile agri- 
cultural region and extensive coal mines 
are located in the vicinity. Galesburg has 
wide, well-paved and shaded streets, 
substantial business blocks, numerous 
churches and many handsome residences. 
The city is well known for its industrial 
activities and contains large stockyards, 
railroad repair shons, boiler and engine 
works, iron foundries, agricultural-im- 
plement works, carriage and wagon fac- 


GALICIA 


tories, broom factories and one of the 
largest vitrified brick-paving plants in 
the world. Galesburg is noted for its 
educational facilities and is the seat of 
Knox College (nonsectarian), founded 
in 1837 as the Knox Manual Labor Col- 
lege; Lombard University (Universal- 
ist), named in honor of Benjamin L6ém- 


bard, a benefactor; St. Joseph’s Acad- 


emy (Catholic) ; Corpus Christi College 
(Catholic) ; and Brown’s Business Col- 
ege. There is an excellent system of pub- 
lic schools. A public library was founded 
in 1874. 

The first settlement was made in 1836 
by a colony from New York State and 
named in honor of Rev. George Wash- 
ington Gale, a prominent Presbyterian 
minister, who desired to establish a col- 
lege to supply “an evangelical and able 
ministry” and also make the settlement 
a rallying ground for abolitionists, Gales- 
burg was granted a city charter in 1857. 
On Oct. 7, 1858, one of the famous 
Lincoln-Douglas debates was held on the 
grounds of Knox College. Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 23,834. | 

Galicia, Ga lish ia. The southern 
province of the Republic of Poland lying 
to the north of the Carpathian Moun- 
tains, facing Ukrania on the east. The 
province is roughly triangular in shape 
and possesses an area of over 30,000 sq. 
m., and a population of about 8,000,000. 

The population consists, in the main of 
two ethnic stocks—the Poles and the 
Ruthenians. In the entire province, the 
Poles are in the majority, decidedly so 
in western Gdlicia, in eastern Galicia the 
Ruthenians are the most numerous ex- 
cept in a few localities. Ruthenian Ga- 
licia is under the mandate rule only of 
Poland. 

The Carpathians form the southern 
boundary of the province and send their 
spurs to the north and the east and the 
larger part of the province is broken like 
the Appalachian Highland Section of the 
United States. Coal and zine occur in 
abundance. The oil fields extend along 
the Carpathian mountains for a distance 
of two hundred and fifty miles and gas- 
oline—called in Europe petrol—is an ex- 


1120 


GALILEE 
tremely valuable product. Salt and pot- 
ash are also produced. Timber is abun- 
dant. The valleys are fertile, the usual 
crops of the temperate zone being raised. 

Gal’ilee, the most northern of the 
three provinces into which Palestine was 
divided in the days of Christ. It was 
bounded on the e. by the River Jordan, 
on the s. by Samaria, on the w. by the 
Mediterranean and Phoenicia and on the 
n. by Syria and the Lebanon Mountains. 
In Galilee were located Nazareth, the 
boyhood home of Jesus; Cana, where the 
first miracle was performed ; Capernaum, 
Nain and other places of sacred associa- 
tion. Galilee is now a part of the Prov- 
ince of Syria. 

Galilee, Sea of, a fresh-water lake in 
central Palestine, also known as the Sea 
of Tiberias or the Lake of Gennesaret. It 


_is 13 m. long and about half as wide. At 


» Ny , 
pe 
he 


the southwest corner is the outlet of the 
Jordan. It lies about 680 ft. below sea 
level, and on the east coast rise hills 
nearly 2000 ft. in height. Deep ravines 
and wild gorges, cut out by the water 
courses, converge to the head of this lake, 
and through these the cold mountain 
winds often rush with great violence and 
suddenness. The tempests which the dis- 
ciples encountered on this lake, in the 
time of our Lord, are familiar to all 
readers of Biblical literature. At that 
time nine flourishing cities were on its 
shores, only two of which, Magdala and 
Tiberias, have remained, and they are 
now wretched villages. 

Gal’ile’o (1564-1642), the name usu- 
ally applied to Galileo Galilei, mathe- 
matician, physicist, philosopher and 
astronomer, born at Pisa, Italy, and edu- 
cated in a monastery near Florence and 
later (1581-1585) at the University of 
Pisa. While a student at Pisa he was 
attracted one day by the swinging of 
the great lamp in the roof of the cathe- 
dral there. His study of this movement 
resulted in his application of the pendu- 
lum to the measurement of time. In 
1585 he was obliged to leave his uni- 
versity course unfinished for lack of 
funds. But he pursued in private the 
study of Archimedes, which led to his 


GALION 


invention of the hydrostatic balance. He 
continued the study of mathematics and 
natural science while teaching these sub- 
jects in Pisa University from 1589 to 
1591, at the same time lecturing on some 
of the newer phases of science which he 
had discovered. These lectures were 
thought by the people of his day to con- 
flict with the teaching of the Bible, and 
he found it advisable to resign his posi- 
tion. He continued his studies and lec- 
tures, however, and in 1592 was called to 
a chair in Padua University, where he 
remained for 18 years. 

In 1609 Galileo perfected the telescope, 
and the next year he discovered the satel- 
lites of Jupiter and observed the pecul- 
larities of Saturn, which were later more 
clearly defined and called “rings.” Dur- 
ing the same year he discovered spots on 
the sun, and, noting their movements 
from west to east, he worked out the 
theory of the rotation of the sun on an 
axis and determined its inclination to the 
ecliptic. He also discovered the phases 
of Mercury, Venus and Mars, and the 
librations of the moon. His lectures 
upon his discoveries, such as the laws 
of falling bodies, the thermometer, in- 
teresting action of magnets, and the re- 
sults of his astronomical researches 
spread his fame throughout Europe. He 
accepted the view of Copernicus con- 
cerning the movements of the heavenly 
bodies, and this led to his persecution 
by the Church, though he was not pun- 
ished. During the last years of his life 
he was blind, but he continued his work. 
His service to modern science is notable, 
for he laid the foundation upon which 
later scientists have built. See AsTRON- 
OMY; TELESCOPE. 

Gal’ion, Ohio, a city of Crawford 


Co., 80 m. s.w. of Cleveland and 15 m. 


s.w.of Mansfield, on the L. E. & W. and 
om the C., Ci, Coe Ste rativoads: ‘The 
city is an important railroad town, being 
a division terminal and connecting point. 
It contains railroad shops, machine shops, 
brick and tile works, automobile, grane 
vault and garment manufactories, lumber 
mills and roundhouses. It has one of the 
best public school systems in the state. 


S21 


GALLATIN 


Galion was originally laid out by western 
Pennsylvania settlers in 1831. It was 
chartered in 1878. Population in 1920, U. 
S. Census, 7,374. Estimated 1922, 9,000. 
Gallatin, Albert (1761-1849), an 
American statesman and author, born in 
Geneva, Switzerland. In 1779 he grad- 
uated from the University of Geneva, 
emigrated to America the following year, 
and served for a brief period in the 
American army. He engaged unsuccess- 
fully in business, then was an instructor 
in Harvard. In 1786 he became a nat- 
uralized citizen of the United States. 
He was influential in suppressing the 
Whiskey Insurrection in 1794, From 
1795 to 1801 he was a member of Con- 
gress from Pennsylvania and took a lead- 
ing part in the deliberations of that body 
as a pronounced Anti-Federalist. 
President Jefferson appointed Galla- 
tin secretary of the treasury in 1801, 
which position he filled for 12 years, and 
became known as one of the ablest finan- 
ciers of America. He was one of the 
peace commissioners after the War of 
1812, served as minister to France from 
1816 to 1823, and as minister to England 
in 1826-27. Upon his return he was 
president of a New York bank from 
1831 to 1839, when he retired from busi- 
ness, and devoted the remainder of his 
life to literature and historical investiga- 
tions. He published pamphlets dealing 
with finance, the Maine boundary, the 
Oregon boundary, the war with Mexico, 
and other subjects of national impor- 
tance. His scientific publications include 
the Synopsis of the Indian Tribes, and 
Notes on the Semi-Civilized Nations of 
Mexico, Yucatan and Central America. 
Gall Bladder, a small sac attached to 
the underside of the liver, in which bile 
is stored. It is shaped like a pear, is 
about four inches long and two inches in 
diameter, and has a capacity of about 
an ounce and a half of fluid. Its stem 
connects with the cystic duct. The gall 
bladder serves as a storehouse for the bile 
secreted by the liver. During the process 
of digestion, the bile passes from the 
liver through the hepatic duct into a 
common bile duct and empties into the 


GALLINULE : 


duodenum. In the intervals when it is 
not needed, however, the bile, which is 
continually being secreted, is prevented 
from emptying into the intestines by a 
sphincter muscle, which guards the open- 
ing of the common bile duct. It there- 
fore flows backward into the cystic duct, 
one of the tributaries of the common 
duct, and enters the gall bladder, where 
it remains until needed. See LIveER; 
BILE; DIGESTION. 

Gal’leon, originally the name of a 
warship with three or four gun decks, 
but later applied to those large unwieldy 
vessels long used by Spain in her trade 
with Mexico and her other American 
colonies. Many of these ships, although 
armed, fell a prey to pirates and to the 
navies of other countries with which 
Spain was from time to time at war. - 

Galley, a type of ship used in ancient 
and medieval times by all the great na- 
tions of the Mediterranean. Galleys 
were built for speed, their length (of per- 
haps 120 ft.) being six or eight times 
their width, and they were propelled both 
by sails and by oarsmen. The main mast 
carried a sail, yet often there were two 
or three masts. War galleys, however, 
depended principally upon their oarsmen, 
of whom they had so many that there 
were usually three banks of rowers, one 
above the other, on each side of the ship. 
Venetian galleys were larger, some be- 
ing even 160 ft. in length, and are known 
to have carried more than 1000 men. In 
France, as in other countries, convicts 
were sentenced to penal service in the 
galleys, and were often branded with 
the letters spelling “Gal.” As late as 
the time of the Napoleonic wars, galleys 
were used with much effectiveness. 

Gal’linule, a bird of the Rail Family. 
The Florida gallinule is 14 inches long 
or about the size of the domestic pigeon, 
and is easily recognized by its bright red 
bill and frontal shield, long legs, long, 
slender, unlobed toes, dark slaty plumage 
with white-edged wings, and white- 
streaked flanks and tail coverts. The 
nest is built in reeds on the edge of a 
marsh and is made of dry grass and 
weeds. Eight to eleven brown-spotted, 


1122 — 


GALLNUTS 


light buff-colored eggs are laid. The gal- 
linules are rail-like in their habits, skulk- 
ing through the reeds and seldom taking 
to the water. The Florida gallinule 
ranges from Canada south to Brazil. A 
related species, the purple gallinule, is 
purplish on the head, neck and under 
parts, and green on the back and wings. 


It lives in tropical and_ subtropical 
America. 
Gallnuts. See GALLS. 


- Gallon. See WEIGHTS AND MEAas- 
URES. 

Galls, Nutgalls or Gallnuts, malfor- 
mations of leaf, flower, branch or stem 
of a plant, caused by a fungus disease 
or by the sting of an insect. They are 
made noticeable by the peculiar growth 
of the part attacked, which generally be- 
comes exceedingly enlarged and puts 
forth a thicker growth. The leaves at- 
tacked curl and grow in profuse clusters 
very close together. Sometimes small, 
hard bodies are formed, which cling 


tightly to the leaf. Flowers so attacked 


often put forth peculiar green leaves in- 
stead of petals, and trunks of trees or 
stems of shrubs and herbs produce 
gnarled and swollen protuberances which 
are intensely hard. Such galls formed on 
some varieties of oaks, and called oak 
galls, are used in the production of inks 
and dyes, and other galls are of such 
hardness as to take high polish and be 
useful in cabinetwork. The curious 
bunching of leaves and stems on willows, 
known as “‘willow roses,” is another form 
of galls. 

When the galls are formed by a 
fungus, the plant attacked has generally 
been wounded and the disease has en- 
tered through the wound. If caused by 
an insect, and this is the most common 
method, the tree has been stung that the 
eggs of the insect may be deposited in 


the trunk; there the larva feeds upon 


certain parts of the tissue and thus 
causes malformation. Such galls dif- 
fer so widely in characteristics that an 
examination of them will disclose the 
character of the insect which caused the 
gall, Among the gall-producing insects 
are the wheat midge and Hessian fly. 


tf 


GALT 


Galsworthy, Golz’ wur thy, John 
(1868- ), an English author. His 
writings bear evidence of a marked in- 
terest in vital social problems, and, al- 
though a tinge of pessimism often colors 
his work, his is the method and product 
of an artist, and his novels and plays 
alike possess high literary merit. In 
dramas like The Silver Box, Strife and 
Justice he is the keen analyst of social 
ills, and he is always faithful to a photo- 
graphic presentation of life. His dra- 
matic creed insists on unbiased delinea- 
tion; if he swerves from this it is only 
to yield to his pity for the lower strata 
of society. His novels and_ short 
sketches include Jocelyn, The Island 
Pharisees, The Man of Property, The 
Country House, Fraternity, The Patri- 
cians, A Commentary and A Motley. 
The Pigeon, a more recent play, was 
staged by the “Little Theatre” of New 
York in- 1912, 

Galt, a city of Canada in the Prov- 
ince of Ontario, on the Canadian Pacific, 
Grand Trunk and other railways, 57 m. 
s.w. of Toronto. Lumber, limestone and 
sand are supplied by the neighborhood. 
The manufactures include knit goods, 
flour, safes, edge tools, boots and shoes. 
The city was named for John Galt, a 
Scottish novelist. Population in 1911, 
10,299. | 

Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch (1817- 
1893), a Canadian statesman, born in 
Chelsea, London, England. He was ed- 
ucated under private tutors, and when 18 
years of age was appointed to a clerk- 
ship in a colonization society at Sher- 
brooke, Lower Canada. Galt served this 
company for 21 years, being its president 
for about ten years. In 1849 he was a 
member of the Provincial Parliament, 
but resigned the same year, being chosen 
again in 1853 and serving until 1872. He 
was inspector-general of finance at two 
different times, and under the Federal 
Government was the first finance minis- 
ter, laying the foundations of the present 
system of currency in Canada. On two 
different occasions he was a commis- 
sioner to the United States, and was high 
commissioner of the Dominion in Eng- 


11423 


GALTON 


iand from 1880 to 1883. He wrote sev- 
eral important political papers. 

Gal’ton, Sir Francis (1822-1911), an 
English scientist and traveler, born at 
Birmingham, England. He was a cousin 
of Charles Darwin and, like his distin- 


euished cousin, was noted for his stud- 


ies in regard to heredity. He believed 
that genius, and the lack of it, is largely 
a matter of ancestry, and in exposition of 
these views he published Hereditary 
Genius: An Inquiry into its Laws and 
Consequences; English Men of Science: 
Their Nature and Nurture; and In- 
quiries into Human Faculty and Tis De- 
velopment, As a result of his studies, 
he suggested the improvement of the 
human species by scientific study of the 
laws of heredity. The science of race im- 
provement he named eugenics, a name 
now widely used. Through his efforts 
a chair of eugenics was established in 
the University of London and an asso- 
ciation founded for the further study of 
the subject. 

Besides his work in eugenics, Galton 
did great service in other lines of an- 
thropological work. He became inter- 
ested in the subject of finger prints and 
showed how they might be used’ in the 
identification of individuals. Among 
Galton’s publications are: Studies in 
National Eugenics, Tropical South 
Africa, Natural Inheritance, Finger 
Prints and Memories of My Life. See 
EUGENICS, 

Galvani, Gahl vah' ne, Luigi (1737- 
1798), an Italian physician, born at Bo- 
logna, Italy. He practiced medicine in 
his native city until 1762, when he was 
chosen to the chair of anatomy in Bo- 
logna University. His experiments with 
animals in studying and demonstrating 
animal electricity and the work that’ he 
published on that subject have given him 
a lasting fame. Because of his refusal 
to take the oath of allegiance to the 
Cisalpine Republic he was retired from 
his professorship, but was recalled within 
a few months. The Galvanic battery 
takes its name from Galvani. A complete 
set of his works was published at Bologna 
in 1841. See ELecrric BATTERY. 


GALVANOMETER 
Galvan’ic Battery. See ELeEcTrRIC 
BATTERY. 

Gal’vanism. See ELECTRICITY. 

Gal’vanized Iron, a term given to 
iron or steel coated with zinc. The metal 
is first cleaned and made smooth by fric- 
tion and a weak solution of sulphuric 
acid. It is then plunged into a bath 
composed of melted zinc and sal ammo- 
niac. The zinc; on cooling, forms crys- 
tals, which give to the metal its white- 
mottled appearance. The coating of zinc 
prevents oxidation or rust from ordi- 
nary exposure to moisture. In sheets, 
galvanized iron is used largely in cover- 
ing buildings and for roofs, cornices and 
water pipes. Vessels of galvanized iron 
are made in various forms for domestic 
use, but they are not suitable for hold- 
ing drinking water because the zinc dis- 
solves upon long exposure and poisons 
the water. Sheet-iron workers prefer to 
use galvanized iron instead of plain sheet 
iron on account of its being easier to 
solder in the seams and joints. 

Gal’ vanom/eter, an instrument for 
detecting the presence of electric cur- 
rents and for determining their direction 
and strength. Galvanometers are of two 
general types. One consists of a freely- 
swinging magnetic needle about which 
is a fixed coil of wire. As a current is 
sent through the coil the side toward 
which the north pole of the magnetic 
needle turns shows the direction of the 
current, while the size of the angle 
through which the needle is turned 
shows the strength of the current. The 
simplest galvanometer of this type is 
probably the tangent galvanometer, 
which has its coil as the circumference 
of a circle about the needle, and the plane 
of the coil should be in the magnetic 
meridian. Another type of galvanom- 
eter consists of a coil of wire suspended 
between the poles of a permanent horse- 
shoe magnet, the plane of the coil being 
parallel to a line joining the twe poles 
of the magnet. As a current is sent 
through the coil, it turns slightly; the 
direction of turning indicates the direc- 
tion of the current and the amount of 
turning the strength of the current. Gal- 


1124 


GALVESTON 


vanometers of this type are called D’Ar- 
sonval galvanometers from the name of 
their inventor, and are the ones in most 
common use today. A ballistic gal- 
vanometer measures the quantity of elec- 
tricity discharged by a current which 
acts almost instantaneously. It may be 
of either construction described above, 
the time of oscillation of its moving 
needle or coil usually being rather 
longer. Almost any galvanometer can 
be used as a ballistic galvanometer with 
more or less success. 

Gal’veston, Tex., an important com- 
mercial port, the county seat of Gal- 
veston Co., located on Galveston Island 
at the entrance of a bay of the same 
name, 48 m. s.e. of Houston and 300 m. 
s.w. Of New Orleans. It is the deep- 
water terminus of the Gulf, Colorado & 
Santa Fe, the International & Great 
Northern, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, 
the Southern Pacific, the Trinity & Bra- 
zos Valley and other railroads and is 
connected by more than 60 steamship 
lines with other Gulf. ports, the Atlantic 
ports of both North and South America 
and European ports. The island is 30 
m. long and from 2 to 3 m. wide; the 
city lies at its eastern extremity, 
stretching from the bay to the Gulf 
of Mexico, but has its harbor upon 
the bay. <A recently completed con- 
crete causeway connects the city with 
the mainland and carries roads for pedes- 
trians and carriages, two tracks for rail- 
roads and one interurban line. Since 
1900 Galveston has been defended from 
the sea by a great sea wall, 5 m. in ex- 
tent and rising 17 ft. above the sea, and 
to conform with this the city itself has 
been raised to the level of the wall with 
a slight slope towards the bay for drain- 
age. 

STREETS, PARKS, AND PuBLIC BUILD- 
INGS. Galveston is essentially a modern 
city. Its broad paved streets are beauti- 
fully shaded by magnolias, palms, oaks 
and oleanders, and the parks and private 


grounds are filled with tropical flowers. 


Between the sea wall and the sea an 
excellent bathing beach extends to the 
end of the island, and this is lined with 


GALVESTON 


modern piers, bathhouses and casinos. 
This beach also forms a firm automobile 
course over 30 m. in length, at the far- 
ther extremity of which is the camp of 
the City Automobile Club. Among the 
handsome public buildings may be men- 
tioned the Rosenberg Library, the city 
hall, with its beautiful park, a court- 
house, a Masonic Temple, a Catholic 
cathedral ‘and a modern Yo) M,C; A. 
Building. Even the business blocks are 
pleasing, and the great hotels, among 
which is the Hotel Galvez, a $1,000,000 
resort hostelry built by public subscrip- 
tion, are modern in their appointments, 
providing easily for the throngs of tour- 
ists that visit this Southern city. Gal- 
veston has easily taken care of 20,000 
visitors overnight. 

Among the educational institutions are 
the Bail High School, the medical de- 
partment of the University of Texas, 
and the four Catholic institutions—the 
University of St. Mary, the Academy of 
the Sacred Heart, St. Joseph’s Academy 
and the Ursuline Convent and Academy. 
In addition there are several business col- 
leges. 

InpustriEs. Galveston is the princi- 
pal commercial city of Texas, one of the 
greatest cotton ports in the world, and 
an important port of the United States 
in the total of its foreign business. It 
has several miles of wharves, which pro- 
vide room for 100 ocean-going steam- 
ships at one time, while its magnificent 
harbor provides anchorage for 500 boats. 
Cotton, wool, hides, grain, flour. and fruit 
are the chief exports. Among its indus- 
trial establishments are iron foundries, 
flour and lumber mills, woodenware 
works and manufactories of cottonseed 
oil and cake. 

History. The Island of Galveston 
was discovered by La Salle in 1686, but 
no settlement was made until Galvez, the 
governor of Louisiana, established a mil- 


itary post there in 1782. The post was 


soon abandoned, however, and the island 
remained unoccupied until the time of 
the Mexican Revolution, when the pirate 
Lafitte made his camp upon it and held 
it until driven out by the United States 


1125 


GAMA 


Government in 1821. The present city 
of Galveston was settled in 1837 under 
the government of the Texas Republic. 
During the Civil War it was captured 
by the Federal troops, but was recap- 
tured by the Confederates in January, 

1863, and remained in their hands until 
the close of the war. The commission 
form of municipal government, now so 
successfully in operation in many Amer- 
ican cities, originated in Galveston. Pop- 
ulation in 1920, U. S. Census, 44,255, 

Gama, Gah’ mah, Vasco da (about 
1469-1524), a Portuguese navigator, 
born in Sines. He commanded the 
Portuguese expedition sent out to find a 
route to India by sailing round the Cape 
of Good Hope. He arrived at Calicut, 
now Calcutta, in May, 1498, and was the 
first European to reach India by this 
route. Returning to Portugal the next 
year, Gama was made a noble. In 1502 
he again visited Calicut, and there 
founded the colonies of Mozambique 
and Sofala. Later he was made viceroy 
of the Portuguese dominions in India. 

Gambet’ta, Léon (1838-1882), a 
French statesman and patriot. He be- 
came a member of the bar at Paris in 
1859. Later he attacked the ministry 
of Ollivier and predicted the Third Re- 
public. He was minister of the interior 
during the Franco-German War and re- 
mained in Paris when the Germans be- 
gan the siege of the city. He escaped 
in a balloon October, 1870, and managed 
the war from Tours. For the next few 
months he was practically the dictator of 
France. He raised army after army 
against the Germans, and although these 
armies were repeatedly defeated, the 
spirited resistance, inspired by Gambetta, 
saved the self-respect of the nation. 

_ When his colleagues began to consider 
terms of peace in February, 1871, Gam- 
betta resigned and went to Spain. He 
soon returned to France and was elected 
to the Chamber of Deputies for nine de- 
partments. In 1872 he traveled through 
the south of France denouncing Thiers 
and the National Assembly. From 1876 
he was opposed to MacMahon, who was 
a Royalist, and he saved the country 


GANGES 


from civil strife the next year when the 
Duc de Broglie accepted office, hoping to 
restore the monarchy. Gambetta became 
premier in 1881, his ministry lasting a _ 
little more than two months. Just as he 
was beginning to consider the most im- 
portant questions confronting his minis- 
try, he was accidentally shot, and died 
soon after. 

Gam/’bia, a river of northwestern 
Africa, flowing into the ocean through 
the British Colony of Gambia. Its broad 
estuary, 12 m. across, gave color to the 


belief that the river rose in the heart of © 


unexplored Africa. Vessels can ascend 
the river for 300 m., or until halted by 
the Barraconda Rapids at Medina. 

Gamboge, Gam boje’, a gum resin ob- 
tained chiefly from the gamboge tree, 
which is a native of Cambodia, Ceylon, 
Siam and the East Indies. The tree has 
smooth oval leaves and reaches a height 
of 40 ft. It bears small flowers and clus- 
ters of sweet edible fruit. When the 
bark of the tree is pierced, the gamboge 
flows out in the form of a thick, yellow 
juice, which on exposure to the air hard- 
ens. Commercial gamboge is put mp in 
the form of sticks and cakes. It is em- 
ployed in the staining of wood, in water 
colors and in the preparation of a lacquer 
for brass. It is easily crushed into a 
powder, is without smell and possesses 
an acid'taste. American gamboge comes 
from Mexico, but the best quality is from 
Calcutta and Canton. 

Ganges, Gan'jeez, a river of Hindu- 
stan, one of the great rivers of Asia. It 
rises in the Himalaya Mountains, being 
formed by the Bhagirathi and the Alak- 
nanda rivers, and flows in a south and 
southeastward direction, emptying into 
the Bay of Bengal by numerous mouths, 
forming a delta about 283 m. long. Its 
total length is 1557 m., and its basin, 
lying between the Himalaya and the 
Vindhya mountain ranges, occupies 
390,000 sq. m. of the most fertile terri- 
tory in the world. The chief tributaries 
are the Jahnavi, Bhagirathi, Alaknanda, 
Ramganga, Jumna, Son, Gumti, Groga, 
Gandak and Kusi. New channels are 
constantly formed, and its course can 


1126 


GANGRENE 


never be accurately described. At Ben- 
ares the floods increase its width at cer- 
tain seasons to 3000 ft. The flat and 
rolling surface of Bengal is often over- 
flowed in July to an extent of 100 m. in 
diameter. On the banks of the river and 
its branches are the cities, Calcutta, 
Cawnpore, Behar, Benares, Murshida- 
bad, Patna, Allahabad and Farukhabad. 
Commercially, it is of great importance. 
It is the sacred river of the Hindus, and 
in their religions it is described as the 
entrance to Paradise, the holiest of riv- 
ers and the cleanser of all sins. The 
faithful bathe in its waters on stipulated 
days and conscientiously distribute alms, 
and its waters are transported through- 
out India to be used in religious rites. 
Picturesquely situated on its banks and 
affording easy access to its waters, are 
temples, shrines and flights of steps, chief 
among which are those of holy Benares. 

Gangrene, Gang’ green, the death of 
some parts of the soft tissue of the liv- 


ing body. The part affected first be- 


comes red and hot, then livid and finally 
dark and discolored. The dead part 
often sloughs off naturally, but some- 
times a surgical operation is required to 
separate it from the living tissue. In- 
ternal gangrene frequently results fa- 
tally; but, when the disease affects an 


extremity, amputation can nearly always © 


save the patient if performed in time. 
Formerly gangrene was prevalent in mil- 
itary hospitals, and was a cause of heavy 
loss of life in times of war. An infected 
wound neglected for a few hours may 
poison an entire limb. The methods em- 
ployed today in aseptic surgery have 
greatly reduced the percentage of losses. 

Gan/net, sea birds related to the cor- 
morants and pelicans. They have 
webbed feet, strong, sharp bills and a 
small pouch beneath the throat. These 
birds are good flyers, the body being pro- 
vided with numerous air sacs and the 
skeleton being very light. The food con- 
sists of fish, which they secure by diving 
from heights ranging from 100 to 200 
ft. or more. The nests are placed on 
rocky cliffs or in low bushes and one 
chalky-white egg is laid. The young are 


GARBAGE 


naked and require nearly two months to 
complete their growth. Gannets live in 
many parts of the world. One of the 
largest species is the common gannet of 
the North. Atlantic, which is three feet 
long; it has a white body, black pri- 
mary feathers and is yellow on top of 
the head. The young have brown 
plumage, grayish below, white-spotted 
above, with blackish tail. The booby is 
related to the gannet. 

Gan’ymede, in Greek myths, a beau- 
tiful Trojan lad whom Jupiter, disguised 
as an eagle, carried from Mt. Ida into 
heaven, where he succeeded Hebe as cup- 
bearer to the gods. 

Gapes, a disease of poultry caused 


by the presence of a tiny parasite, known 


as a Nematode worm. The irritation 
which this parasite causes impels the 
fowl frequently to open its beak and to 
cough. The disease is seldom fatal, but 
the irritation prevents fattening, The 
parasite may be driven out by mixing a 
small quantity of Epsom salts with the 
food or by swabbing the throat with a 
turpentine wash. 

Garage, Ga” rahzh’, an establishment 
where motor vehicles, particularly auto- 
mobiles, are kept and cared for when not 
in use, and where minor repairs are 
made. A public garage usually keeps 
motor vehicles for hire, and supplies 
chauffeurs on call. See AUTOMOBILE, 

Gar’bage, the refuse and waste mat- 
ter which comes from kitchens, stores . 
and factories. It is largely composed of 
decaying animal and vegetable materials, 
which, if not removed and destroyed, be- 
come a source of contamination to the 
air and water supply, causing many dis- 
eases. In small communities consider- 
able garbage is consumed by domestic 
animals, but in cities it has to be col- 
lected daily and carted away. Recep- 
tacles made of strong sheet iron in the 
form of garbage cans, about the size of 
a barrel, are placed in the alleys to re- 
ceive all the offal, refuse and waste mat- 
ter, principally from kitchens of hotels 
and private houses. Covered wagons. 
cart away this garbage during the early 
morning hours, and it is then either 


1127 


Ne 


GARCIA Y INIGUEZ 


burned in specially constructed furnaces, 
or in the case of a city situated like New 
York, it is carried out to sea in boats 
made for the purpose, and dumped. The 
expense of gathering the garbage and 
destroying it is a heavy outlay, but it is 
very necessary to do this thoroughly to 
prevent contagion and disease. In many 
European cities garbage is transported 
to outlying districts and used for fertiliz- 
ing purposes on the land. The success- 
ful disposal and utilization of the waste 


materials and sewage from cities is an, 


important problem, and in some places 
has been solved to the extent of making 
a saving by consuming the garbage and 
converting a large part of it to useful 
purposes. j 
Garcia Y Iniguez, Gar se’ ah e E ne’ 
gase, Calixto (1836-1898), a Cuban pa- 
triot and leader, born at Holguin, Prov- 
ince of Santiago, Cuba. He was a law- 
yer who left his practice to become a 
leader in the insurrection of Cuba, in 
1868, against Spanish misrule. Later he 
became commander-in-chief of the Cuban 
army. He was captured and carried a 
prisoner to Spain; but was released only 
to engage in another insurrection; was 
captured and carried to Spain again a 
prisoner, being held this time for 15 
years. In 1895 he succeeded in making 
his escape, came to the United States 
and engaged in piracy. He made his 
way to Cuba and again took a leading 
part in the insurrection. When the 
United States interfered for the protec- 
tion of Cuba Garcia was appointed one 
of the commissioners to sit in council 
at Washington concerning the future of 


his country. He died while at Washing- | 


ton in fulfillment of this duty. 

Garda, Lake of, a beautiful lake of 
northern Italy, noted for the rich, vegeta- 
tion of its southern and western shores 
and the wild ruggedness of its northern 
and eastern banks. It is one of the 
largest of Italian lakes, having an area 
of about 143 sq. m.; its length is 32 m. 
and its greatest breadth 10 m. Lying 
in the Alpine region, its height above 
sea level is 216 ft., while its greatest 
depth is 1916 ft. At the southern ex- 


GARDENING 


tremity is the long peninsula, Sirmione, 
“Sweet Catullus’ almost island,” having 
at its base the town of Desenzano, sur- 
rounded by olive orchards. The lake, 
the peninsula and the town with its mon- 
asteries have been celebrated by Vergil 
in the Georgics and by Catullus in many 
beautiful poems. The northern extrem- 
ity of the lake is in Tyrol, and severe 
winds from the north striking through 
the mountain passes make the lake 
treacherous at certain seasons. 

Gardening, raising flowers, vegeta- 
bles and small fruits for home use or for 
a small market. Usually a number of dif- 
ferent kinds of vegetables or flowers are 
planted and often a succession of crops 
are raised during a season. In villages 
and upon farms, small gardens have been 
the usual accompaniment of the home, 
but truck farmers have been depended 
upon to supply city trade. The high cost 
of living, the increasing enjoyment of 
outdoor recreation and the finer quality 
of fruits and vegetables when eaten as 
soon as possible after picking have led 
to the establishment of gardens, often 
exceedingly small in size, in connection 
with many city homes. The enjoyment 
derived from a well-arranged flower gar- 
den is probably as great a return as the 
material profit. Acting upon this prin- 
ciple, educators are now establishing 
school gardens, which give children the 
pleasure of gardening and teach them 
much practical botany by a method in- 
teresting to the pupil. See ScHooL Gar- 
DEN, 

Landscape gardening refers to the 
beautifying of public and_ private 
grounds by placing shrubs, trees, vines 
and flowers in artistic arrangement, lay- 
ing out drives and walks and making 
artificial lakes, streams and fountains. 
As a profession, landscape gardening is 
highly considered; to practice it success- 
fully a person must have a wide knowl- 
edge of practical botany, which not only 
tells what plants will grow in what soils 
but also at what seasons various plants 
will be in leaf and in bloom, what their 
colors will be and what their manner 
of growth; most important, however, is 


1128 


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E 
4 
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Leek eh 
oe TE SS 
it ‘ 
wo 


wis 
Se 
> 


GARDEN OF THE GODS 


an eye for artistic effect. Like the archi- 
tect, a member of an allied profession, 
the landscape gardener must be able to 
transform the grourds upon which he 
works from uncouth spots to places of 
beauty. 

Garden of the Gods, a natural park 
of Colorado, about 5 m.. from Colorado 
Springs. Its rocks have been water- 
worn into grotesque shapes, and have re- 
ceived names from their real or fancied 
likeness to animals, buildings, human fig- 


ures and other objects. 


Gard’iner, Samuel Rawson (1829- 
1902), an English historian, educated at 
Oxford, Edinburgh and Gottingen. For 
many years he was professor of modern 
history at King’s College, London, and 
subsequently at Oxford, where he de- 


clined to succeed Froude as regius pro- 


fessor of modern history. Gardiner 
wrote many valuable works, including 
The History of England from the Ac- 
cession ‘of James I to the Outbreak of 
the Great Civil War, histories of the 
Civil War, of the Commonwealth and 
Protectorate and of the first two Stuarts 
and the Puritan Revolution. He also 
wrote two textbooks on English history. 

Gardner, Mass., a town of Worcester 
Co., 15 m. w. of Fitchburg and 25 m. 
n.w. of Worcester, on the Otter River 
and on the Fitchburg branch of the 
Boston & Maine Railroad. The town 
contains the villages of South Gardner, 
West Gardner and Gardner Center. The 
chief industry is the manufacture of 


chairs, but there are also manufactories. 


of rattan goods, toys, tubs, pails and 
machinery. The surrounding country is 
agricultural and fruit-growing. Dunn 
and Crystal Lake parks are attractive 
features of the town. The Levi Hey- 
wood Memorial Library, a home for the 
aged and an almshouse are located here. 
Gardner was incorporated as a town in 
1785. Population in 1920, 16,971. 
Garfield, James Abram (1831-1881), 
twentieth presidgnt of the United States, 
born in Orange, Ohio, of New England 
ancestry. His father moved to the West- 
ern Reserve in Ohio in 1830, and here 
James was born in a log cabin in the 


GARFIELD 


wilderness, His father died soon aft- 
erward, leaving the mother with four 
small children. At the age of ten James 
assisted in the support of the family by 
working on neighboring farms in the 
summer, while attending school in the 
winter, and spending his spare moments 
in reading. He thus fitted himself for 
college, spent three years at Hiram Col- 
lege, Ohio, and graduated from Wil- 
liams College, Mass., in 1856 with the 
highest honors of his class. Returning 
to Hiram College as teacher of Latin 
and Greek, he became its president the 
following year (1857), and widened his 
activities by preaching and studying law. 
In 1859 he was elected to the Ohio 
Senate. | 

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, 
he organized a regiment of his students 
and was appointed to its command with 
the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He was 
later given command of a brigade with 
instructions to drive the Confederates 
out of eastern Kentucky, which task he 
accomplished so successfully that he was 
made brigadier-general early in 1862. 
He was engaged at Shiloh, Corinth and 
Chickamauga, and was made major-gen- 
eral for gallantry on the latter field. 

At the request of President Lincoln, 
Garfield resigned his commission near 
the close of 1863 to take his seat in Con- 
gress, to which he had been elected 15 
months earlier. Here he became an in- 
fluential leader, being a member of many 
important committees and rendering es- 
pecially efficient service in connection 
with military affairs and finance. He en- 
tered the Senate in 1880. 

At the National Republican Conven- 
tion in. June, 1880, he was nominated 
for the presidency of the United States 
by a combination of the forces opposed 
to a third term for Grant, and was 
elected in the fall, defeating General 
Hancock. He had served only four 
months, when he was assassinated by a 
disappointed office-seeker, and died Sept. » 
19, 1881, after lingering between life and 
death for ten weeks. His remains were 
conveyed amid universal mourning to 
Cleveland and interred in Lake View 


1129 


GARFIELD 


cemetery on a beautiful eminence over- 
looking Lake Erie, where a magnificent 
monument has been erected to his 
memory. 

Garfield was successful in all of his 
varied activities—as educator, soldier, 
statesman. He won for himself a place 
of the highest honor and usefulness by 
hard study, careful and conscientious ap- 
plication to the task in hand, and a sin- 
gularly pure and patriotic devotion to 
the nation’s interests. 

Garfield, N. J., a city of Bergen Co., 
10 m. n.e. of New York City, opposite 
Passaic, on the Passaic River and on the 
Erie Railroad. It is a residential suburb 
of Fassaic and has many attractive resi- 
dences. The city has manufactories of 
wax paper, perfumes, woolen yarns, es- 
sential oils, chemicals, etc. It was in- 
corporated in 1898. Population in 1920, 
U.S; Census, 19,381. 

Garfish, a family of fish represented 
in all temperate and warm countries. It 
has a long, snakelike body covered with 
tiny scales. The dorsal and anal fins lie 
directly opposite each other and give the 
caudal extremity a fanlike extension. 
The jaws are exceedingly long, hard and 
sharp-pointed and contain few teeth, but 
sharp ones. With the long bill a severe 
wound may be inflicted, and many spe- 
cies, especially the needlefish, are ex- 
tremely active in its use. Garfish are 
green in color; even the bones are 
green, and for this reason it is not a 
popular food fish although its flesh is 
sweet and fine. Locally the garfish is 
called long tom or green tom. 

Gar” ibal’di, Giuseppe (1807-1882), 
an Italian patriot. He joined Mazzini 
to gain Italian liberty and fled from the 
country when-the attempt failed in 1834. 
He returned to Italy in 1848 and led a 
company of volunteers against Austria. 
He also lent his aid to the patriots who 
were holding Rome, which was then be- 
sieged by the French. When all efforts 
for liberty again failed, Garibaldi came 
to the United States and lived for a time 
at Staten Island, N. Y. Later he had 
command of a trading vessel on the 
Pacific coast. 


GARLAND 


In 1854 he settled on a small farm in 
the Island of Caprera where he could 
watch the result of Cavour’s policy in 
uniting Italy. He joined the Sardinians 
against Austria in 1859 and objected 
strongly when Nice and Savoy were 
given to the French in 1860. The same 
year he sailed from Genoa with a com- 
pany of volunteers. He landed in Sicily 
May 11, 26 days later he had won Pa- 
lermo, and he gained the whole island 
for Italy by July 27, when the Neapoli- 
tans left Messina. He then crossed to the 
mainland and entered the city of Naples 
on Sept. 7, after a triumphal march to 
its gates. He resigned his command 
when the troops of Victor Emmanuel 
reached the frontier, and was again on 
his farm in Caprera by November. 

He was eager to see the old capital, 
Rome, restored to Italy and made two 
unsuccessful attempts to regain it. In 
the second attempt, in 1867, he was taken 
prisoner by the Sardinian Government, 
but was released after a few days’ con- 
finement near Spezia. In 1870-1 he com- 
manded a company of French volunteers 
in Burgundy against the Germans. In 
1874 he entered the Italian Parliament. 
Consult Garibaldi’s Autobiography 
(English translation). 

Garland, Augustus Hill (1832-1899), 
an American lawyer and statesman, born 
in Tipton County, Tenn. He removed 
with his parents to Arkansas in infancy. 
He studied law and was admitted to the 
bar in 1853. Although at first opposed 
to secession, he finally followed his state, 
and was elected to the Confederate Con- 
gress, serving in both houses. In 1874 
he became governor of Arkansas, and 
served as United States senator from 
1877 to 1885. President Cleveland ap- 
pointed him attorney-general of the 
United States in 1885, and he continued 


in that position until 1889, when he re- — 


sumed his law practice in Washing- 
ton, DG. 

Garland, Hamlin (1860- =), _:~ an 
American novelist, born at La Crosse, 
Wis. He studied at Cedar Valley Sem- 
inary, Osage, Iowa, and after farming 
and teaching school in Illinois and Da- 


1130 


\ 


GARLIC 


kota, he removed to Boston in 1884 and 
devoted himself to literary work. In 
1891 he returned to the West. He 
founded the Cliff Dwellers’ Club and was 
its first president; in 1911 he became 
connected with the Chicago Drama 
League. His stories are realistic and 
abound in local color. Among his works 
are Main-Traveled Roads, Jason Ed- 
wards, A Little Norsk, Wayside Court- 
ships, Crumbling Idols, The Trail of the 
Gold Seekers, Captain of the Gray Horse 
Troop, The Tyranny of the Dark, Money 
Magic, Boy Life on the Prairie and The 
Shadow W orld. , 

Gar’lic, a bulb-bearing herb of the 
Lily Family and closely allied to the 
onion and leek. It has an extremely 
strong odor and taste and is used as a 
seasoning or, in southern Europe, as a 
food. The bulb is made up of several 
smaller bulbs known as cloves and is 
the source of a bitter drug widely used 
in tnedicine as a stimulant, and as a rem- 
edy for spasms and indigestion. The 
garlic is mentioned in the Old Testament 
(Num. «i, 5) as being part of the food 
furnished to the Israelites while in bond- 
age in Egypt. 

Garnet, a class of glasslike minerals 
which occur in mica, slate, limestone and 
granite, or as a secondary form in lava 
and serpentine, being red, brown, green, 
black or yellow. Those stones which are 
transparent and red are known as car- 
buncles. The presence of aluminum in- 
creases the value of garnet, and the best 
grades of this variety are valuable for 
jewelry. The gems are classified as Syr- 
ian, Bohemian and Singhalese, not to 
indicate their geographical origin, but 
to designate their value. Inferior grades 
of garnet are ground and used for pol- 
ishing other precious stones. Deposits 
occur in Brazil, Peru, Ceylon, Bohemia, 
Siberia and Syria, the finest coming from 
Syria. | 

Gar’nishment, a process of law by 
which the wages, goods or other prop- 
erty of a debtor which are in the posses- 


sion of a third party may be seized by 


the creditor and applied to his claim. 
The garnishment consists of a legal no- 


GARRISON 


tice to the party owing the wages or 
holding the property not to pay the 
debtor or turn over the property to him. 
Garnishment is carefully guarded by 
laws in each state. It can be applied 
only to a debt owing at the time it is 
made, and in most states the debt must 
amount to $10 or more. A judgment 
given by a Federal court cannot be gar- 
nished in a state court. - 

Garonne, Ga’ron’, a river of the 
southwest of France. It rises at the base 
of Mt. Maladetta, in the Pyrenees, in 
the Val d’Aran (Spain), enters France 
in the Department of Haute-Garonne, 
flows northward and empties into the At- 
lantic Ocean at Pointe de Grave. It is © 
400 m. long and is navigable beyond Tou- 
louse. The tributaries are numerous and 
an area of about 38,000 sq. m. is drained. 
The frequent overflows are highly de- 
structive. By means of the Canal du 
Midi communication with the Atlantic 
and Mediterranean is maintained. 

Gar’rick, David (1717-1779), an Eng- 
lish actor and theatrical manager, born 
in Hereford. He studied at Lichfield, 
then at Edial under Samuel Johnson, 
who was seven years his senior. The 
two set out for London together, and 
Garrick’s career as an actor began in 
1741. His daring substitution of natu- 
ralness in voice and acting for the stately, 
artificial declamation of the old actors 
gained the applause of the critics as well 
as the large audiences. He was manager 
of Drury Lane Theater from 1747 until 
1776, and this period marks a revival of 
Shakespearean drama and a reform of | 
the English stage, for which much credit 
is due to Garrick. He wrote farces and 
comedies without great success, but as 
an actor he was vivacious and versatile 
to an extraordinary degree, and was un- 
equalled in expression and in passionate 
roles. 

Gar’rison, William Lloyd (1805- 
1879), an American journalist and anti- 
slavery reformer, born in Newburyport, 
Mass. At 14 years of age he became 
apprentice in the office of the Newbury- 
port Herald, where he remained until 
he was of age. When 16 years old he 


plot 


GARTER, ORDER OF THE / 
4 

began to write for the paper on the slay- 
ery question and aroused much interest. 
At the end of his apprenticeship he be- 
came editor of the Newburyport Free 
Press, where he was one of the first to 
publish poems from the pen of the then 
unknown Whittier. In 1827 Garrison 
became editor of the National Philan- 
thropist, published in Boston, the first 


American temperance journal; in 1828 | 


he edited the Journal of the Times, in the 
interest of the reelection of John Quincy 
Adams; and in 1829 he became the part- 
ner of Benjamin Lundy, a Quaker abo- 
litionist, in conducting the Genius of 
Universal Emancipation, a journal estab- 
lished to advocate the immediate aboli- 
tion of slavery. In this publication he 


was so outspoken that he was imprisoned - 


for libel. : 

Upon his release Garrison immediately 
began to lecture against slavery, and 
founded The Liberator, which contin- 
ued for 35 years and was uncompromis- 
ing in its demands for the abolition of 
slavery. In 1832 appeared his Thoughts 
on African Colonization, and in 1834 he 
was influential in the organization of the 
American Anti-Slavery Society. He 
twice visited England in the interests of 
abolition and was warmly welcomed by 
philanthropists there. He had the great 
reward of living to see the accomplish- 
ment of the object to which he had de- 
voted his life, and in 1865 the Anti-Slav- 
ery Society was dissolved, with its mis- 
sion fulfilled. His friends raised and 
presented him with $30,000 for his sup- 
port in his old age in recognition of his 
services; and after his death the city 
of Boston, through whose streets he had 
once been dragged with a rope around 
his body, erected a bronze statue to his 
memory. 

Garter, Order of the, the highest 
order of knighthood in Great Britain. 
The order was founded by King Edward 
III in 1349 and is one of the most chiv- 
alrous orders of Europe, though not the 
most ancient. It was founded in honor 
of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, 
Edward the Confessor and St. George. 
Since St. George was the patron saint of 


GARY 


England, the order is sometimes called 
the Order of St. George. The member- 
ship is limited to a small number, and 
election to the order is one of the highest 
honors that can be conferred upon Eng- 
lish nobility. 

Garter Snake, or Striped Snake; a 
genus of harmless snakes of the Colu- 
brid Family, all species of which are 
found in the United States. It is the 
commonest of American serpents prob- 
ably because it is exceedingly prolific; 
sometimes as many as 75 are produced 
in one litter. Its body is dark, marked 
with three yellow lines; the average 
length is three and one-half feet. The 
American boy commonly calls this ser- 
pent the streaked snake. See SERPENT. 

Gary, Elbert Henry (1846- Piet 
American judge and financier, born in 
Wheaton, IIl., and educated at Chicago 
University. He was admitted to the 
Illinois bar in 1867, to the bar of the Su- 
preme Court in 1878 and practiced in 
Chicago for 25 years. He was general 
counsel for various corporations and 
identified himself with organizing the 
Federal Steel Company, of which he be- 
came president in 1898. Judge Gary was 
also connected with the organization of 
the United States Steel Corporation, of 
which he became chairman of the board 
of directors and of the finance commit- 
tee. 

Gary, Ind., a city of Lake Co., 26 m. 
s.e. of Chicago, on the Wabash, the 
New York) Central, the Pennsylvania 
and other railroads. Interurban lines 
also connect with many near-by towns 
and cities. Gary has unequaled advan- 
tages of central location, harbor possi- 
bilities and convenience by rail and water 
to all markets, especially Chicago’s. 
The inital plant established in 1906 was 
the Indiana Steel Company. This was 
followed by subsidiary plants of «the 
U. S. Steel Company, American Bridge 
Company and the American Sheet & Tin 
Plate Company. These mammoth steel 
mills are all under the direction of the 
United States Steel Corporation. They 
cover over 6,000 acres between the lake 
front and the North Branch of the Calu- 


1132 


‘ 
} 
\ 

Z 


GAS 


met River. Among the independent con-. 


cerns are the Gary Bolt & Screw Com- 
pany, Gary Metalic Works, Union 
Drawn Steel Co., Gary Motor Truck and 
the National Spring Product. The Port- 
land cement plant is at Gary. 

Among the public buildings and insti- 
tutions are the Y. M. C. A., Public Li- 
brary, Elks’ Home, Jefferson School, 
Gary’s original educational institution, 
<ity hall, 13 schools including Emerson, 
Froebel, Horace Mann and Tolleston and 
Gary, Mercy and Gary General Hospi- 
tals. The city was named in honor of 
Elbert Henry Gary, chairman of the Steel 
Corporation. Many other large manu- 
facturing companies have acquired build- 
ing sites there. Population, 1920, 55,378. 

Gary Method. See Wirt, WILLIAM. 


Gas, one oi the three states in which 
matter can exist. A solid has a definite 
volume and form; a liquid has a definite 
volume only; a vapor or a gas has neither 
a definite volume nor form, but will ex- 
pand and fill all the space available. 
There is no sharp distinction between 
vapors and gases. A vapor that cannot 
be condensed to a liquid or solid by a 
moderate increase in pressure or by a 
moderate lowering of its temperature 
is sometimes called a gas. What are 
usually known as gases are those sub- 
stances whose critical temperature are 
so low or whose critical pressures are 
so high that under ordinary conditions 
they cannot exist as liquids. See Vapor. 

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. Daniel 
Bernouilli (1700-1782) first showed that 
the pressure exerted by a gas could best 
be explained as due to the impacts of its 
separate particles, called molecules, 
against each other and against the walls 
of the containing vessel. Other physi- 
cists have since developed this theory 
much further and shown that all the 
characteristic properties of gases can be 


accounted for on the basis of these molec- 


war motions, so that this theory is now 
generally accepted as giving a fairly cor- 
rect conception of the structure of gases. 

On this theory the molecules of a gas 
are constantly striking against each other. 


GAS ~~ 


and against the walls of the containing 
vessel, and rebounding as if they were 
perfectly elastic or as if they were re- 
pelled apart when they come near to each 
other. After rebounding, they move in 
straight lines till they meet other mole- 
cules, on the walls of the containing ves- 
sel. In a collision of two molecules, 
which may be either a direct or a glanc- 
ine one, the motions of both molecules 
are changed, and the two molecules may 
have very different velocities after sep- 
arating and may travel very different 
distances before encountering other 
molecules. The average distance that 
a molecule travels between two suc- 
cessive collisions is called its mean free 
path; this is large compared with the 
distance between centers of two mole- 
cules when they are nearest together, 
which distance is called the diameter of 
a molecule. Such a moving molecule 
possesses kinetic energy, due to its veloc- 
ity, and what energy it may lose in 
any collision is gained by the other mole-. 
cule, so that the average kinetic energy 
of the molecules, and also their average 
velocity, remain unchanged unless in- 
fluenced by the addition of energy from 
outside. If the gas be heated, the energy 
so added goes to increase the average 
kinetic energy of its molecules, so the 
greater the average kinetic energy of the 
molecules of a gas the greater the 
amount of heat it possesses and the 
higher is its temperature. 

Accordingly, when a gas is heated, its 
molecules move more rapidly and hence 
strike the walls of the containing ves- 
sel harder and more frequently. This 
results in the exertion of a greater pres- 


sure by the gas if the vessel is kept of 


the same volume. If- the pressure is 
kept constant by a movable piston or 
other means, the gas will expand as it is 
heated, the same pressure exerted by 
the gas in the larger vessel being ac- 
counted for by the harder, though less 
frequent, blows of its molecules against 
the walls. Again, when the temperature 
of a gas is kept constant and the volume 
decreased, the blows, or impacts, of the 
molecules against the walls are just as 


1133 


GAS ENGINE 


hard but more frequent, and hence the 
pressure is increased as the volume is 
decreased. In this way, the three laws 
of gases are accounted for on the kinetic 
theory. See Gases, Laws oF. 

Gas Engine, an engine similar to a 
steam engine, in which the piston is pro- 
pelled forward in the cylinder by the 
explosive force of gas and air. Coal gas, 
producer gas, blast-furnace gas, natural 
gas and vaporized gasoline; naphtha, 


kerosene and petroleum, as well as alco- 
hol, are employed as explosive agents. 
The gas is mixed with air and generally 
ignited by an electric spark. The largest 
number of this type of engines use gaso- 
line, and they are known as gasoline en- 
The only difference between them 


gines. 


GASOLINE ENGINE 


and gas engines is that they are provided 
with a carburetor, by means of which 
the gasoline is vaporized, while engines 
using a gas already formed do not re- 
quire this mechanism. The chief parts 
of a gas engine are the frame, or bed- 
plate, carrying journal boxes; the cylin- 
der, the piston, the connecting rod, the 
valve rod, the crank, the pump, valves 
for the admission of gas to the cylinder 
and its exhaust, the governor to regu- 
late the speed, and heavy flywheels with 
driving pulleys. 

Motion is obtained by letting gas enter 
the cylinder, where it is exploded by a 
flame, or electric spark, and causes the 
piston to be propelled forward, forming 
a partial vacuum Behind it within the 


GASES, LAWS OF 


cylinder, and into which another supply 
of gas is automatically admitted. This, 
on being again exploded, causes another 
propelling forward of the piston and so 
on. The burnt gas exhausts at each 
return stroke of the piston through the 
exhaust valve, which is opened by a «od. 
A heavy flywheel is used to govern the 
movement, which otherwise would be 
irregular. A connection with a governor 
regulates the inflow of the gas to the cyl- 
inder. 

Gas engines are made of various types, 
horizontal, vertical and rotary, and of 
sizes ranging from one-quarter of one 
horsepower up to 5000 horsepower. Orig- 
inally gasoline engines were made with 
one cylinder, but now they are made with 
as many as ten cylinders. They are used 
for driving boats, bicycles, automobiles, 
flying machines,’ and in driving machin- 
ery. On the farm the gasoline engine 
performs many duties in driving ma- 
chines taking the place largely of animal 
power. Gas engines have been brought 
to a high degree of perfection and are 
capable of the most delicate adjustment. 

Gases, Laws of. A gas behaves as if 
it were perfectly elastic between wide 
limits of pressure and temperature. 
Within these limits nearly all gases obey 
fairly accurately the three general laws 
given below. 

Boyie’s Law. This law, named after 
Robert Boyle (1627-1691), is: The tem- 
perature remaining the same, the volume 
of a given mass of gas varies inversely 
as the pressure acting upon tt. Ex- 
pressed as a proportion, it is V:V’ equals 
P’:P, from which, PV equals P’V’ equals 
a constant quantity. A consequence of 
this law is that the mass of a gas remain- 
ing the same, the density of a gas must 
increase as the volume decreases; hence, 
at constant temperature the density of a 
gas is directly proportional to the pres- 
sure acting upon it. In the form of a pro- 
portion the relation is D:D’ equals P:P’. 
For example, if 100 cubic inches of air 
at atmospheric pressure of 14.7 lb. per 
square inch be compressed into a volume 
of 25 cubic inches, the necessary pressure 
is fond from the relation 14.7100 


1134 


GASES, LAWS OF 


equals P’X25, giving P’ equals 58.8 Ib. 
per square inches, or 58.8—14.7 equals 
44.1, number of lb. per square inch above 
atmospheric pressure. The density would 
be four times as great. This law is also 
known as Mariotte’s law. 

CHARLES’S Law. This law, named 
after a Frenchman, J. A. C. Charles, is: 
The volume remaining the same, the pres- 
sure exerted by a given mass of gas im- 
creases 1/273 of its value at O°C. for 
each degree rise in temperature. On this 
law are based the air and hydrogen ther- 
mometers, and from it is derived the con- 
ception of the so-called absolute zero of 
temperature (See Heat). For most pur- 
poses it is more convenient to write the 
law in the form P:P’ equals T:T’, where 
T and T’ are the absolute temperatures of 
the gas at the two pressures respectively. 
In this form the law states that the pres- 
sure exerted by a given mass of gas is 
proportional to its absolute temperature, 
the volume remaining the same. For ex- 
ample, if a given mass of gas at a pres- 
sure of 20 Ib. per square inch above 
atmospheric pressure and temperature 
27° C. be heated to a temperature of 57° 
C., its volume being kept the same, the 
resulting pressure is found from the 
relation P:20+14.7 equals 57-++-273 :27+ 
2/73, whence P ‘equals 38.17 lb. per 
square inch, or 38.17—14.7 equals 23.47, 
number of lb. per square inch above at- 
mospheric pressure. 

Gay-Lussac’s Law. This law, named 
for a Frenchman, Joseph L. Gay-Lussac, 
is: The pressure remaining the same, a 
given mass of gas expands 1/273 of tts 
volume at O° C. for each degree rise in 
temperature. Using absolute tempera- 
tures, the law can be stated in the form: 
The volume occupied by a given mass of 
gas is proportional to its absolute tem- 
perature, the pressure remaining the 
same. This relation can be more con- 
veniently written V:V’ equals T:T’. For 
example, if 5 cu. ft. of gas at a tempera- 
ture of 27° C. be heated under constant 
pressure to a temperature of 57° C., the 
final volume can be found from the re- 
lation 5:V’ equals 273-+-27 :273-L57, 
whence V’ equals 5.5 cu. ft. 


GAS, ILLUMINATING 


For many purposes it is useful to com- 
bine all three laws into one general state- 
ment; namely, For a given mass of gas, 
the product of its volume and pressure 
divided by its absolute temperature is a 
constant. The corresponding mathemat- 
ical relation is [— equals “Z-. For 
example, if a given mass of gas at a tem- 
perature of 27° C. and occupying a vol- 
ume of 5 cu. ft. at a pressure of 20 Ib. 
per square inch above atmospheric pres- 
sure be heated to a temperature of 57° 
C. and confined at a pressure of 40 Ib. 
per square inch above atmospheric pres- 
sure, the resulting volume is found from 
the relation “Soe? equals “Cle, 
whence V’ equals 3.49 cu. ft. See Gas; 
VAPOR. 

Gas, Illuminating, a name applied to 
any gases used for illuminating purposes. 
The raw materials employed in produc- 
ing such illuminants include a variety of 
substances, like bituminous coal, wood, 
resin, oils and fats, and petroleum. 
When any substance that is rich in car- 
bon and hydrogen is subjected to de- 
structive distillation in hot retorts, it 
yields gas, water, tar and a residue of 
coke or charcoal. For the making of gas 
on a commercial scale, bituminous coal 
and petroleum are used, either separately 
or together, 2nd the products are known 
respectively as coal gas and water gas. 

Coat Gas. This gas was first success- 
fully used in 1792 by William Murdock, 
a Scotchman, who introduced it in 1805 
into the cotton mills of Manchester, Eng- 
land. It was first used in Paris in 1799, 
in London in 1810, in Baltimore in 1821, 
and a few years later it was introduced 
in Boston and New York. In the manu- 
facture of coal gas, bituminous coal is 
heated in D-shaped fire-clay retorts of 
varying dimensions, holding from 250 to 
350 Ib. of coal. As the coal distills, the 
gas flows into a trap or hydraulic main, 
where it passes through water and loses 
some of its tar and ammonia. From the 
hydraulic main it is drawn and forced 
through a condenser consisting of a large 
cylinder containing coils of iron pipe, 
through which cold water is kept flow- — 
ing. From this condenser the gas is 


£135 


GAS, ILLUMINATING 


torced into a scrubber, which is another 
cylinder containing coke, wooden grids 
or other porous materials, over which 
water is made to sprinkle. The gas en- 
ters at the bottom and comes in contact 
with the water, which, washes out the re- 
maining tar and ammonia, and the gas 
escapes at the top. The gas is now 
passed into a purifier, which consists of 
layers of freshly slaked lime or of oxide 
of iron, on shelves or floors placed one 
above the other, and containing small 
openings. The purpose of the purifier is 
to absorb any compounds of sulphur 
which may be in the gas. 

The gas is now ready for use and it is 
forced through a meter into a gas holder, 
which is a large cylindrical tank made 
of steel plates, with a dome-shaped top, 
and open at the bottom. This is placed 
in a cistern of water, and it rises on 
being filled with gas. The cistern is 
provided with a heavy frame carrying 
guides, so that the tank may be properly 
supported by means of chains running 
over sheaves and counterbalanced by 
weights. From this gas holder the gas 
is passed through a governor, so that 
the pressure may be regular under the 
different conditions of supply and ex- 
haustion ; then into the gas mains supply- 
ing the consumers. | 

WATER Gas. Carbureted water gas is 
produced by mixing with nonluminous 
water gas sufficient oil gas obtained from 
petroleum distillate, or, as it is called by 
gas makers, gas oil, to give the required 
illuminating power. When steam is de- 
composed in the presence of incandescent 
carbon, hydrogen is set free and the ox- 
ygen wnites, forming carbonic oxide. 
These two gases, with small portions of 
methane, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, 
form water gas, which, although com- 
bustible, does not burn with a luminous 
flame; therefore, it has to be enriched 
with oil gas, sometimes made in a sepa- 
rate operation, but more commonly as 
the water gas is made. Although there 
are varying methods of manufacture 
with different apparatus, yet the process 
usually employed is that in which the 
generator-superheater type of apparatus 


GASKELL 


is used. By this the water gas is made 
and enriched with oil in one operation. 

The apparatus commonly consists of 
three brick-lined, cylindrical vessels con- 
nected together and called the generator, 
the carburetor and the superheater. In 
the generator the coal is heated and the 
carburetor and superheater are filled with 
fire brick arranged in checkerwork form. 
The gas formed in the generator by fir- 
ing the coal is employed to heat the brick 
checkerwork, and the coal in the gener- 
ator is brought to incandescence by a 
forced blast. When all three of the 
vessels have been sufficiently heated, the 
blast is shut off, a valve in the stack of 
the superheater, through which the prod- 
ucts of combustion escape during the 
heating-up period, or the blow, as it is 


called, is closed, and steam is turned into | 


the generator. When the production of 
water gas has fairly begun, oil is admit- 
ted at the top of the carburetor, and it is 
quickly vaporized by the heat of the 
checker brick. By passing it through all 
the checker-brick work, it is furthermore 
heated so as to become a permanent gas. 
The gas is now purified by the same proc- 
ess as coal gas, requiring to be con- 
densed, washed, purified, metered and 
stored in holders. Carbureted water gas 
is now most generally used in the larger 
cities, and in it are found practically the 
same mixtures as in coal gas, but with 
a large increase of the most poisonous 
agent, carbonic acid. . 

Dangers from using illuminating gas 
are from unburned gas, which escapes 
through leaks in defective pipes or fix- 
tures, or through burners left accident- 
ally open, and from vitiation of the at- 


mosphere through the products of com- 


bustion. Illuminating gas is extensively 
used in heating and cooking. See AcEt- 
YLENE; NATURAL GAS. 

Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (1810- 


1865), an English novelist, born in Lon-_ 


don. In 1832 she married William Gas- 
kell, a Unitarian minister of Manchester. 
She is best known for her Cranford, a 
delightfully humorous idyl of English 
village life which has become a classic. 


Other writings of hers deal with moral 


1136 


; 
| 
| 
} 


a nee ae Ae ay Or Waiver era Cee Tay 
eae a AA age i ' 
Ae Pee td ie, Py W 

¥ a! i 


GASOLINE 


and social problems. She wrote Ruth, 
North and South, Cousin Phillis and the 
admirable biography, Life of Charlotte 
Bronté. 

Gasoline, an inflammable liquid ob- 
tained in the distillation of crude petro- 
leum, and from natural gas. It is color- 
less, exceedingly volatile and has a dis- 
agreeable odor. The vapor of gasoline 
when mixed with air is highly explosive, 
and when confined and ignited expands 
with sufficient force to overcome great 
resistance. This property of gasoline 
makes it a valuable source of power. Its 
greatest use is in operating gasoline en- 
gines. It is also used in stoves con- 
structed especially for it, in cleaning 
clothing and for various other purposes. 
Gasoline should never be exposed to the 
air in a room where there is a fire or 
where a light is burning, and it is unsafe 
to use it near a hot iron or any other 
heated body. See Gas ENGINE; PETRO- 
LEUM; NATURAL GAS. 

Gasoline Engine. See Gas ENGINE. 

Gaspee, Affair of the, the destruction 
of the eight-gun British schooner Gas- 
pee, off the coast of Rhode Island, June 
17, 1772. The Gaspee was stationed in 
Narragansett Bay to enforce the naviga- 
tion laws. The people of Rhode Island 
complained of the outrages perpetrated 


_ by the Gaspee, but affairs continued until 


the night of June 16, when she was run 
aground, on what has since been called 
Gaspee Point, while pursuing an Ameri- 
can ship. The following night eight 
boats filled with men from Providence 
attacked and captured the Gaspee, and, 
her crew having been set ashore, she 
was burned to the water’s edge. The 
British ministry ordered that the offend- 
ers be sent to England for trial; but 
Chief Justice Stephen Hopkins of Rhode 
Island refused to have anyone in his 


_ jurisdiction arrested for that purpose. 


Gas’tric Juice, a colorless, watery 
fluid secreted by the stomach and aiding 
in the process of digestion. It is com- 
posed of hydrochloric acid, rennin and 
pepsin. By action of the stomach, food 
is thoroughly mixed with the juice and 
is reduced to a creamy pulp called 


GATES © 


chyme. It is then ready to pass on to 
the intestine. The amount of gastric 
juice secreted daily varies, but it has 
been estimated to be 14 Ib. in the adult. 
It is continually being reabsorbed and 
does not accumulate in large quantites. 
See DIGESTION. yh 

Gastri’tis, a general term including 
all inflammatory diseases of the stomach. 
The inflammation of the mucous mem- 
brane causes fever, headache and nausea. 
The stomach should be washed with a 
tube or pump and rested for about three 
days. Toxic gastritis, caused by certain 
poisons, is a very serious disturbance, 
and purulent gastritis is fatal. Sufferers 
from chronic gastritis may live for years 
with proper treatment and care. 

Gates, Horatio (1728-1806), an. 
American general of the Revolutionary 
War, born in Essex County, England. 
He entered the British army, soon be- 
came a major and, in 1755, was stationed 
at Halifax. He was captain of infan- 
try under Braddock when that general 
was defeated near Ft. Duquesne, 1755, 
and, after a visit to England in 1763, he 
located on his estate in Virginia, where 
he remained until the opening of the 
Revolutionary War. On the recommen- 
dation of Washington, Congress then 
appointed him adjutant-general with the 
rank of brigadier. The following year 
he had command of the troops which 
were to move against forts Ticonderoga 
and Crown Point, and, early in 1777, he 
became head of the Northern army. In 


_this position he won his great victory 


over the British general, Burgoyne, at 
Saratoga. The chief credit for Saratoga 
is due to Schuyler, Arnold and Morgan 
rather than to Gates; nevertheless, he 
was soon made head of the board of 
war, a position second alone to that of 
commander-in-chief of the army. He re- 
ceived chief command of the Southern 
army on June 15, 1780, after the capture 
of General Lincoln. Because of his sig- 
nal defeat at Camden, he was super- 


- seded by General Greene. A court-mar- 


tial followed, but Gates was acquitted 
and reinstated, 1782, after Cornwallis 
had been captured. For the next seven 


Eid / 


GATES 


years he lived in Virginia. He then 
freed his slaves and moved to the vicin- 
ity of New York City, and in 1800 be- 
came a member of the State Legislature. 
See Conway CABAL. 

Gates, Sir Thomas (flourished 1596- 
1621), the first regularly established colo- 
nial governor of Virginia under the Vir- 
ginia Company, born, it is believed, in 
Devonshire. He was trained for the 
army and came with Sir Francis Drake 
to America in 1585. After seeing serv- 
ice in many countries he became one 
of the petitioners for the royal consent 
to the establishment of a colony in Vir- 
ginia, and in 1609 he sailed for America 
again, this time in command of nine 
vessels filled with colonists for the Vir- 
ginia settlement. His own ship was 
wrecked, but after several months he 
succeeded in reaching Jamestown, where 
he was duly installed governor. The 
colony was in desperate condition; the 
colonists, hopeless and _ with barely 
enough to keep them from starvation, 
urged that they be taken to England. In 
response to their urging Gates embarked 
with them upon four small boats, but 
before reaching sea he was met by Lord 
De La Warr and returned. De La Warr 
was then made governor and Gates was 
sent to England for supplies. A year 
later he returned with more colonists and 
with cattle, seed and provisions. He 
was lieutenant-governor of the colony 
until 1614, and later served in various 
public positions connected with the col- 
ony. 

Gath, one of the five cities of the 
Philistines, which were presided over by 
princes or lords. David found in it a 
temporary refuge at the time of his per- 
secutions by Saul, and later, when king, 
he established his supremacy over it. Its 
site cannot be determined with certainty, 
but it is thought by some to be midway 
between Ekron and Ashdod. 

Gatineau, Gat’e’no', a river of Que- 
bec and one of the chief tributaries of 
the Ottawa. 
part of the province and flows southward 
through several lakes, entering the Otta- 
wa about a mile east of Ottawa City. It 


It rises in the north-central. 


GAUGE 


is fully 400 m. in length and is important 
as a logging stream. 

Gatling, Richard Jordan (1818-1903), 
an American inventor, born in Hertford 
County, N. C. He showed mechanical 
genius while still young, assisting his 
father in making a cottonseed sower. 
Later he invented machines for sowing 
rice and wheat, a steam plow and a ma- 
chine for breaking hemp. But the in- 
vention that has made him famous is the 
gun bearing his name, invented in 1862. 
In 1886 he invented a new gun metal. 
His experiments demonstrating the effi- 
cacy of his new method of casting can- 
non brought him an appropriation of 
$40,000 from the Congress of the United 
States. , 

Gatling Gun, a machine gun inyented 
by Dr. R. J. Gatling of Indianapolis, 
Ind., in 1861. This gun consists of a 
cylinder of barrels, usually ten, fastened 
to a central shaft, and made to revolve 
by means of a crank. The feed case 
presents the cartridge to each barrel ir 
turn. There have been numerous im- 
provements, particularly in the feed case, 
since its invention, so that the gun fires 
20 rounds per second. The Gatling gun 
is in use in the United States service. See 
ARTILLERY ; MACHINE GUN. 

Gauge, Gaye, in mechanics, an instru- 
ment by which dimensions, quantity, 
force,» capacity, etc.; “areaeiameareas 
Gauges are used to secure precision of 
form and dimensions in manufacturing 
and usually consist of hardened steel. 
Circular disks, having around the edge 
a series of notches of different sizes cor- 
responding to sizes of Birmingham wire, 
are used to measure wire and the thick- 
ness of plates. See MICROMETER. 

A pressure gauge measures the force of 
water, steam, air, gas, etc., in closed ves- 
sels, and consists of a cylindrical metal 
box with a graduated dial, over which 
moves a pointer actuated by a spring, 
which, being compressed more or less by 
the force of water or steam, indicates on 
the dial in pounds and fractions thereof 
the pressure exerted. A water gauge 
consists of a strong glass tube set verti- 
cally, with its ends having metal connec» 


1138 


Ce ee ee ee ee a ee 


GAUL 


tions to the boiler for the purpose of 
showing the height of water in the boiler. 
Gauge cocks are used for the same pur- 
pose in order to verify the level of the 
water. See BoiLer. 

Gaul, a name once given to two dis- 
tricts inhabited by tribes of Celts and 
known respectively as Cisalpine Gaul and 
Transalpine Gaul. The first included 
that part of northern Italy lying between 
the Alps and the Apennines, and the 
latter, larger and more important, em- 
braced what is now France and Belgium 
and parts of Holland, Germany and 
Switzerland. 

Cisalpine Gaul was conquered by the 
Romans in 222 B. C. and became prac- 
tically Roman in its civilization. About 
52 B. C. it was united with Italy and is 
now remembered for its gifted men, Ver- 
gil, Catullus, Livy, Pliny, Nepos and 
others, and for the excellent soldiers fur- 
nished to the campaigns of Czsar and 


of Octavius. Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul, 


is heard of in connection with Roman 
history about 220 B. C.: The first au- 
thentic mention is that found in the fa- 
miliar passages of Cesar’s Commentaries 
where it is described as being divided 
into three districts differing from each 
other in language, customs and laws. The 
people of these sections were respec- 
tively: the Aquitani, who lived in the 
country extending from the Pyrenees 
to the Garonne; the Celts, who occupied 
the territory bounded by the Seine, the 
Marne, the Rhine and the Garonne; and 
the Belgz, who occupied the remaining 
territory from the Rhine and the Seine 
to the mouth of the former. The migra- 
tions and incursions of these people upon 
the Roman Empire were practically un- 
checked until about 200 B. C., when the 
Gauls were made to submit most un- 
willingly to Roman rule. They contin- 
ued Roman until 407 A. D., when the 
Franks and the Vandals overran Gaul 
and the power of Rome weakened as the 
kingdoms of the Visigoths, the Burgun- 
dians and the Franks were formed. A 
Roman general with Roman troops was 
still stationed in Gaul until 486, when 
Clovis drove out the last vestige of 


GAY-LUSSAC 


Roman power and Gaul itself ceased to 
exist. 

Gaunt’let, or Gantlet, a kind of glove 
worn by the knights of the Middle Ages. 
It was made of leather and covered with 
irons, so put together as to admit of a 
free movement of the hand, and with 
a broad protective extension over the 


_wrists. To throw down the gauntlet was 


to declare a challenge. A style of heavy 
glove with broad wrist covering, worn 
at the present time by equestrians, is 
also called a gauntlet. 

Ga’vial, a member of the Crocodile 
Family, found in India, along the shores 
of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. 
It is the largest of present-known Rep- 
tiles, often becoming 30 ft. in length, and 
is among the last of the once common, 
huge Reptiles of earlier eras. Like all 
crocodiles the gavial is both terrestrial 
and aquatic in its habits. It differs from 
other members of the family in having 
long, narrow jaws and a peculiar out- 
growth at the extremity of the upper lip. 
In spite of its size the gavial is timid 
and takes to the water upon the slightest 
disturbance; for so large an animal it 
is exceedingly active both in and out of 
the water, where it readily catches its 
prey, consisting of frogs and fishes. 

Gay, John (1685-1732), an English 
poet and dramatist, born in Devonshire. 
He wrote popular farces and comedies, 
among which the Beggar's Opera became 
the most famous, but his keen satires 
on society and government caused con- 
temporary unpopularity. Huis Fables are 
original, lively and never strained. His 
song, Black-Eyed Susan, is a poem of 
genuine merit. He also published The 
Present State of Wit, The Fan, The 
Shepherd's Week, What-d’ye-Call-It and 
Three Hours after Marriage. 

Gay-Lussac, Ga"lu" sak’, Joseph Louis 
(1778-1850), a famous French scientist. 
On graduating from the Polytechnic 
School, Paris, he there became assistant 
chemist and subsequently professor of 
chemistry. Among many others he made 
the valuable discovery that two parts of 
hydrogen and one of oxygen unite to 
form water, and this led to the important 


1139 


GAYNOR 


discovery of the law of volumes. Gay- 
Lussac applied his theoretical knowledge 
to various practical purposes, and his 
reward came in the form of high honors 
and prominent educational and govern- 
mental positions. In 1839 he became a 
French noble. 

Gay’nor, William Jay (1851-1913), 
an American lawyer and statesman, born 
in Oneida Co., N. Y., and educated at 
Whitestone Seminary and in Boston. 
While receiving his legal training he 
worked upon several New York news- 
papers and was admitted to the bar of 
the state in 1875. His name has been 
prominent in many important cases, and 
his reputation became established through 
his work in breaking up political rings 
and disclosing election frauds. He was 
judge of the Supreme Court of New 
York for two terms, beginning in 1893, 
and was elected mayor of New York in 
1909. He twice declined the Democratic 
nomination for governor of New York 
and also refused other public offices. He 
wrote freely upon legal subjects, was a 
prolific letter writer and was well known 
as a public speaker. He was friendly and 
sympathetic in temperament, being espe- 
cially known for his interest in the wel- 
fare and activities of the city’s children. 

Gazelle, Ga- 
gel’, an exceed- 
ingly graceful 
} animal of the 
Bovine Family 
and related to 
the antelopes. 
It is found in 
Egypt, Arabia 
an dis y. nia} 
where herds of 
the timid crea- 
tures may be 
seen in sum- 
mer haunting 

the oases or 
" skimming the 
ground in their 
Their skin is glossy and, 


GAZELLE 


rapid flight. 


in color, is a soft yellowish-brown upon 


the head and back, but pure white un- 
derneath and inside the legs. The mild, 


GEIKIE 


black eyes are very beautiful and are to 
the Orientals the basis of many an ex- 
travagant simile. Both sexes bear horns, 
which extend back in a graceful curve; 
the bones are small and slender and the 


hoof is especially shapely. The flesh of 


the gazelle is enjoyed by Eastern peo- 
ples, but the wild gazelle is difficult to 
secure, since in speed it outranks the 
greyhound and can be captured only by 
stratagem. Gazelles taken young are 
easily tamed and become playful and in- 
teresting pets. | 

Geary, Gary, John White (1819- 
1873), an American soldier and gov- 
ernor. He served in the Mexican War, 
becoming colonel and first commander of 
the City of Mexico. Afterward he ‘was 
first mayor of San Francisco and, in 
1856, territorial governor of Kansas, 
where he soon had order. He resigned, 
however, the following March, because 
of lack of Federal support. . During the 
Civil War he fought at Cedar Mountain, 
Chancellorsville, Gettysburg and Lookout 
Mountain, and:marched with Sherman to 
the sea. Later, he was military gov- 
ernor of Savannah, was brevetted major- 
general and was twice elected governor 
of Pennsylvania. 

Geck’o, a family of lizards, made up 
of nearly 300 species, the most of which 
are found in southwestern United States. 
The gecko has a flat head, thick body and 
short tail. Members of the family are 
particularly distinguished by the round 
suckers upon each toe, by means of 
which they are enabled to run over 
smooth walls and walk upon ceilings like 
the fly. They have a beaded, toadlike 
skin and, generally, no eyelids, though 
their eyes are protected by a thin film, 
like a tiny watch crystal. The gecko is 
the only lizard which can make any audi- 
ble! sound except a hiss, and its one cry 
consists of a clicking sound supposed to 
be imitated in its name. The largest 
specimens attain a length of 14 or 15 
inches, but all are harmless. 

Geikie, Gee’ ky, Sir Archibald (1835- 

), a British geologist, born in Edin- 
burgh, Scotland, and educated in the 


University of Edinburgh. In 1855 he be- 


1140 


a ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee 


Association for the 


GEISSLER TUBES 


came a member of the Geological Survey 


of Scotland and later its director-general. 
He served for 11 years as Murchison pro- 
fessor of geology and mineralogy in 
Edinburgh University, and then was 
made director of the Museum of Practi- 
cal Geology in London. Later he was 
chosen president of the Geological So- 
ciety of London, and also of the British 
Advancement of 
Science. He visited the United States in 
1897 and lectured at Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity. Geikie is one of the best au- 
thorities on geology, mineralogy and 
physiography, and has written extensive- 
ly on these and kindred subjects. He 
has been honored by various universities 
and societies. Among his books are The 
Story of a Boulder, Text-Book of Ge- 
ology, Field Geology, Class-Book of Ge- 
ology, The Ancient Volcanoes of Britain 
and several biographies. 

Geissler Tubes, so called from the 
name of a well-known maker, are tubes 
of glass especially designed for showing 
the phenomena of electric discharge 
through rarefied gases. They are usually 
provided with aluminum electrodes, at- 
tached to platinum wires sealed into the 
glass and terminating outside. They are 
usually made large near the electrodes 
and narrowed to about a millimeter in 
diameter between, and are filled with air 


or other gas at a pressure of about one 


‘a considerable time, 


millimeter of mercury. 
charge from an electric machine or an 
induction coil is sent through them, they 
exhibit very beautiful illumination, which 
often appears stratified, especially in the 
narrow part of the tube where it is the 
most brilliant. The color of the light 
depends upon the gas used: air shows 
reddish-violet; carbon dioxide, a pale 
white; and hydrogen, a blue. 

Gelatin, Jel’ a tin, a yellowish, hard, 
transparent material obtained chiefly 
from animal tissues, especially bones. It 
is an animal glutin produced when bones 
are treated with dilute muriatic acid, 
which dissolves the phosphates and car- 


_bonates and leaves behind the bone carti- 


When this is boiled in water for 
it dissolves and 


lage. 


When a dis- . 


GEMS, ARTIFICIAL 


forms gelatin. In its crude condition 
gelatin is used as a glue. It is purified 
by dissolving in hot water and adding 
alcohol to the solution, which causes the 
impurities to settle to the bottom of the 
vessel. The purest and best gelatin is 
produced from the bladder of the stur- 
geon. A cheap article is obtained by 
boiling under pressure horns, hoofs and 
hides of animals. When pure, gelatin 
is a yellowish-white, transparent sub- 
stance without taste or smell, and is in- 
soluble in alcohol or ether but soluble in 
hot water. When heated dry in retorts, 
gelatin gives out a number of chemical 
substances. When put in cold water it 
becomes a transparent mass, and in this 
shape is used to make jellies. Gelatin is 
easily digested and absorbed and is there- 
fore used as a food for invalids, also as 
a basis for training diets, but as a builder 
of animal tissues it has no value what- 
ever. Gelatin is largely used in taking 
impressions and casts for making models 
of type. It is one of the ingredients of 
printing-press rollers, and is employed 
in dyeing and tanning, and as a size in 
paper making and painting. In medicine 
it is employed in making capsules and in 
coating pills. Gelatin-coated glass plates 
or films are used for dry- plate photogra- 
phy, and in making the films of moving- 
picture machines. See PHOTOGRAPHY; 
Harr Tone; Movina PIcTurgEs. 
Gemini, Jem’ i m, the third constel- 
lation of the zodiac, also one of the signs 
of the zodiac, but the constellation is not 
now in the sign. Gemini takes its name 
from two. bright stars, Castor and Pol- 


lux. The sun enters Gemini about May 
21 and leaves it-about June 21. The 
sign is I. 


Gems, Artificial, a general term ap- 
plied to imitations of precious stones. 
The art of making artificial gems was 
known to the ancients. Pliny and Seneca 
mention the making of artificial opals 
and emeralds, and it is known that the 
hyacinth, ruby, sapphire and topaz were 
made in the 12th century. The Egyp- 
tians made excellent imitations of pre- 
cious stones by coloring glass, while the 
Romans used rock crystal in imitating 


1141 


GEMSBOK 


gems. The medieval alchemists pro- 
duced some excellent artificial gems, like 
the ruby, sapphire and topaz, by chemi- 
cal means. Diamonds have been made 
artificially by Moissan, a Frenchman, by 
fusing carbon at a very high tempera- 
ture in an electric furnace and with mol- 
ten iron as a solvent, but the gems were 
too small and the cost too great to make 
their manufacture a commercial success. 
Rubies also have been made by fusing 
corundum with metallic oxides. 

A glass known as paste or strass, com- 
posed of powdered quartz, red lead and 
dry potassium carbonate, is commonly 
used in making artificial diamonds and 
other gems. This glass is remarkably 
clear and brilliant, and it is colored to 
imitate the various artificial stones in 
the same manner that ordinary glass is 
colored (See Grass). Imitation pearls 
are made by coating the inner surfaces 
of hollow glass beads with a paste made 
from the powdered scales of certain 
fishes. Colored varieties of quartz are 
often substituted for other gems; for 
instance, the yellow varieties, known as 
cairngorm and citrine, are sold as topaz, 
while the purple varieties are offered as 
the Oriental amethyst. By the applica- 
tion of heat to certain gems they are 
rendered colorless and their brilliancy is 
increased. In this way the topaz and 
sapphire are treated and sold as dia- 
monds. 

A doublet is composed of a thin plate 
of a genuine precious stone cemented to 
a cheap stone as a backing. Sometimes 
great brilliancy is obtained by combining 
colored stones in the form of a doublet. 
Many cheap imitations of diamonds are 
simply quartz set in a backing of tin foil, 
and sometimes the white Brazilian topaz 
and many colorless varieties of the 
sapphire and emerald are shown as dia- 
monds. Imitation and artificial gems are 
now so skillfully prepared as to deceive 
even dealers in them, and the best pro- 
tection is to purchase only from reliable 
firms who employ experts. 

Gemsbok, Gemz' bock”, the largest 
and most beautifully marked of the ga- 
zelles and, like all gazeiles; a member of 


1142 


GENESEE 


the Bovine Family. Its head bears two 
straight, slightly diverging horns from 
two to two and a half feet in length, 
These are its means of defense. The 
gemsbok is a heavy animal and keeps to 
the open plains of southern Africa, 
where it ranges in groups or families of 
five or six. In color the body of the 
gemsbok is reddish-gray, a color which 
continues to its knees and there changes 
suddenly to a clear cream-white. The 
gemsbok is variously called oryx, oryx 
gazelle and kookaam. In some localities 
the male chamois is called the gemsbok. 

General Education Board.» This 
board was established by John D. Rocke- 
feller, incorporated in 1902 and char- 
tered by act of Congress in 1903. To 
the original fund of $1,000,000, Mr. 
Rockefeller added $10,000,000 in 1905 
and $32,000,000 in 1907. The board is 
now carrying on three lines of work: 
(1) the promotion of practical farming 
by both whites and negroes in the South- 
ern States; (2) the development of a 
system of public high schools in the 
Southern States, which former Presi- 
dent Eliot of Harvard, after personal in- 
spection, declared “is the most valuable 
piece of constructive educational work 
now going on in the United States;” (3) 
the promotion of higher education 
throughout the United States. In pro- 
moting agriculture, disbursements are 
made through the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. In working for 
the establishment of high schools, the 
board furnishes the funds by which state 


universities may bring a knowledge of — 


the existing needs to the attention of the 
people. Prior to 1910, this had resulted 
in the establishment of more than 700 
high schools and an investment by the 
public of some $6,500,000. In aiding 
colleges and universities upwards of 
$6,000,000 was contributed before 1910, 
to supplement donations of $18,000,000 
from other sources. 

Gen’esee’, a river of eastern United 
States, rising in north-central Pennsyl- 
vania and flowing north through New 
York into Lake Ontario, 7.m. north of 
Rochester. Through 20 m. of its extent 


. 
| 
‘ 
4 


a 
2 
“4 


GENESIS 


it has cut a deep gorge in the sandstone 
rocks, and the cliffs in many places have 
a perpendicular height of 350 ft. Within 
the gorge the river has three cascades, 
one of which has a fall of 110 ft. The 
falls at Rochester furnish the city excel- 
lent water power. The Valley of the 
Genesee is one of the most fertile parts 
of New York. The river is about 140 
m. in length. by 

Genesis, Jen’ e sis, the first book of 
the Bible and of the Pentateuch- The 
name is derived from a Greek word sig- 
nifying to beget or to be born, and was 
applied by the’Greek translators. Gen- 
esis is thus aptly named, for it gives the 
origin of the material universe, of man, 
of sin and salvation, and, more particu- 
larly, the origin of the. Hebrew nation. 
The book consists of two great divisions: 
the first part gives the history of the cre- 
ation of the human race to the call of 
Abraham, including the fall of man, the 
flood and the dispersion of the human 
race; the second is the history of Abra- 
ham and of the other Hebrew fathers to 
the death of Joseph. 

Genet, Zhe neh’, Edmond Charles 
Edouard (1765-1834), a French diplo- 
mat, born in Versailles. He was attached 
to the French embassies at Berlin and 
Vienna before 1781, in which year he 
succeeded his father as chief of the bu- 
reau of correspondence in the depart- 
ment of foreign affairs. Later he was 
in service in St. Petersburg. During 
the Revolution, Genet allied himself with 
the Girondists, and, following a short 
commission in Holland, he was ap- 
pointed minister to the United States, ar- 
riving at Charleston, S. C., in April, 
1793. Immediately he set about secur- 
ing recruits for the conquest of Louisi- 
ana; but when he commissioned pri- 
vateers from American ports to aid 
France in her trouble with Great Britain, 
President Washington and Secretary of 


‘State Jefferson warned him to desist, for 


the United States had determined on neu- 
trality. Genet, however, continued to 
act so imprudently that, in 1794, Wash- 
ington demanded his recall. Fearing to 
return to France, Genet became a nat- 


GENEVA 


uralized citizen and settled in New York, 
where he married the daughter of Gov- 
ernor Clinton. 

Geneva, Je ne’ va, a city of Switzer- 
land, capital of the canton of the same 
name, situated at the southwestern ex- 
tremity of the country and of Lake Ge- 
neva. Beyond the city to the south ex- 
tend the valleys of the Arve and the 
Rhone; in the distance towers the snow- 
capped Mont Blanc.. The important 
buildings include the Cathedral of St. 
Pierre, the town hall, the Conservatory 
of Music, Victoria Hall, the university 
and several museums. The largest in- 
dustries are watchmaking and the manu- 
facture of jewelry. Fairs are held four 
times a year, at which Swiss, French and 
Italian merchants bargain over the sta- 
ples, consisting chiefly of cloth, wine, 
silk, timber and groceries. A popular 
entrance to Switzerland for tourists is 
by way of Geneva. Although the can- 
ton is the smallest in the Swiss Confed- 
eration, it has given to the world a sur- 
prisingly large number of famous men. 
Population in 1900, 104,796. 

Geneva, N. Y., a city of Ontario Co., 
52 m. s.e. of Rochester, at the north end 
of Seneca Lake, on the Seneca & Cayuga 
Canal and on the Lehigh Valley and the 
New York Central & Hudson River 
railroads. The city is attractively situ- 
ated and commands a beautiful view of 
the lake and adjacent country. There 
are good mineral springs, and the city is 
noted for its extensive nurseries and 
greenhouses. Geneva is the seat of the 
New York State Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station and of Hobart College 
(nonsectarian), founded in 1822 as 
Geneva Academy and renamed in 1860 
in honor of Bishop John Henry Hobart. 
The William Smith Women’s College 
was endowed in 1906 by William Smith 
of Geneva, who also maintains the Smith 
Observatory, which was built in 1888. 

Geneva has important manufactories 
of steam boilers, motors and motor 
boats, canned goods, cereals, stoves and 
ranges, cutlery, optical goods, wagons, 
wall paper and tin cans. The city aise 
contains a hygienic institute, city hos- 


1143 


Ne A 


GENEVA AWARD 


pital, a public library, good municipal 
buildings and numerous ‘churches. The 
water supply system is owned by the 
city. The first settlement was made in 
1787 near the site of Kanadesaga, an 
Indian village which was destroyed by 
Gen. James Clinton in 1779 during Gen- 
eral Sullivan’s expedition against the 
Indians. Geneva was granted a city 
charter in 1898. Population in 1920, U. 
S. Census, 14,648. 

Geneva Award. 
CLAIMS, 

Geneva, Lake of, or Lake Leman, 
the largest lake of Switzerland, lying in 
crescent form upon the southwestern 
border between Italy and the Province 
of Vaud. It is formed by the Rhone, 
which enters at the eastern extremity 
and flows out at the western, where the 
city of Geneva is located. The length 
along the axis is 45 m. and its area is 
225 sq. m.; its greatest depth is 1015 ft., 
but the average depth is 500 ft. Lying 
in the clear, cool atmosphere of the 
mountains 1150 ft. above sea level, the 
water is of beautiful blue color, and the 
scenery about its shores attracts numbers 
of tourists. 

Genghis Khan, Jen’ gig Kahn’ (1162- 
1227), a celebrated Mongol conquerer. 
He was the son of a Mongol chief who 
paid tribute to the ruler of East Tartary, 
and succeeded his father in the govern- 
ment when only 13 years of age. He 
soon showed notable qualities of leader- 
ship and after much warfare was pro- 
claimed khan of the united Mongol and 
Tartar tribes. Among his later exploits 
were the subjugation of China and the 
capture of Peking, that city being 
stormed and plundered in 1215. Subse- 
quently he invaded Turkestan, and be- 
fore his death his empire extended from 
the Pacific Ocean to the Dnieper River 
in Europe. At his death his empire was 
broken up, the largest division being the 
present China. 

Genii, Je'ni, according to ancient 
Roman belief, spirits who were protec- 
tive rulers of the lives of men and re- 
sponsible for them. The corresponding 
tutelary spirit of woman was called her 


See ALABAMA 


1144 


GENSERIC 


Juno. Offerings were made to genii on 
birthdays. 

Gennesaret, Jen nes’ a ret, Lake of. 
See GALILEE, SEA OF. 

Genoa, Jen’ o a, a seaport of northern 
Italy, capital of the province of the same 
name, situated on the coast of the Med- 
iterranean at the foot of the Ligurian 
Alps. It is fortified by a surrounding 
wall, and this confinement has made it a 
city of narrow, crowded streets and 
alleys. Stairways facilitate ascent of the 
hills, and bridges span the valleys. The 
streets and avenues of the newer quarters 
are broad and attractive; and there are 
several beautiful gardens and parks. 
The chief buildings are the Cathedral 
of San Lorenzo, the Church of San Am- 
brose and San Andrew, several palaces 
of the Genoese patricians, the university 
established in 1471, the large asylum for 
the poor, the Verdi Institute of Music, 
the municipal library and the Academy of 
Fine Arts. The trade of Genoa is facili- 
tated by an enlarged harbor and several 
tunnels, but the railway accommodations 
remain poor. The industries repre- 
sented are shipbuilding, cotton spinning 
and weaving, sugar refining, tanning, and 
the manufacture of cement, macaroni, 
and like products, crystallized fruits and 
filigree silverwork. It is thought that the 
Greeks occupied Genoa in the fourth cen- 
tury B. C. In 1815 it was incorporated 
with the Kingdom of Sardinia. Popula- 
tion, 300,000. ~ ! 

Genoa, Gulf of, a part of the Medi- 
terranean Sea. It lies near the city of 


Genoa and is partly surrounded by the — 


coast extending from Oneglia to Spezia. 

Genseric, Jen’ ser 1k, a King of the 
Vandals who flourished in the latter part — 
of the fourth and the early part of the 
fifth centuries A. D. After the death of 
his brother Gonderic, Genseric became 
sole ruler, and in the year 429, with an 
army of 50,000 men, crossed the Straits 
of Gibraltar to assist Boniface, Roman 
governor of Africa, in an expedition 
against the Moors. After assisting Boni- 
face, Genseric conquered him and set 
up an independent kingdom at Carthage 
in 439. In 455 he captured Rome, and 


> 
o re 


or South. 


GENTIAN 


his barbarians destroyed the city. Gen- 
seric died in 4/7 still in possession of all 
his conquests, the greatest Vandal of the 
Vandal kings. See VANDALS. 

Gentian, Jen’ shan, an autumn-bloom- 
ing plant of the Gentian Family. It 
grows chiefly in woods or damp places. 


The fringed gentian, which is the most’ 


beautiful species, is an annual herb, bear- 
ing narrow, opposite leaves on the almost 
square stems. The flower is a deep 
violet-blue in color and has a paler pur- 
ple tube, from which the four fringed 
lobes spread flatly. The other gentians 
are more intensely blue in color but less 
graceful in form. 

The downy gentian has not the flat- 
tened lobes, but instead has five sharply- 
pointed. divisions which open only a 
short distance. The bottle, or closed, 
gentian seldom opens at all, but is deeply 
fringed. This is sometimes found in 
white or white-lined variations. These 
gentians are found chiefly in dry hill- 
sides or pine barrens in the North, West 
The soapwort gentian is 
found in more marshy localities, prin- 
cipally in the North. The blue gentian 
is the state flower of Wyoming. 

Bryant’s To the Fringed Gentian and 
Emily Dickinson’s The Fringed Gentian 
aptly characterize the species named. 

Genus, Je’ nus. See Borany, subhead 
Classification. 

Geodesy, Je od’e sy, the study of 
measurements on the earth’s surface 
which are of such length that the earth 
must be considered as a sphere. The 
principles and formulas of spherical 
trigonometry are made use of, and the 
instruments employed are the same as 
those used in surveying. The measure- 
ments taken are used in making maps of 
continents or other large areas. : 

- When Newton announced the law of 
gravitation and advanced the consequent 
theory that the earth is flattened at the 
poles, geodetic surveys were sent out to 


take measurements of an arc near the 


equator and of one in polar regions. The 
result was not only vindication of New- 
ton’s theory, but also the beginning of 
modern geodesy. Practical geodesy is 


GEOGRAPHY 


at present engaged in the measurement 
of geodetic arcs necessary in the prep- 
aration of survey maps. Two of these 
arcs have been completely measured and 
a third practically so in the United 
States, by the United States Coast and 
Geodetic Survey. © 

Geoffrey, Jef ry, of Monmouth 
(about 1100-about 1154), a Welsh his- 
torian, born at Monmouth, Wales. In 
1152 he was consecrated Bishop of St. 
Asaph. He is remembered chiefly as 
author of a famous work in Latin, en- 
titled History of the Kings of Britain, 
first circulated about 1139. The author 
relates the history of the kings of Brit- 
ain from Brutus, great-grandson of 
Agéneas, down to Cadwallader. Among 
the stories given is that of Lear, and 
the book is also one of the sources of — 
the legend of King Arthur. See ARTHUR, 
KING. j 

Geographic Societies, scientific soci- 
eties interested especially in advancing 
the knowledge of geography and in per- 
fecting that science. The leading geo- 
graphic societies in the United States are 
the American Geographical Society with 
headquarters in New York, which pub- 
lishes the Bulletin; the National Geo- 
graphical Society of Washington, D. C., 
which publishes the National Geographic 
Magazine; the Geographic Society of 
Chicago and those of Baltimore and 
Philadelphia. The Royal Geographical 
Society of London is the leading organ- 
ization among societies of this. class. 

Geog’raphy, the description of the 
earth, or the science which treats of the 
earth as the home of man. Until com- 
paratively recent times geography was 
confined to a mere description of the 
earth’s surface, but it has now been de- 
veloped into a science based upon prin- 
ciples and laws of its own. Geography 
now includes within its scope the dis- 
tribution of all phenomena upon the 
earth’s surface and the interaction be- 
tween life and its environment, placing 
special emphasis upon the influence of 
environment on man. Geography draws 
upon geology for a knowledge of the 
earth’s structure and the history of its 


40 1145 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


formation; upon botany for a knowledge 
of its vegetable life; upon zoology for 
a knowledge of animal life; and upon 
ethnology for a knowledge of the human 
race. Geography lies at the foundation 
of history, since all movements in hu- 
man progress have been due primarily 
to geographic conditions. For conveni- 
ence of study, geography is usually di- 
vided into four departments or divisions: 
(1) mathematical geography; (2) phys- 
ical geography; (3) political geography ; 
(4) commercial or economic geography. 

MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. Mathe- 
matical geography treats of the form, size 
and motion of the earth, latitude, longi- 
tude and the change of seasons. It is 
sometimes called astronomical geogra- 
phy. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Physical geog- 
raphy treats of the surface of the earth, 
the atmosphere and conditions pertain- 


ing to animal and vegetable life. See 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
POLITICAL AGEOGRAPH Vee olitic al 


geography treats of man and his work 
and the political divisions. It is closely 
related to physical geography. 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. This divi- 
sion treats of industries and commerce, 
showing especially the conditions upon 
which the various industries depend and 
the causes for trade between nations. It 
is really a subdivision of political geog- 
raphy, but it has become so important 
that all recent authorities treat it as a sep- 
arate department. See EARTH; OCEAN; 
ATMOSPHERE; WIND; RAIN; CURRENTS, 
MARINE; SEASONS. 

Geological Survey of the United 
States, a bureau of the department of 
the interior. Its function is to prepare 
maps of public lands; to classify these 
lands ; to investigate the geological struc- 
ture and mineral resources of the coun- 
try; and to survey irrigable lands be- 
longing to the government. For some- 
time previous to 1879 this work was 
carried on, to a certain extent, by four 
independent surveys working under the 
general government. In that year these 
organizations were consolidated and 
made a part of the interior department. 


GEOLOGY 


The bureau is in charge of a director, 
who is required to submit an annual re- 
port of the plans and operations of the 
survey to the secretary of the interior. 
Pamphlets containing information as to 
the results of investigations are pub- 
lished from time to time, which tthe 
bureau distributes free of charge to all 
persons interested. Maps are also pub- 
lished and these can be obtained at small 
cost. 

Geology, Je ol’ a sy, the science which 
treats of the formation of the earth as 
revealed in the rocks. The history of 


the formation and development of the 


earth is written in the rocks constitut- 
ing its crust, and it is the work of the 
geologist to read and interpret this his- 
tory. The record is far from complete, 
and in this respect the geologist meets 
difficulties similar to those of. the his- 
torian in deciphering an ancient manu- 
script who finds here and there a page 
missing. Again, in order to interpret 
this rock-written history, the geologist 
must bring numerous other sciences to 
his aid, especially botany, physics, chem- 
istry, zoology and astronomy. With the 
aid of these he is able to compare the 
composition of the earth with that of 
other bodies in the solar system; to trace 
the evolution of plant and animal life 
through the succeeding geologic ages; 
and to determine the physical forces that 
have wrought the various geologic 
changes. In pursuit of their work, geol- 
ogists are guided by two fundamental 
principles: (1) the age of the earth is 
very great; (2) in the processes and 
forces in operation at present, we may 
look for illustrations of most of the 
changes of the past. | 

AGE OF THE EartH. Since the geo- 
logical records are found only in the 
rocks, geology cannot scientifically ac- 
count for the origin of the earth. What- 
ever is attempted toward the solution of 
this problem is speculative theory. But 
that the time which has elapsed from the 
formation of the oldest rock to the pres- 
ent is very long, there is abundant evi- 
dence. The foliowing illustrations show 
how geologists arrive at this conclusion. 


1146 


at 


BAN Ksfa D 


Beaufort Sea FP 


QUEEN 
Ae. (S.Q 


San Francisco | 
4 


JaMalca> HAE es 0 


Sr 


= —— 
aribbean Sea *, 


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GEOLOGY 


We see water wearing away the loose 
‘earth and carrying the particles down 
the streams to lakes and to the sea, 
where they form sediment on the bottom 
and gradually fill up the lake or make 
the gulf or bay more shallow. When 
first deposited, the sediment is soft mud; 
in the course of years it becomes harder, 
and possibly in a century or more it is 
changed to solid rock. There are ex- 
tensive formations of this sort of rock 
and in some cases they are 40,000 ft. in 
depth, and even if the process in the 
past was much more rapid than now, it 
must have taken 100,000,000 years to 
build these rocks. There are also ex- 
tensive formations of rock, consisting 
almost entirely of the fossils of minute 
animals, and when the slow growth of 
coral formations at the present time is 
considered, the conclusion is easily 
reached that the time required for form- 
ing these rocks is little, if any, less than 
that required for the other class. In 
tracing the evolution of plant and animal 
life from the oldest fossils, the same con- 
clusion is also reached; namely, that the 
age of the earth is very great, so great 
in fact that it cannot be accurately esti- 
mated. Geologists, therefore, have given 
widely different estimates, ranging from 
20,000,000 to over 100,000,000 years. 
GeroLocic Forces. The forces which 
have caused geologic changes and are 
still causing them are air and water (See 
EROSION) ; gravity, chemical action and 
life. Chemical change is constantly tak- 
ing ‘place; rocks are being disintegrated 
_ and changed into other substances. We 
have already referred to the work of 
minute animals in forming rock, and 
wherever the coral polyp is found, rock 
is being formed in a similar manner. 
Plants also decompose rock and extract 
from its elements most of their food; 
that these forces operated in the past 
much more rapidly than they do now in 
the same localities, is seen by the exten- 
sive deposits of coal in the cool tem- 
perate regions, like the United States, 
Nova Scotia and Alaska. The fossils in 
these localities also tell us that at this 
time they supported plants and animals 


GEOLOGY 


similar to species now found in the 
tropical waters. 

CLASSES OF Rocks. The rocks form- 
ing the earth’s crust are divided into 
three classes according to their forma- 
tion. These are: 

Sedimentary, or those formed by the 
action of water, as described above. 
Sandstone arranged in layers and strati- 
fied limestone are good illustrations. 

Igneous, or those formed by heat. 
The igneous rocks were once in a molten 
state and solidified. Most of them are 
crystalline. Quartz, granite and basal 
are good examples. | 

Metamorphic, or those rocks formed 
by water and having their appearance ~ 
and structure changed by heat. Marble 
and slate are the best illustrations of 
this class. 

ARRANGEMENT OF ForMaTIoNs. If 
the rocks had remained as they were 
formed, the oldest would be at the bot- 
tom and the most recent at the surface 
of the earth’s crust. Such, however, is 
not the case. Repeated foldings and 
breakings of the earth’s crust while cool- 
ing threw up high ridges, in some places 
forming mountains, and made deep de- 
pressions in others, forming valleys. In 
this way the layers of rock were folded 
and often broken, and in places molten 
matter was forced out and flowed over 
sedimentary rocks, thus forming igneous 
rock on top of them. In many places 
the older formations are on or near the 
surface, while those of more recent date 
are underneath. The relative ages of 
the strata are determined by their fossils ; 
hence the practical geologist has little 
difficulty in determining the system to 
which any formation belongs, let its posi- 
tion be what it will. 

CLASSIFICATION. . The different for- 
mations follow the same order in Europe 
and America, and so far as known in the 
other continents. The fossils in each 
formation indicate the most important 
forms of animal and vegetable life dur- 
ing that period, and geologists have di- 


vided the earth’s history into eras and . 


systems. While the European and Amer- 
ican classifications agree in the main, 


1147 


GEOLOGY 


they differ in minor particulars. The 
classification here given is that adopted 
by the United States Geological Survey. 
‘World-wide systems of strata cor- 
responding to periods of the same 
names, U. S. Geological Survey 
usage 1903. 
Quaternary 
Tertiary 

Cretaceous 
Mesozoic | Jurassic 

Triassic 

Carboniferous 

Devonian 
Paleozoic) Silurian 

Ordovician 

Cambrian 
Proterozoic: Algonkian 
Azoic: Archean 

Divisions OF GEoLocy. The various 
lines of geological research have caused 
the science to be divided into a number 
of branches, the most important of which 
are: 

Historical Geology, which gives an ac- 
count of the development of the science 
from its earliest conception. 

Geognosy, the division which includes 
the study of the substances of which 
the earth is made, as the rocky crust, 
the water and the atmosphere. 

Dynamic Geology, which treats chiefly 
of the forces which cause and have in 
the past caused geologic changes. 

Structural Geology, which investigates 
the structure of the earth’s crust and 
tries to account for the cattses which 
have placed the formations in their pres- 
ent position. 

Phystographic Geology. This is also 
called Surface Geology, and is concerned 
with changes now taking place in the 
surface. It is practically the same as 
physiography. 

Economic Geology. This treats of 
economic phases, such as the location of 
ore deposits and of marble, slate, sand- 
stone and other rock suitable for build- 
ing or other purposes. Consult Heilprin, 
The Earth and its Story; Shaler, Out- 
lines of the Earth’s History and Aspects 
of the Earth; Tarr, Economic Geography 
of the United States, See PHYSICAL 


Eras 


Cenozoic | 


1148 


GEOMETRY 
GEOGRAPHY; MINERALOGY; EARTH ; 
GEYSER; VOLCANO; GLACIAL PERIOD. 


Geometry, Je om’e try, the branch 


of mathematics which treats of extent 
as represented by solids, surfaces, lines 
and points and their relations to each 
other. It was called by the ancients a 
perfect science, since it is made up of 
statements of facts which are not only 
proved true in one instance but are true 
for all time. The laws of physics may 
be changed by the introduction of new 


forces and chemical experiments may — 


fail through temporary changes of con- 
dition, but the statements of geometry 
are always true. 

The name geometry is derived from 
two words meaning “to measure the 
earth” and the name indicates the possi- 
ble beginnings of the science. When the 
annual overflow of the Nile washed 
away the artificial boundaries of a man’s 
land and even changed the natural land- 
marks, a system of mensuration which 
included geometric computations of area 
were necessary to restore to each his own 
amount of land. The Pyramids, also, 
show that the Egyptians early knew the 
rudiments of geometry. The Egyptian 
communities included men profession- 
ally known as “rope-stretchers” who 
bore ropes divided by knots into three 
sections of six, eight and ten feet, re- 
spectively, or corresponding lengths. 
Their occupation consisted in the con- 
structing of right angles by making of 
the rope a triangle whose sides of six 
and eight feet respectively would include 
a right angle, since the sum of the 
squares of these sides equaled the square 
of the third side. 

The truth of this statement about the 
relation of the sides of a right triangle 
was not demonstrated, however, until the 
time of Pythagoras, whose name is still 
given to the theorem to which he gave 
the first proof. Plato, Aristotle, Archi- 
medes and Euclid, also of the schools of 
Greek philosophers, discussed geometri- 
cal questions and organized the science. 
Euclid divided the subject into 13 books 
and preceded each by preliminary axioms 
and definitions. LEuclid’s plan was to 


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GEOMETRY 


prove theorems only after the figure con- 
cerned was accurately constructed by 
means of the straight edge and the com- 
pass: the modern tendency is to assume 


that figures may be drawn or construc- 


tions made, and proofs are then sought 
for all assumptions that may be made. 
In many localities geometry is still 
spoken of as Euclid, though the name 
applies only. when the old theory is 
assumed. | 


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ROPE TRIANGLE 


All mathematicians, Gauss, Legendre, 
Descartes, Helmholtz, Klein and those of 
distinctly modern times, have given 
great attention to geometry, but owing 
to the nature of the subject greater 
change has come about in the method of 
teaching than in the subject matter. 

Geometry is divided into several de- 
partments: plane geometry, which deals 
with lines and angles lying in the same 
plane; solid geometry, which treats of 


GEORGE I 


constructions of three dimensions; 
higher geometry, which treats of conic 
sections, curved lines and bodies gen- 
erated by means of curved lines; and 
analytic geometry, which makes use of 
the coordinates and the principles de- 
rived therefrom. 

George, the name of several kings 
of Great Britain and Ireland, belonging 
to the House of Hanover. George l 
succeeded to the throne in accordance 
with the Act of Settlement of 1701, and 
was succeeded by his son, George II. 
Both of these kings were German and 
cared more for Continental affairs than 
for the interests of England. It was 
due to their indifference that cabinet 
government originated and gained so 
much power in the country. 

GeorcE IIT (1738-1820), the grandson 
of George II, was born in London and 
received an English education. He be- 
came king in 1760 and the next year 
married Charlotte Sophia of Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz. George III was deter- 
mined to recover the royal power lost 
by the indifference of the two former 
kings. The chief events of his reign 
were: the war by which the American 
colonies gained their independence; the 
formation of the Triple Alliance under 
the ministry of William Pitt and includ- 
ing Great Britain, Prussia and Holland; 
the war between England and France; 
the union of Ireland with England; the 
long war with France, ending with the 
Battle of Waterloo; and the beginning 
of colonization in Australia. During his 
last years George III was hopelessly 
insane. 

GeorcE IV (1762-1830), the eldest son 
of George III. He became prince regent 
in 1811, and king in 1820. England was 
prosperous during his reign and held a 
high place in European politics. In 1829, 
on the strong representations of the Duke 
of Wellington, the King withdrew his 
opposition to Catholic Emancipation. 

George I (1845-1913), the second son 
of Christian IX of Denmark, and King 
of Greece from 1863 to 1913. He was 
elected king by the National Greek As- 
sembly after the deposition of Otho, and 


1149 


a" 


GEORGE V 


began to reign on Oct. 31, 1863. Under 
his democratic rule Greece advanced rap- 
idly. The King took an active interest 
in the development of the army, which 
he brought to a high degree of efficiency. 
Greece bore a prominent part in the 
Balkan War which broke out in 1912, 
and after the capture of Saloniki, 
Turkey, King George made that city his 
place of residence. Here, on March 18, 
1913, he was assassinated by an anar- 
chist. He was succeeded by his son, 
Constantine I, the commander of the 
Greek forces in the Balkan War. The 
Queen Dowager, Olga, is the niece of 
the former Czar of Russia, Alexan- 
der II. 

George V (1865- ), King of Eng- 
land from 1910. He was the second son 
of King Edward VII and, with his elder 
brother, began his education under a 
tutor in Sandringham. Later he became 
a naval cadet and spent several years 
cruising, advancing through the posts of 
sublieutenant and lieutenant to the final 
position of commander of H. M. S. 
Thrush. Upon the death of his brother, 
the heir apparent, he left the navy to 
devote himself to the preparation of his 
later duties. In 1893 he married Princess 
Victoria Mary, daughter of Francis, 
Duke of Teck. When his father as- 
cended the throne, he became Duke of 
Cornwall, and soon afterward, with 
Princess Mary, he made a tour of the 
colonies, stopping in Australia to open 
the first Parliament of the new Com- 
monwealth of Australia. Though a stu- 
dent and fond of a quiet life, King 
George has shown himself a practical 
and progressive ruler, interested espe- 
cially in the organization and develop- 
ment of Britain’s colonial possessions. 
Edward Albert, the eldest son and heir 
apparent to the throne, was born June 
23, 1894, 

George, Henry (1839-1897), political 
economist, born in Philadelphia, Pa. A 
seafaring life was planned for him, but 
when he arrived at California, instead of 
going to sea he found employment as a 
printer, and later became interested in 
social and political subjects, and was 


GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC 


one of the founders of the Post of San 
Francisco. In 1876 he was made state 
inspector of gas; and three years later 
he published his book, Progress and 
Poverty. He moved to New York in 
1880. In 1881 he visited Europe, and 
subsequently made several other visits 
both to the British Isles and to the Con- 
tinent. In 1886 he was nominated for 
mayor of New York by the Union Labor 
Party, but failed of election. He estab- 
lished the Weekly Standard, of which he 
continued to be the editor until 1890. 
Mr. George also lectured extensively on 
political economy. He was one of the 
chief promulgators of the single-tax the- 
ory, and also the author of several books 
on political economy. Among them may 
be mentioned the Land Question, Social 
Problems and Protection or Free Trade. 
See Tax, subhead Single Tax. 

George Eliot. See ELiot, GEORGE. 

George Junior Republic, an indus- 
trial institution near Freeville, N. Y. It 
is a republic in miniature, with boys and 
girls as citizens, and in its organization 
it resembles the United States Govern- 
ment, with executive control vested in 
three departments, the legislative, the 
judicial and the executive. It was 
founded July 10, 1895, by William Reu- 
ben George of New York City. For 
four years he had been in charge of the 
children’s summer outings arranged by 
the New York Tribune, and during this 
time he had become interested in meth- 
ods of conducting charities which would 
do away with the danger of pauperiza- 
tion and indiscriminate giving. 

He experimented for some time with 
trial communities, and a permanent 
colony was finally established. The aim 
of the George Junior Republic is clearly 
indicated by its motto, “Nothing with- 
out labor,” which has become the guid- 
ing principle of all the members of the 
community. About 225 children are in 
attendance. They are dependents or de- 
linquents, many of them, and are gath- 
ered chiefly from the poorer districts of 
the large cities throughout the country. 
The entrance age varies from 12 to 18 
years, and already at this early age many 


1150 


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THE METROPOLIS OF THE WORLD 


Population one and one-half times that of Greater New York. 


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REGENT STREET, LONDON 


Here are located some of the most fashionable shops. 


GEORGE, SAINT 


have manifested marked criminal tend- 
encies. The method of dealing with 
these children is one of reform through 
labor. Opportunities for choosing an 
occupation are provided and diligent ap- 
plication to his chosen task is required 
of each child. Carpentry, plumbing, 
printing, farm work, blacksmithing, do- 
mestic service, sewing, cooking and laun- 
dry work represent the chief activities. 
Attendance in school is compulsory for 
children under 16 years, and a high 
school course prepares those who desire 
entrance to college. 

The citizens reside in cottages. Other 
buildings in the community are a school- 
house, a library, a store, a bank, work- 
shops, restaurants and hotels. The aver- 
age age of the children in residence is 
about 17. Mr. George acted as presi- 
dent during the first year, but in 1896 
this privilege was transferred to the 
citizens. The right of suffrage is 
granted to all, but children under 15 
years of age are placed in the charge of 
an older resident. By this method of 
self-government, each child is taught the 
principles which govern a self-controlled 
and moral life. 

Since the establishment of this com- 
munity, several other organizations with 
similar aim and scope have been formed. 
The Carter Junior Republic at Reading- 
ton, Pa., and the National Junior Re- 
public near Annapolis Junction, Md., are 
models of the George Junior Republic. 
In 1908 the National Association of 
Junior Republics was formed. The pres- 
ident was Mr. George, and the purpose 
of the association was the supervision of 


the establishment in each state of the. 


Union of at least one republic modeled 
on the government of the state in which 
it is found. Republics are now in exist- 
ence at several places. 

George, David Lloyd. 
Grorce Davip. 

George, Saint, the patron saint of 
England, Genoa and Russia. His life is 
so obscured by legend that it is diffi- 
cult, if not impossible, to be sure even of 
his identity. But the probabilities seem 
tao be that he was born of Christian par- 


See Ltoyp, 


GEORGIA 


ents of Cappadocia, and became a soldier 
and the patron saint of soldiers. He is 
also the patron saint of chivalry. It is 
related that he once slew a dragon who 
was about to capture and devour a royal 
lady of charming beauty. St. George’s 
Day in England was fixed, in 1222, as 
the 23rd of April, to be observed as a 
national holiday. In 1350 he was made 
patron of the Order of the Garter by Ed- 
ward III. The red cross of St. George 
is on the white background of the Union 
Jack of England. 

George Washington University, at 
Washington, D. C. (1821). Chartered. by 
Congress as Columbian College, and in 
1874 as Columbian University, the insti- 
tution has borne its’ present name since 
1904. It is nonsectarian and coeduca- 
tional. Its library of about 55,000 vol- 
umes is supplemented by some 34 govern- 
mental libraries of the city, which con- 
tain more than 2,000,000 bound volumes. 


Students also have access to the numer- 


ous, extensive and valuable collections in’ 
the museums of the city,and enjoycertain 
advantages obtainable only at the capital 
of the nation. The university offers 
courses for undergraduates in College of 
Engineering, in Columbian College and in 
the Teachers College; it also maintains 
graduate courses and departments of 
law, medicine and pharmacy. The en- 
rollment includes some 1,800 women and 
about 2,600 men. In addition to its regu- 
lar days course there are many evening 
classes. 

Georgia, THe Empire STATE OF THE 
SoutH, one’ of ithe . South’ “Atlante 
States, is bounded on the n. by Tennes- 
see and N. Carolina, on the n.e. by S. 
Carolina, on the e. by S. Carolina and the 
Atlantic, on the s. by Florida and on the 
w. by Alabama. The Chattahoochee River 
forms about one-half of the western 
boundary. ) 

SizE. The length of the state from 
north to south is 320 m.. The breadth is 
254 m. and the area is 59,265 sq. m., of 
which 540 sq. m. are water. Georgia is 
the largest of the South Atlantic States, 
a little larger than Florida, about the 
size of Illinois and Delaware combined 


oS} 


GEORGIA 


and a little larger than England and 
Wales, and the 20th state in area. 

PoputATIon. In 1920 the population 
was 2,895,832. From 1910 to 1920 there 
Was a gain in population of 286,/11, or 
11.0 per cent. There are 49.3 inhabi- 
tants to the square mile and the state’s 
rank in population is 12. 

SurFACE. Extending inland from the 
southern coast is a great plain known as 


South Georgia and having an area of 


about 35,000 sq. m. This plain extends 
northward to the Fall Line, which passes 
through Augusta, Milledgeville and 
Macon, reaching the western boundary 
at Columbus. Along the coast and about 
20 m. inland the elevation does not ex- 
ceed 10 ft., but as we go westward and 
northward the surface rises until at the 
Fall Line it has an altitude ranging from 
500 to 600 ft. In the southeastern cor- 
ner of the state is the Okefenokee 
Swamp, part of which is. in Florida. 

That portion north of the Fall Line is 
known as Middle and North Georgia. 
It is divided into four surface regions, 
each having distinct characteristics. The 
first of these is the Piedmont Plateau, 
which extends from the Fall Line to the 
Blue Ridge Mountains. This region is 
characterized by low hills separated by 
valleys formed by erosion. The next di- 
vision is the Blue Ridge Mountain re- 
gion. This range of mountains crosses 
the state from northeast to southwest 
and forms one of its most striking phys- 
ical features, though the mountains are 
not so high here as in Virginia and 
North Carolina. Beyond the Blue Ridge 
is the Appalachian and Great Valley re- 
gion, characterized by parallel ranges of 
low mountains separated by deep valleys. 
In the extreme northwest is a part of the 
Cumberland Plateau containing Lookout 
and Sand mountains, the former lying 
partly in Tennessee. 

Rivers, Georgia is divided into three 
drainage areas. The eastern part of the 
state is drained into the Atlantic Ocean. 
The principal rivers from north to south 
are the Savannah, which forms the 
boundary between Georgia and South 
Carolina; the Altamaha, formed by the 


GEORGIA 


Oconee and the Ocmulgee and having . 
the Ohoopee for its tributary ; and the 
Satilla, which is in the southern part 
of the state. The Chattahoochee, south- 
east of the Blue Ridge and parallel tc 
the mountain range, drains the north- 
central part of the state into the Gulf of 
Mexico. Its chief tributary, the Ftint, 
drains the central part. The southern 


‘part-of the state is drained by the Allap- 


aha and the Ocklockonee. A small sec- 
tion of the northwest is drained into the 
Tennessee, and the Great Valley is 
drained by the Coosa, which flows into 
the Alabama. 

ScENERY. Northern Garand presents 
a beautiful landscape in which moun- 
tains, hills and valleys alternate in the 
most pleasing manner. The valleys are 
highly fertile and contain valuable farms. 
The mountains are clothed with forests 
and the streams are clear and rapid. In 
the northwestern part of the state are a 
number of caves, some of which are 
more than locally interesting. Saltpeter 
Cave near Kingston has large chambers, 
some of them 30 ft. high. Chickamau- 
ga National Park is surrounded by hills 
and mountains and is of interest because 
of its beauty as well as its historical as- 
sociations. Tallulah Falls in the north- 
east are of unusual beauty and pictur- 
esqueness, giving to this region the title, 
“Switzerland of the South.” 

CrimMATE. In the northern part of the 
state the summers are cool and delight- 
ful and the winters mild, making this 
region an attractive resort both in sum- 
mer and in winter. In midwinter there 
is considerable snow on the mountains, 
but in the valleys it soon disappears. 
The central part of the state has a some- 
what warmer climate than the northwest. 
In the lowlands of southern Georgia the 
summers are exceedingly hot and in win- 
ter snow is practically unknown. The 
rainfall varies, being heaviest in the 
north. Its average for the entire state 
is about 49 inches. 

MINERALS AND Mininc. A remark- 
able bed of clay several miles wide ex- 
tends across the state from Augusta to — 
Columbus. This clay is free from im- 


1152 


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GEORGIA 


purities and is suitable for making brick 
and tile. Below the Fall Line are found 
extensive beds of clay suitable for glazed 
brick, pottery and terra cotta. Marble 
of excellent quality occurs in large quan- 
tities in Gilmer, Pickens and Cherokee 
counties. The famous “verde antique” 


can be duplicated from these quarries. ° 


The largest quarries are in Pickens 
County. Georgia is the second marble- 
producing state in the Union and con- 
tains more asbestos than any other state, 
while granite, gneiss, limestone, and 
bauxite (aluminum ore) are found in 
large quantities. Manganese, corun- 
dum, coal and iron are also important. 
Gold is found in a number of localities, 
but is not relatively important. Slate, 
soapstone, graphite, lead and copper also 
occur. When the demand for these ntin- 
erals warrants they will all be exploited. 

Forests AND LuMBER. Georgia has 

over 17,000 sq. m. of pine forests, be- 
sides large forests of cypress, live oak, 
poplar, ash, beech, chestnut, maple and 
other woods. Pine, cypress and palmetto 
occur in the lowlands of the Coastal 
Plain, but most of the other forests are 
im the mountainous sections. Lumbering 
is one of the leading industries and there 
is about $12,000,000 invested in it. 
Georgia is the foremost lumber-produc- 
ing state in the South. It is also the 
leading state in the production of tar, 
turpentine and rosin. 
_ AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the chief 
industry and in central Georgia fully 
three-fourths of the land is under cul- 
tivation. There are many small farms, 
especially in the northern part, but in the 
middle and southern parts many of the 
large plantations are held together. In 
the cotton regions, the farms are mostly 
worked by negro tenants. A great vari- 
ety of crops is produced. 

Soil. The northern part of the state 
has a dark red soil which is very fertile. 
The soil in the lowlands is deep and also 
fertile. Much of that in the central part 
of the state is a yellow loam. 

Products. Cotton and corn are the 
chief crops of the central and of the 
southern part of the state. Cotton is the 


GEORGIA 


leading crop and averages about 2,000,- 
000 bales, making Georgia the second 
cotton-producing state. On the islands 
and along the coast the long-fiber, or sea- 
island, cotton is raised. Rice is grown on 
the lowlands, and in the southern part 
of the state sugar cane of excellent qual- 
ity is produced. Farther inland apples, 
peaches, pears, cherries and other kinds 
of small fruits are raised. Large quan- 
tities of wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, 
clover and timothy are also produced in 
the central and northern sections. In 
some sections market gardening is 
profitable. Excellent pasturage is found 
in the mountainous regions and here live 
stock is an important source of income. 

MANUFACTURES. Georgia is the lead- 
ing manufacturing state of the South, 
both in variety and extent of her manu- 
factures. Since 1890 manufacturing in- 
dustries have increased very rapidly. 
The production of cotton goods leads all 
other industries. The rapid development 
and success of this industry have been 
almost phenomenal. The manufacture of 
hosiery and other knit goods is also im- 
portant, and woolen goods are produced 
to considerable extent. The manufac- 
ture of lumber and lumber products, tar, 
turpentine and rosin, furniture, cars, car- 
riages, brick, tile and pottery, chemicals 
and paint, butter and cheese and the 
canning of fruits and vegetables are 
other important industries, from each of 
which a good revenue is derived. 

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. 
Georgia has over 6000 m. of railway. 
The leading systems are the Atlantic 
Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the 
Southern, the Central of Georgia and the 
Georgia railroads. There are also a 
number of other lines so that all sections 
of the state have good railway facilities. 
Numerous electric lines are found con- 
necting cities and their suburban towns. 
The chief railway centers are Atlanta, 
Savannah, Augusta, Macon and Colum- 
bus. 

Georgia has an extensive trade with 
other states and some trade direct with 
foreign countries. The exports consist 
of fruits and other agricultural produce, | 


1153 


GEORGIA 


lumber and lumber products, tar, turpen- 
tine and rosin, cotton and woolen goods 
and other manufactures. The imports 
include raw material for manufactures, 
manufactured goods and such _ food- 
stuffs as are not raised with ge: within 
the state. 

GOVERNMENT, The Pee constitu- 
tion was adopted in 1877; the rights of 
the people are carefully safeguarded and 
the Legislature is prevented from mak- 
ing extravagant appropriations. The ex- 
ecutive department consists: of the gov- 
ernor, attorney-general, comptroller-gen- 
eral, treasurer, state superintendent of 
schools, commissioner of agriculture, 
state geologist and state librarian. The 
chief boards are those of railway com- 
missioners, prison commissioners and ed- 
ucation. All these officers are elected 
for two years. 

The Legislature consists of the Senate 
and the House of Representatives. The 
senators are apportioned among districts 
and the representatives among counties 
according to population. Members of 
each house are chosen for two years. 
The sessions are annual and limited to 
50. days. 

The judicial department comprises a 
Supreme Court consisting of one chief 
justice and five associate justices elected 
by the people for six years, a Court of 
Appeals of three justices elected for six 
years, and a Superior Court in each judi- 
cial district. The judges of the Supe- 
rior Court are elected by the people for 
four years. 

EpucaTion. The state maintains a 
complete system of public schools which 
is constantly increasing in efficiency. 
The schools are in charge of the state 
superintendent of schools and state board 
of education. The school fund is derived 
from both state and local taxation. In 
the cities and towns graded schools with 
high schools are maintained for white 
and for colored children. The Univer- 
sity of Georgia at Athens is at the head of 
the educational system and maintains 
an official relation with the following 
state institutions: North Georgia Agri- 
cultural College at Dahlonega; Georgia 


GEORGIA 


School of Technology at Atlanta; Geor- 
gia Medical College at Augusta; Geor- 
gia Normal and Industrial College for 
Colored Youth at Savannah; Georgia 
Normal School (for both sexes) at Ath- 
ens; Georgia Normal and Industrial Col- 
lege (for girls) at Milledgeville; South 


‘Georgia Normal School at Valdosta. 


Also 12 district agricultural high schools. 

The higher denominational institutions 
of the state are Emory University at 
Atlanta; Mercer University at Macon; 
Oglethorpe University at Atlanta; and 
the following colleges for women: Ag- 
nes Scott College at Decatur ; Lucy Cobb 
Institute at Athens; Wesleyan Female 
College at Macon; Cox College at Col- 
lege Park; Brenau College at Gaines- 
ville ; Bessie Tift College at Forsyth; 
Sotithern Female College. at La Grange; 
Andrew Female College at Cuthbert ; 
and Shorter College at Rome. 

STATE INSTITUTIONS. ‘The state san- 
atorium for the insane is at Milledge- 
ville, the Georgia Institute for the Deaf 
and Dumb is at Cave Spring and the 
Academy for the Blind at Macon. There 
are also a number of orphan homes, re- 
formatories and industrial institutions 
under private control. 

Cities. The chief cities are Atlanta, 
the capital; Savannah, Augusta, Macon, 
Columbus, Athens and Brunswick. 

History. Georgia was named for 
King George II. The territory, wan- 
dered over by De Soto and by Ribaut, 
belonged originally to Carolina, as 
granted by Charles II. When Carolina 
became a royal province, this strip was 
reserved as crown propeity. 

James Oglethorpe, aiming to establish 
a colony for honest debtors and bank- 
rupts, came from England with 35 fami- 
lies, and founded Savannah in 1733. 
The colony slowly prospered under a 
most liberal government, and in the war 
of 1739 the refugees were able hero- 
ically, though vainly, to oppose the Span- 
ish. When, however, Oglethorpe re- 
turned to England i in 1743, the colony de- 
clined under trustee rule. It was mainly 
settled by emigration from Virginia and 
N. Carolina, during the years immedi- 


1154 


GEORGIA 


ately following the Revolution in 1752 
‘and it became a royal province contin- 
uing till the Revolution. In 1763 the 
boundaries were extended to include 
Mississippi. The British in 1778 con- 
quered Georgia, over which they rein- 
stated a royal governor. In July, the 
same year, the state had signed the Ar- 
ticles of Confederation. It accepted the 
Constitution in January, 1780. About 
1825 a heated controversy took place be- 
tween the United States and Georgia re- 
garding the Creek Indians in the state. 
It was finally settled by removing the 
Creeks to Indian Territory. ; 
Despite the strenuous opposition of 
Alexander H. Stephens and others, Geor- 
gia withdrew from the Union, Jan. 18, 
1861. The state suffered severely during 
the Civil War and reconstruction was 
slow. It reentered the Union in July, 
1870. Recent development of Georgia’s 
resources is making her one of the most 
prosperous states in the Union. 
GoverNors. John A. Treutlen, 1777- 
1778; John Houston, 1778-1779; John 
Wereat, 1779; George Walton, 1779- 
1780; Richard Hawley, 1780; Stephen 
Heard, 1780-1781 ; Myrick Davies, 1781; 
Nathan Brownson, 1781-1782; John 
Martin, 1782-1783; Lyman Hall, 1783- 
1785; Samuel Elbert, 1785-1786; Ed- 


ward Telfair, 1786-1787; George Mat-° 


thews, 1787-1788; George Handley, 
1788-1789; George Walton, 1789-1790; 
Edward Telfair, 1790-1793; George 
Matthews, 1793-1796; Jared Irwin, 
1796-1798; James Jackson, 1798-1801; 
David Emanuel, 1801; Josiah Tattnall, 
1801-1802; John Milledge, 1802-1806; 
Jared Irwin, 1806-1809; David BB. 
Mitchell, 1809-1813; Peter Early, 1813- 
1815; David B. Mitchell, 1815-1817; 
William Rabun, 1817-1819; Matthew 
Talbot, 1819; John Clarke, 1819-1823; 
George M. Troup, 1823-1827; John For- 
syth, 1827-1829; George R. Gilmer, 
1829-1831; Wilson Lumpkin, 1831-1835; 
William Schley, 1835-1837; George Gil- 
mer, 1837-1839; Charles .J. McDonald, 
1839-1843 ; George W. Crawford, 1843- 
1847; George W. B. Towns, 1847-1851; 
Howell Cobb, 1851-1853; Herschell V. 


GEORGIAN BAY 


Johnson, 1853-1856; Joseph E. Brown, | 
1857-1865; James Johnson, 1865; 
Charles J. Jenkins, 1865-1868; Thomas 
H. Ruger, 1868; Rufus B. Bullock, 1868- 
18/1; Benjamin Conley, 1871-1872; 
James M. Smith, 1872-1876; Alfred H. 
Colquitt, 1876-1882; Alexander H. Ste- 
phens, 1882-1883; James S. Boynton, 
1883; Henry D. McDaniel, 1883-1886 ; 
John B. Gordon, 1886-1890; W. J. 
Northen, 1890-1894; W. Y. Atkinson, 
1894-1898; A. D. Candler, 1898-1902; 
Joseph M. Terrell, 1902-1907; Hoke 
Smith, 1907-1909; Joseph M. Brown, — 
1909-1911; Hoke Smith, 1911; Joseph 
M. Brown, 1911-1913; J. M. Slaton, 
1913-1915: Nat E. Harris, 1915-1917; 
H. M. Dorsey, 1917-1921; T. W. Hard- 
wick, 1921—. 

Georgia, Strait of, the main section 
of that part of the North Pacific Ocean 
which separates Vancouver Island from 
the Continent of North America, com- 
municating indirectly with the ocean 
through Queen Charlotte Sound in the 
north and the Strait of Juan de Fuca in 
the south. It is about 250 m. long, aver- 
ages about 25 m. in width and has sound- 
ings to the depth of over i000 ft. It re- 
ceives the Fraser River and smaller 
streams. 

Georgia, University of, an institu- 
tion of collegiate grade located at Athens. 
It was chartered in 1785 and from this 
viewpoint is the oldest state university 
in the country. It did not, however, open 
its doors until 1800. It includes the 
Franklin College of Liberal Arts, Geor- 
gia State College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts, the law school and the 
graduate school, all located at Athens. 
There are also a number of colleges lo- 
cated in different parts of the state which 
are affiliated with the university. The 
university is at the head of the educa- 
tional system of the state, and by the 
terms of the charter the primary and sec- 
ondary schools are officially connected 


with it. The university proper is co- 
educational. The enrollment is about 
1,300. 


Georgian Bay, an extensive arm of 
Lake Hurov indenting the Province of 


1155 


GERANIUM 


Ontario. A long narrow peninsula par- 
tially separates it from Lake Huron at 
the south, and Great Manitoulin Island 
forms the northwestern boundary. The 
bay is 120 m. long and 50 m. broad; it 
has many beautiful islands and its shores 
are picturesque. Owen Sound and Col- 
lingwood are the chief ports. Georgian 
Bay was formerly known as Lake Man- 
itoulin. 

Geranium, Je ra’ ni um, a name given 
to a number of genera of the Geranium 
Family. The wild geranium, or cranes- 
bill, is a rough, roadside plant of dry 
woods or woody roadsides, and flowers 
in the spring and summer. The stem is 
straight and brittle, with leaves much- 
divided and sometimes marked with whit- 


* CRANESBILL GERANIUM 


ish spots. The flowers are of a pale 
magenta or pale blue color and are borne 
in pairs at the ends of long, branching 
stems. There are five petals, which are 
arranged to form a shallow cup. After 
the flower falls, the dry seed pod length- 
ens into a slender, pointed spike which 
gives the plant its common name, 
cranesbill. : 

The name geranium has also been gen- 
erally applied to a common house plant 
which is really the pelargonium, a plant 
of a closely-allied genus. These plants 
are all perennials and natives of the Cape 
of Good Hope. They are popular for 
cultivation because they thrive with little 


GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA 


care and have luxuriant, fragrant foliage 
and brilliant, varied flowers. The best- 
known cultivated pelargoniums are the 
so-called rose geranium, the ivy-leafed 
geranium and the Lady Washington 
geranium, 

German East Africa, a mandatory 
of Great Britatn in Africa, formerly a 
protectorate of Germany, lying between 
Congo State and the Indian Ocean and 
bounded on the n. and s. by British pos- 
sessions. Along the coast the country is 
flat, but beyond lie lofty mountain chains, 
traversing the country in irregular ridges 
and reaching their highest point in the 
extinct volcano, Kilimanjaro, at the 
north. Beyond the mountains is an ag- 
ricultural region drained by numerous 
rivers and dotted with lakes. The great 
lakes, Victoria Nyanza, Kivu, Tangan- 
yika and Nyassa, lie upon its boundaries 
or partly within them. Agriculture is 
the chief industry, and fruits, cocoanuts, 
areca nuts, millet, grains, castor oil, 
sugar cane, vegetables, tobacco, cotton, 
vanilla, India rubber, coffee and cocoa 
are produced. Ivory, gums and sesamun 
are exported, and in the mountains coal, 
iron and a little gold are mined. The 
German Government maintains schools 
and churches. Population, about 10,- 
032,000. 

German Language. See LANGUAGE, 
subhead Teutonic Languages. 

German Silver, a white alloy of cop- 
per, nickel and zinc. The proportions 
are generally one part zinc, one part 
nickel and two parts copper, and when 
the articles are to be cast or molded, two 
per cent of lead is added to make the 
mixture more fusible and ductile. Ger- 
man silver is harder and tougher than 
silver or brass, and takes a high polish. 
It is easily corroded by acids, and espe- 
cially by vinegar. It it sometimes plated 
with silver, and with alloys of nickel 
containing tin and cadmium and known 
under the names of silveroid, argentoid, 
nickeline. and navolin 
_ German Southwest Africa, a man- 
datory of the Union of South Africa, 


‘formerly a German colony, lying between 


the Portuguese territory and the South 


3156 


e 


eA ; 
— - 
oe a . 


te 


GERMANTOWN, BATTLE OF 


African Union and washed by the At- 
lantic Ocean. Walfish Bay, a British 
possession, lies at the center of its coast. 
The coast is low and many of the har- 
bors are sand-blocked. Farther inland 
are high plateaus advantageous for graz- 
ing land, and agriculture is the chief oc- 
cupation. Cattle, sheep, horses, mules, 
goats, swine and camels are raised. Cop- 
per and diamonds are mined and ex- 
ported. Angra Pequefia, the first Ger- 
man possession in Africa, is on the 
southern coast ; Windhoek, is the capital. 
The population is about 83,900. . 
' Germantown, Battle of, an important 
battle of the Revolutionary War, fought 
Oct. 4, 1777, in a village several miles 
northwest of Philadelphia. Here the main 
British force under Howe was stationed 
and detachments were sent to seize Ft. 
Mercer and Ft. Mifflin. Aiming to take 
advantage of this division in troops, 
Washington advanced upon German- 
town, at daybreak, in two converging 
columns. During the engagement a 
heavy fog arose and, in the confusion 
which followed, Americans under Ste- 
phen fired upon Americans under Wayne. 
The panic that ensued compelled the 
Americans to retire, but the British loss 
in killed and wounded was almost equal 
to that of their opponents. The inge- 
nuity. of Washington’s attack on Ger- 
mantown made a great impression on 
military cities in Europe and was one of 
the causes of the French alliance. 
Germany, a country of central Eu- 
rope, bounded on the north by the North 
Sea, Denmark and the Baltic Sea; on the 
east by Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, and 
Austria; on the south by Czecho-Slo- 
vakia, Austria, and Switzerland; on the 
west by France, Luxemburg, Belgium, 
and the Netherlands. The province of 
East Prussia occupies a’ peculiar position 
in regard to the rest of the Republic since 
it is almost surrounded by Poland and 
is separated from the main body of Ger- 
many by the free area of Danzig and the 
northward projecting arm of West Po- 
land. In area, present Germany com- 
prises very nearly 171,000 square miles; 
and contains an estimated population of 


GERMANY 


58,000,000. The line of greatest length 
extends from southwest to northeast, 
about 675 miles. 

Tue Country. The topography of 
Germany falls naturally into three main 
divisions: the highlands of the southern 
part, the secondary mountains or high- 
land area of the center, and the low- 
lands in the northern part. 

Highlands. The Alps do not extend 
far into Germany. Along the borders of 
Bavaria the elevation of the highest 
peaks reach into the region of perpet- 
ual snow. The Alpine foreland averages 
1600 ft. im height, and forms the Ger- 
man part of the Danube basin. The cen- 
tral highland region extends from the 
Carpathians to the Rhine and contains 
numerous ranges, such as the Riesenge- 
birge, Vosges, Harz and Erzgebirge. 
Schneekoppe in the Riesengebirge 
reaches 5266 ft., and is the highest ele- 
vation. The valleys are shallow, having 
been filled by the sediment which ice and 
constant denudation have removed from 
the mountains. The general character of 
the southern part of Germany is broken 
with ranges of forest clad hills and inter- 
vening fertile valleys. 

Lowlands. The northern plain of Ger- 
many is uniformly low, and merges grad- 
ually into the lowlands of Netherlands 
and the plain of Russia on each side. 
The slope of the country is to the north 
and northwest, and along the shores of 
the North Sea there is a low coastal 
plain. There are numerous sand dunes, 
but where they do not serve as sufficient 
protection against the approaching waters 
it has been found necessary to construct 
dikes, or sea walls, frequently referred to 
as the “golden hoop.” The good har- 
bors are few and the important ports in- 
clude Hamburg, Bremen, Libeck, Kiel 
and Stettin. 

Rivers AND LAKES. There are two 
river systems of Germany, the northern 
and the southern, for which the Central 
Highlands form the watershed. The 
Rhine is the only stream which crosses 
these highlands and binds together the 
two divisions. Its main course is through 
Germany, but it belongs also te Switzer- 


EESZ, 


GERMANY 


land, where it finds its source, and to 
Holland, a country formed by its delta. 
The Danube drains the waters of the 
southwestern part of Germany into the 
Black Sea. The Weser, the Elbe and the 
Ems flow into the North Sea; the Oder 
Vistula, Pregel and Memel fall into the 
Baltic. 

The lakes of the Alpine forelands re- 
veal distant traces of glacial origin and 
appear only in those parts which were 
covered by the immense ice sheet that 
' descended from the Alps at the time of 
_ the Great Ice Age. In the northern low- 
lands are shallow shore lakes; the Cen- 
tral Highlands have none of significance. 

CLIMATE. The chief climatic’ differ- 
ences of Germany are rather between 
the east and the west than between the 
north and the south, for the higher alti- 
tude of the south counteracts the differ- 
ences that would naturally arise as a re- 
sult of the variation in latitude. The cli- 
mate of western Germany resembles, in 
general, that of France, and is fairly mild 
in winter and temperate in summer. In 
the east it becomes continental, and is 
severe except near the coast, where it is 
tempered by the Baltic Sea. The heav- 
iest rainfall is in the mountainous re- 
gions. The maximum precipitation is 
about 28 inches. 

THE Peopie. The population of Ger- 
many possess ethnic unity,—they are all 
Germans. In the days of the empire, 
there was a Polish element in eastern 
Germany that persistently clung to its 
language. But that territory is now a 
part of New Poland. Ninety per cent of 
the Germans of Europe are citizens of 
Germany, Austria being the only other 
German nation. In Germany itself there 
are only slight dialectical differences be- 
tween the inhabitants of North and 
South Germany, in other words,—low 
and high German, and there are only 


slight physical differences—as between 


Bavarians and the Saxons,—survival of 
tribal variations in early times. 

Among the slightly different ethnic 
strands that unitedly compose the Ger- 
man people the most noticeable are the 
Saxons, the Bavarians, and the Prus- 


GERMANY 


sians. The common race or subrace from 
which all the people of Germany diverged 
was the Teuton,—the people that in very 
early times inhabited that part of Europe 
lying to the north of the Alps, west of 
the Oder to the Rhine, vaguely known 
by the Romans as Germania. The 
Saxons are almost pure Teutons. They 
occupy one of the most fertile regions — 
of Germany. The Bavarians are racially 
the most composite people of Germany, 
being descended from Slavs, earlier Cel- 
tic people, and Teutonic tribes that en- 
tered the country from the east and were 
known as Baivari. The Prussians are 
the most important element of the Ger- 
man population. Their original home was 
East Prussia and they were near kindred 
to the Lithuanians and the Letts. They 
derive their name from the Borussi, one 
of the three cognate tribes living in that 
section at the opening of our era. In 
the tenth century they were on the low- 
lands of the Oder, Vistula, and the Nie- 
man. In the process of time they became 
the most powerful group among the 
Germans. 

MINERAL AND Forest WEALTH. Hay- 
ing lost the rich iron fields of Alsace- 
Lorraine and control of the coal fields of 
the Saar Basin, in the western part of 
the Palatinate, the mineral production of 
the Republic will not be as noticeable as 
were those of the Empire. But there are 
still rich. deposits of coal in Westphalia, 
some in Upper Silesia, Saxony, and Ba- 
varia. Lignite is produced in many sec- 
tions and, made into bricketts, is a valu- 
able products. The known iron fields 
are not large. Three-fourths of all the 
iron formerly produced came from Al- 
sace, now a part of France. The silver 
mines, however, are among the richest én 
Europe, and are found chiefly in the 
highland sections of Prussia and Saxony. 
Other mineral deposits include rock salt, © 
potash salt, petroleum—in limited quan- 
tities —— manganese, sulphur,  alphalt, 
nickel, copper, bismuth, zinc and lead. 

One-fourth of Germany is covered 
with forests, as carefully attended to as 
any field crop, since forestry is a science. 
In the west the forests are composed of 


1158 


GERMANY 


leaf trees, of which the beech is the prin- 
cipal representative. Further east and in 
the more rugged sections the conifers,— 
pines and fir trees—abound. The Black 
Forest—an extensive region across the 
Rhine opposite Alsace, is so named be- 
cause it contains a wealth of evergreen 
trees. 

AGRICULTURE. Up to the time of the 
middle of the 19th century, Germany 
was pre-eminently an agricultural coun- 
try. About one-third of the population 
is now engaged in the pursuit of agricul- 
ture which is pursued scientifically. Im- 
proved methods of cultivation and in- 
creased use of machinery have advanced 
productivity. The river valleys of the 
south and west are most fertile. Large 
crops of cereals and potatoes are raised 
annually. The production of corn is lim- 
ited exclusively to the south. Wheat, 
oats, rye and barley grow in all parts of 
the country. Other products are flax, 
hemp, hops, and tobacco. The vine, 
grown principally in the valleys of the 
Main and the Saale, the Rhine and the 
Moselle, yield many million gallons an- 
nually. The land is divided among large 
landowners, who control immense es- 
tates, but many peasants have farms 
averaging only about five acres in size, 
used as garden plots. About 86 per cent 
of the land is worked by owners. Stock 
breeding is an important industry, and 
ample opportunity for grazing is afforded 
by the rich meadows on the marshes bor- 
dering the North Sea. The horses bred 
in Mecklenburg, Hanover and other 
provinces enjoy a wide reputation. One 
of the most important agricultural prod- 
ucts is sugar beets. In fact, Germany 
was the home of sugar beet culture. The 
greatest attention is given to the scien- 
tific development of the beet. The selec- 
tion of mother beets for seed purposes is 
made with great care. 

ManuFactures. In the closing years 
of the Empire Germany was making 
wonderful advance as a manufacturing 
nation. But the Republic has lost the 
rich manufacturing field of the tip of 
Upper Silesia, her colonies are a thing 
of the past, her navy is destroyed and 


GERMANY 


much of her merchant marine has been 
given up. One great field of industry— 


the making of cannons and implements 


of war, formerly of great importance—is 
forbidden. But the very inertia of past 
activity enables Germany to take a prom- 
inent role among manufacturing nations. 
The clothing industry is very important 
and occupies the larger proportion of the 
laboring population. A close second is 
the textile industry, the oldest and most 
important industrial art of the country. 
Manufacturers of cotton, silk, linen, and 
flax are prominent industries. Other 
industries are brewing, printing, type 
founding, the manufacturing of musical 
instruments, silver, gold and jewelry 
work, rubber and gutta-percha goods, 
clocks and glass and pottery ware. Be- 
fore the war, the chemical industry was 
almost a Getman monopoly and the 
manufacture of drugs, rare chemicals 
and dyes was very important. Forced 
by the necessities of war, other nations, 
especially the United States, learned the 
secret and will dispute that field in the 
future. Germany formerly supplied a 
large part of the world’s potash, but 
other sources of supply have been found 
in the United States. 

COMMERCE. Germany made wonder- 
ful advance in international trade dur- 
ing the fifty years of peace the Empire . 
enjoyed, in fact, her foreign trade in- 
creased four-fold. Foreign commerce 
is a matter of scientific investigation. The 
needs of foreign nations are studied; 
banking facilities are arranged, methods of 
shipment are considered and her salesmen 
are educated for their work. Foremost _ 
among her imports are cotton, wheat, 
lumber, copper, petroleum, lard, maize, 
machinery, meat and dried fruits. The 
exports consist principally of textiles, 
chimicals, iron and steel products, scien- 
tific instruments, jewelry, malt liquors, 
small wares and gold and silver wares. 

TRANSPORTATION. The railroad system 
of Germany is the most extensive in Eu- 
rope,—about 30,000 miles. Built with an 
eye for military needs, every important 
point in the republic can be reached from 
the capital in 24 hours. The entire system 


1159 


GERMANY 


is under the control of the general gov- 
ernment at least for all of the interstate 
lines. Allican be taken under such con- 
trol in times of need. Some lines are di- 
rectly controlled by the states in which 
they are situated. The inland water 
transportation routes were worked out 
scientifically for purposes of both peace 
and war, and now advance the interests 
of the Republic. The principal rivers 
are navigable for considerable distances. 
Then canals connect many of them. 
Thus the Ludwig canal unites the Dan- 
ube with the Main in Bavaria; the 
Plauen Canal connects the Elbe with the 
Havel; the Eider Canal joins the Eider 
River and the Kiel. Canals enable water- 
borne commerce to pass from Berlin to 
Baltic sea ports; from Hamburg to the 
Rhine cities. 

GOVERNMENT. Germany’ was provision- 
ally organized as a republic in Novem- 
ber, 1918. The constitution was adopted 
July 31, 1919. Provisions were made for 
organizing the various grand duchies, 
duchies, and principalities of the former 
Empire into more suitably arranged di- 
visions. At present the four princi- 
pal states are Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Sax- 
ony, and Prussia. Each German state 
must have a republican form of govern- 
ment. ~All officials are elected on the 
basis of universal, direct and secret bal- 
loting. It will be noted that women’s 
suffrage prevails in Germany. 

The Congress of the Republic consists 
of two chambers. The lower house is 
the Reichstag. The members are elected 
from the German states on the basis of 
population. The upper house is the Na- 
tional Council or Reichsrat. The mem- 
bers represent the German states. Every 
state has at least one member, and other 
members on a basis of population. No 
state can have more than two-fifths the 
total number of members. A national 
law takes precedence over state laws, but 
in all matters affecting the respective 
states, the states themselves exercise the 
powers of government. Provisions are 
- made for a referendum of important leg- 
islative acts if it be desired. The president 
is elected by universal suffrage for a term 


into two main divisions. 


GERMANY 


of seven years. He may be deposed from 
office before the expiration of his term, 
if the Reichstag by a two-thirds vote so 
order. 

In the matter of personal rights the 
German citizen enjoys the liberties of the 
most advanced states. Liberty of press, 
of speech, of religion are all granted. All 
Germans are equal before the law. Men 
and women have fundamentally the same 
civil rights and duties. All distinctions of 
rank are abolished. 

Jupictary. There is a Supreme Court 
that has jurisdiction in national matters 
and in cases between German states. 
Then there are various state courts that 
administer justice in the several states. 
Judges are elected for life. Military law 
is abolished except in times of war and 
on battle ship. | 

EpucaTion. Liberal provisions are 
made for education. The schools fall 


schools, or schools for all, in which at- 
tendance is compulsory unless the pupils 
attend popular schools, which are, broad- 
ly speaking, parochial schools. The pub- 
lic schools are followed by intermediate 
and high schools. The popular schools 
are followed by technical and continua- 
tion schools. In both instances attendance 
continues to the eighteenth year. Tuition 
and books are free. In case the parents 
need assistance in order to give children 
the benefit of an education such aid is 
given by the state. 

History. The present teraltcey of 
Germany has been the home of the Ger- 
man people from extremely early times. 
In that territory they slowly evolved 
from the tribal state of society into that 
of modern political society. The pres- 
ent area of Germany, however, has in 
historic times always been the section 
whence migrating tribes issued, pushing 
out in all directions, coming in con- 
tact with other branches of Aryan 
people in Europe,—the Celts to the 
west, the Greco-Romans to the south, 
the Slavs to the east; and to the south- 
east Finno-Ugrian people, — the Huns, 
Magyars and Turks. But their kindred 
left behind in the home land remained 


1160 


The basic 


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GERMANY 


in substantially the same _ sections, 
and were on the whole but little influ- 
enced by the people just named. So in 
some respects the history of the German 
people, their political evolution and their 
national ideals are peculiar to the people 
of Germany. 7 

The Roman Empire with which the 
migrating Teutonic tribes came in con- 
tact was such an impressive reality that 
after it had fallen in ruins, the more suc- 
cessful kings of the day constantly 
planned to rebuild it with more than its 
former glory. Charlemagne (742-814) 
succeeded in this great undertaking. He 
was one of the greatest statesmen, warri- 
ors and rulers that ever lived. When he 
died his empire extended from the Baltic 
to the Mediterranean, from the Atlantic 
to the Banks of the Danube. For his 
great service in behalf of the Church of 
Rome, he was ctowned (800 A. D.) by 
the Pope and proclaimed “Emperor and 
Augustus,” the titles of the Roman Em- 
perors when Rome comprised the known 
world. Thus a new Rome was created 
and for 1000 years that shadowy empire 
survived and for the most of that time 
the Emperor of Rome was also the em- 
peror of a more or less united Germany. 
Through all these centuries of German 


history, we must bear in mind that the | 


king was ‘elected; that the country was 
broken up into many independent prin- 
cipalities, duchies, etc., a survival from 
tribal society, whose ruling men, and 
finally whose princes formed the council 
of the kingdom and the electors of the 
king. 

During the five hundred years follow- 
ing the crowning of Charlemagne there 
were four different dynasties or ruling 
houses that furnished the rulers of Rome. 
They were simply the most powerful 
German rulers and exercised more or 
iess centralized power over the. many 
German states into which the independ- 
ent tribes of earlier times had crystalized. 
If we note more particularly these dyna- 
sties it will help us to an understanding 
of the times. The Karling line (Charle- 
magne) was succeeded, early in the tenth 
century, by the Saxon line of emperors, 


GERMANY 


who were also the kings of Saxony, that 
country being at that time the most 
powerful German state. Otto I of this 
line is considered “the greatest sovereign 
of the tenth century.” A map of Europe 
of the tenth century shows a Germany 
almost identical with that of today, 
though Bohemia and Austria were in- 
cluded in the empire of that time. . ‘ 

A century later (1024) we find Fran- 
conia the ruling power. The center of 
power had shifted to the west and south 


of Saxony. In 1137 the Hohenstauffen 


line succeeded, they were dukes of 
Swabia, still further to the southwest. 
Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II 
were members of this dynasty. It was 
customary in those days for bishops, 
prelates, and abbotts to have temporal — 
possessions over which they claimed con- 
trol, and here was another element of 
division in addition to the inheritance 
from tribal times. It was only the strong- 
est and most energetic of the emperors 
that exercised any effective control over 
the multitudinous German states of his 
empire. When the Hohenstauffen dy- 
nasty came to an end (1254) there was 
no German duke or king who cared for 
the onerous duties of empire and for 
twenty years there was no central au- 
thority. It was a time of utmost con- 
fusion. Then arose a generation of rob- 
ber knights who built strong-castles in 
easily defended positions and robbed and 
plundered almost at will. During this 
time also various cities and trade guilds 
organized for self-protection. The most 


important was the Hanseatic League, 


At length they selected Rudolph of 
Hapsburg (1273), which marks the rise 
to power of the House of -Hapsburg 
which played for 650 years such an im- 
portant role in European hsitory, espe- 
cially in German history, still more prom- 
inent in the affairs of Austria. Rudolph’s 
rule was vigorous. He began by forcing 
Bohemia to acknowledge his sway, and 
he destroyed seventy castles of as many 
robber knights throughout Germany gen- 
erally. He conquered Bohemia, reduced 
Germany to order, founded Austria, and 
organized Switzerland. 


1161 


GERMANY 


From 1308 to 1437 the Hapsburg line 
was interrupted by a succession of em- 
perors elected from various princes of 
Germany, Hungary and Bohemia. The 
most renowned one among them was 
Charles IV of Bohemia (1347-1348) au- 
thor of the “Golden Bull” that made 
Frankfurt the place of election of the 
-emperor, Aix the place of coronation, 
and named seven officials in Germany to 
serve henceforth as electors of the em- 
peror. These seven were the princes of 
Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony and the 
Palatinate:of the Rhine; and the arch- 
bishop of Mainz, Cologne and Treves. 
Notice at that date neither Austria nor 
Bavaria were of great importance. The 
selection of Brandenburg shows the ris- 
ing importance of the mark of Branden- 
burg. Notice also, as indicative of the 
times, that three of the seven electors 
were dignitaries of the church of Rome. 

Charlemagne and the early emperors 
rendered great service to the Church, 
_ perhaps saved it from destruction. With 
the passage of time, the church grew in 
power and differences began to appear 
between the church and some of the em- 
perors. Noticeably so in the case of 
Henry IV (1056-1106) who “went to 
Conossa,” Barbarossa (1156-1190) and 
Frederick II (1212-1250) whose brilliant 
reign closed in gloom, ushering in that 
period of confusion when no one cared 
. to assume charge of the empire. Then 
came the times of the Reformation and 
the Hussite wars, later still the terrible 
times of the Thirty Years War in which 
Germany suffered greatly. In all the 
years of their history there was no such 
a time of gloom and despair for Ger- 
many as that which included the Thirty 
Years War (1618-1648). 

The House of Hohenzollern was the 
ruling house of Prussia. There is a 
strange parallelism between the Hohen- 
zollern and the Hapsburg royal houses. 
Both took active parts in the history of 
Germany, both founded great empires, 
both met a common fate. In 1411 Fred- 
erick of Hohenzollern became Margrave 
of Brandenburg and so one of the seven 
electors of Germany. <A century later 


GERMANY 


the Mark of Brandenburg was united- 


with the duchy of Prussia though the 
duchy was a part of Poland. By the 


treaty of Westphalia, Pomerania was - 


added to the territory of Prussia. In 
1701 the Duke of Prussia was allowed 
to assume the title of king. In 1740 
Frederick the Great became king. Hevit 
was who initiated the Prussian policy 
of helping himself by force to surround- 
ing territory. He wrested Upper Silesia 
from Austria, and took a prominent part 
in the successive partitions of Poland. At 


his death Prussia was the strongest state _ 


in north Germany and was aspiring to 
leadership of all the German states. 
One hundred years later in the days of 
Bismarck that leadership became a reality. 
As a result of the three Bismarckian 
Wars,—Schleswig-Holstein (1864), the 
Seven Weeks War (1866) with Austria, 
resulting in the elimination of Austria 
from participation in the political affairs 
of the German states, and the Franco- 
German War (1870) wherein all German 
states except Austria united under the 
lead of Prussia against France. At the 
conclusion of that war, there was or- 
ganized the first real German Empire 
with Prussia as the leading state and the 
right of succession to the 


Hohenzollern. 

Into that empire were gathered four 
kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duch- 
ies, seven principalities, three free cities, 
and the Reichland of Alsace-Lorraine, 
these twenty-six territorial units being 
the form finally assumed by the multi- 
tudinous German states of earlier cen- 
turies; or, to trace them still further 
back, the modern representatives of the 
German tribes of prehistoric times. That 


empire represented the final stage of. 


1,000 years of evolution. It was not the 
shadowy revival of the Roman Empire, 
the fiction of which was given up in 
1740, but it was a present day empire 
of abounding life and vigor. It took its 
place among the great nations of the 
world. It seemed as if founded on the 
rock and destined to stand for ages. Yet, 
its span of life was less than half a cen- 


1162 


imperial — 
throne made hereditary in the House of 


’ 
——_—* | 


GERMICIDE 


tury. Three emperors occupied the 
throne—William I (1871-1888), Fred- 
erick III (three months of 1888), and 
William II who abdicated the throne 
November 9, 1918, when the German 
Empire ceased to exist. The unity of the 
German people, however, was not lost, 
and they begin a new cycle of history. 
(See under their headings the Wortp 
War and many historical persons and 
places mentioned in this article.) 

Germicide, Jer’ mi side. See INSECTI- 
CIDE. 

Ger’mina’tion, the early stages in 
the development of the germ or young 
plant. It depends-upon the return of the 
dormant germ to active life, and is 
hastened or retarded by the conditions of 
heat, light and moisture. In seed-bear- 
ing plants, the seed absorbs water, which 
causes the embryo to swell and burst 


GERMINATION OF SEEDS 


through its seed coats. The root then 
emerges and anchors the plant to the soil, 
at the same time supplying it with food 
and moisture. As soon as food is sup- 
plied the growing plant, the stem erects 
itself and the seed leaves, or cotyledons, 
spread out. These soon become able to 
perform their function, that of trans- 
forming the gases from the air into food. 
The plant is then said to have germi- 
nated. Plants which feed upon living 
or decaying vegetable matter have spe- 


GERONIMO 


cial adaptations to their needs and do not 
produce leaves. Spore-bearing plants 
separate from the mother plant without 
any fertilization of the spores, and in 
the lower forms of life continue in prac- 
tically the same forms throughout the en- 
tire development. 

‘The accompanying cut shows the seed 
in the varying stages of its germination: 
1 is the winged seed of the maple ready © 
for sowing; 2 shows the developing seed 
leaves as they begin to unfold; in 3 the 
leaves have unfolded and the stem has 
formed; and in 4 the seed leaves are 
shown in their position on the rapidly- 
growing shoot; 5 shows the above- and 
below-ground growth of the oak from 
the acorn. See SEED; SPORE, 

Germ Theory of Disease. 
TERIA, 

Gérome, Zha’ rome’, Jean Léon 
(1824-1904), one of the most eminent 
French painters of the 19th century. 
After considerable study with Delaroche, 
he created a stir with his Greek Cock- 
fight, exhibited in 1847, and now in the 
Luxembourg. He produced a number of 
very successful Eastern subjects follow- 
ing a trip to Egypt and Turkey. But 
Gérome’s most splendid qualities are seen 
in those works which reveal his minute 
knowledge of historical detail, intensity 
and dramatic power. Such a work is the 
Age of Augustus, a remarkable allegory 
in which is depicted the grandeur of the 
Augustan Age, with a subtle suggestion 
of its decline before the advance of Chris- 
tianity. Other scholarly and vivid crea- 
tions are The Gladiators before Cesar, 
Phryne before her Judges and the Death 
of Cesar. 

Geronimo, Je ron'i mo, ( — ?-1909), 
a chief of the Chiricahua tribe of Apache 
Indians. In 1884-1886 he became noted 
as the leader of a band that terrorized 
Arizona and New Mexico. General 
Crook was sent against him, and in 
March, 1886, Geronimo and his band sur- 
rendered, only to escape to the mountains 
a few days later. Crook was thereupon 
superseded by Gen. Nelson A. Miles, who 
gave the Indians no rest until Geronimo 
again surrendered. This time he, with 


See BAc- 


1163 


GERRY 


his principal followers, was sent to Ft. 
Pickens, Fla., where he was held as a 
military prisoner for some time. 

Ger’ry, Elbridge (1744-1814), an 
American statesman, born at Marble- 
head, Mass. He graduated from Har- 
vard in 1762, received his master’s degree 
three years later, and, engaging in busi- 
ness, soon amassed a considerable for- 
tune. In 1776 he was a member of the 
Continental Congress, and signed the 
Declaration of Independence. He served 
in Congress until 1780, and was reelected 
in 1783 and 1785. He was a member of 
the Federal Constitutional Convention 
but refused to sign that document be- 
cause of his opposition to centralized gov- 
ernment. In 1789-1793 he served in Con- 
gress; in 1797 he was a commissioner to 
France; and in 1810-12 he was governor 
of Massachusetts. In the latter position 
he removed from office members of the 
opposition party, and assisted in so redis- 
tricting the states as to keep his own 
party in power; hence the term gerry- 
mandering. In 1812 he was elected vice- 
president of the United States, but did 
not live to complete his term of office. 
See GERRYMANDER. 

Ger’ ryman’der, a word used in the 
_ United States to denote an unfair distri- 
bution of election districts within a state. 
This is accomplished by combining coun- 
ties having a large majority in favor of 
the manipulating party, with others in 
which that party has a minority a little 
smaller than its majority in the former. 
The result of a full vote is a small major- 
ity for the manipulators. The gerry- 
mander has been practiced perhaps in 
every state in the Union. It is a strictly 
legal measure and is a great temptation 
to politicians who desire to perpetuate 
their control by whatever means are pos- 
sible and safe. 

The word. was first coined in 1812 
when Elbridge Gerry was governor of 
Massachusetts. At that time the Repub- 
lican Legislature redistributed the dis- 
tricts in such wise that the shapes of the 
towns forming a single district in Essex 
County gave it a somewhat dragonlike 
contour. This was indicated upon a map 


GETTYSBURG 


of Massachusetts which a Boston news- 
paper published in colors, giving it a few 
additional touches in the shape of head, 
wings and claws and naming it the “Ger- 
rymander.” The name was a fusion of 
Gerry and the last part of the word sal- 
amander, the name of a lizardlike animal 
which the picture strongly resembled. 
Gethsemane, Geth sem’ a ne, an olive 
orchard near Jerusalem and on the road 
to the Mount of Olives. The name 
means oil press. It was to this garden 
that Christ took his disciples on the night 
of his betrayal and left them while he 
went forward alone to pray (Consult 
Matt. xxvi, 36). The site of the orchard 
is disputed, and in one place the Fran- 
ciscan monks have enclosed an area 
where they cultivate flowers to present to 
the tourists who visit the Holy Land; in 
another locality the Greek Church has 
marked off a spot which it claims as the 
site of the garden. The ancient olive 
trees in this garden, though very old, 
probably do not date back to the time of 
Christ. 
Get’tysburg, Pa., county seat of 
Adams Co., 35 m. s.w. of Harrisburg, on 
the Western Maryland and the Gettys- 
burg & Harrisburg railroads. 
seat of a Lutheran theological seminary 
founded in 1826, and of Pennsylvania 
College (Lutheran), organized in. 1832. 
The surrounding country is uneven and 
is diversified by several hills called Sem- 
inary Ridge, Cemetery Hill, etc. Gettys- 
burg was settled in 1780 and named after 


Gen. James Gettys, its founder.. One of | 


the most noted battles of the Civil War 
was fought here, July 1-3, 1863, the Fed- 
eral army under General Meade defeat- 
ing the Confederates under General Lee. 
The entire battlefield has been included 
in a national park and numerous monu- 
ments have been erected upon the field. 
It is thought that the scene of the com- 
bat is better marked than any other bat- 
tlefield of the world. On Cemetery Hill 
stands the National cemetery, 17 acres in 


area, dedicated by President Lincoln on 


Nov. 19, 1863. About one mile from 
Gettysburg is the Katalysine Spring, ‘a 
noted summer resort. The industrial es- 


1164 | 


. 


It is the | 


: Gaal 


ne een 
Coad 


GETTYSBURG 


tablishments of Gettysburg comprise 
shirt and furniture factories, planin 
mills anda foundry. Population in 1920, 
4.439. See GETTYSBURG, BATTLE OF. 
Gettysburg, Battle of, the greatest 
battle of the Civil War, fought July 1 to 
3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Pa., between 
88,000 Federals under Meade, and 75,000 
Confederates under Lee. After Hooker’s 
defeat at Chancellorsville, Lee again took 
the offensive and, having crossed the 
Potomac and Maryland, entered Pennsyl- 
vania. While in hot pursuit Hooker was 
succeeded by Meade, as commander of 
the Army of the Potomac. The two 
armies finally met on the hills about Get- 
tysburg, the Federals taking up a strong 
position on the bluffs south of the town, 


‘while the Confederates were a mile away 


on a parallel ridge. Buford and Hill 
opened the battle, being soon joined by 
Reynolds and Longstreet respectively, 
and by nine o’clock of the morning of 
July 1 the battle raged on Seminary 
Ridge, which is west of the village. Both 
sides were again reinforced and by mid- 
afternoon the Union troops were being 
pressed back to Gettysburg, where the 
right wing under Gen. Carl Schurz at 
length retreated with frightful loss. 
When the left wing took refuge on Cem- 
etery Ridge, south of the town, fighting 
ceased for the day. Thus far only the 
advance of both armies had seen action, 
which had been accidental, and Meade 
did not arrive on the scene until late in 
the night. 

On July 2 the battle was not resumed 
until four o’clock in the afternoon. 


_ Sickles with the Union left wing held the 


base of Round Top, which lies south of 
Gettysburg, and opposite him was Long- 
street. Here occurred the principal fight- 
ing of the day, the Federals being forced 
back with dreadful carnage. Meanwhile, 
Early’s attack on the Union center from 
the north was repulsed, after a hand-to- 
hand fight with stones and cudgels, and 
Ewell gained Culp’s Hill, southeast of 
the town, which-the Confederates held 
during the night. 

At daybreak of the third day the Fed- 
erals began a bombardment of Culp’s 


GEYSER 


Hill, which they carried after four hours. 
There was a cavalry engagement east of 
Rock Creek, and then occurred Pickett’s 
charge on Cemetery Ridge, the most 
famous work of the entire battle, pre- 
ceded by a cannonade lasting an hour 
and a half, the heaviest in American his- 
tory. Fifteen thousand of Longstreet’s 
corps, under Pickett, advanced against 
the center of the Federal line on Ceme- 
tery Ridge. These men had rushed into 
a veritable death trap, and, when a rem- 
nant of their number finally returned to 
Seminary Ridge, the battle was over and 
Lee retired, beaten, to Virginia. Gettys- 
burg was the supreme moment of the 
war, and after it the fortunes of the Con- 
federates gradually failed. The loss in 
number of killed, captured or wounded 
reached 50,000, each side suffering about 
equally. See Civir War IN AMERICA. 
Consult Doubleday’s Chancellorsville and 
Gettysburg. 

Geyser, Gi’ ser, an eruptive hot 
spring. The true geyser rises through a 
funnel-shaped formation, its under- 
ground tube communicating with the 
source of water supply and on the sur- 
face terminating in a basin formed by the 
deposition of siliceous matter which has 
been held in solution in the water. The 
most beautiful and fantastic designs are 
often formed about the mouth of the 
geyser by these deposits of silica and car- 
bonate of lime. The eruptions of geysers 
are intermittent, those of the smaller 
springs being the more frequent. The 


larger geysers, while spouting at rare in- 


tervals, are active for longer periods than 
the smaller springs. Numerous theories 
have been advanced to account for the 
appearance of geysers. That of Bunsen 
is generally accepted. It holds that by 
seepage from the surface the geyser 
source becomes filled with water, which 
at some great depth is heated by subter- 
ranean fires. When the water in the 
lower part of the tubular column reaches 
the boiling point, the expansion of steam 
forces upward to the outlet the column 
of water in the funnel, with sufficient 
pressure to send a stream high into the 
air. 


1165 


GEYSER 


Among the greatest geysers in the 
world are the Great Geyser of Iceland, 
those of Yellowstone Park and of North 
Island, New Zealand. 


There are no less 


——Z i 


a eee 
ss =— =~ ps Somer 1 WA 

=—— cad =~ = 7 

Gre, A= =H 


A GEYSER IN ACTION 


than 70 eruptive geysers in Yellowstone 
Park, the most remarkable of which are 
the Giant, which spouts a column of 
water 2nd steam 5 ft. in diameter and 


GHENT, TREATY OF 


200 ft. in height, sometimes for an hour 
and a half at a time, and Old Faithful, 
noted for the regularity of its eruptions. 
See YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. 

Gey’serite, a silicate containing a 
varying amount of water, deposited 
about the geysers and hot springs-.of 
Montana, Yellowstone Park, New Zea- 
land and Iceland. It has a variety of 
colors, and forms in hard masses or in 
beautiful structures resembling cauli- 
flower. 

Ghats, Gots, the name of two moun- 
tain ranges of India, bordering the coast 
and enclosing the great central table- 
land. The two ranges tend to converge 
at the south but lose their distinctive fea- 
tures in the Plateau of Mysore. The 
Eastern Ghats consist of disconnected 
groups of mountains having an elevation 
of from 1500 ft. to 2000 ft. They extend 
for nearly 500 m. in a northeasterly- 
southwesterly direction, and are cut by 
the Kistna and other lesser rivers. 

The Western Ghats are much longer 
and are higher, being generally from 
3000 ft. to 5000 ft. in elevation and hav- 
ing one group in the south that reaches 
a height of 8760 ft. These mountains 
are rugged and barren in the main, but 
have some fine forests of bamboo, teak 
and rattan. The Pass of Palghatcherie 
forms an abrupt break in this chain. 

Ghent, Gent, Treaty of, a treaty of 
peace concluded between British and 
American commissioners assembled at 
Ghent, Belgium, in 1814, at the close of 
the War of 1812, and ratified by Con- 
gress Feb. 17, 1815. It provided for 
universal peace between the belligerents, 
the mutual restoration of territory to its 
former position at the beginning of the 
struggle, the appointment of commission- 
ers to settle certain boundary questions 
in accordance with the Treaty of 1783, 
and bound both governments to attempt 
the abolition of the slave trade. It said 
nothing, however, of the impressment of 
seamen, the search of American vessels 
and the oppressive decrees respecting 
neutral commerce, the three grievances 
which were the main causes of the war. 
See War oF 1812. 


1166 


— ae 


GHIBERTI 


Ghiberti, Ge ber’ te, Lorenzo (1378 
1455), an Italian goldsmith and one of 
the leading sculptors of the early Ren- 
aissance, was born at Florence. © His 
chief work, which is also one of the chief 
monuments of early Italian art, is a set 
of bronze doors of the Baptistery, 
Florence, for which work he was chosen 
after competition with Brunelleschi, Jap- 
oco della Quercia and Niccolo d’Arrezzo. 
The surface of the doors is divided into 
panels, upon which are small reliefs rep- 
resenting the life of Christ and events 
and characters connected with the 
Church. 

Ghirlandajo, Ger” Jahn dah’ yo, Do- 
menico (1449-1494), the most impor- 
tant member of a celebrated family of 
Florentine painters. The most famous 
of his frescoes are in the Tornabuone 
Chapel, Santa Maria Novella, Florence. 
They represent the Life of John the Bap- 
list, Legend of the Virgin, the Annuncia- 
tion, Four Evangelists and other Church 
figures. His work is full of dignity and 
is the most realistic of his century. He 
was, above all his compatriots, the 
painter of Florentine life. 

Ghost, the apparition of the spirit of 
a dead person appearing or seeming to 
appear in bodily form. The belief in 
ghosts has been held by all races of peo- 
ple and with most has some relation to re- 
ligious beliefs. Its origin seems to be 
coexistent with that of belief in the life 
of the soul apart from the body, and may 
have come about through the seeming im- 
possibility of conceiving of a soul with- 
out physical attributes. The mystery 
which surrounds death and the particular 
terror which seems to attach to violent 
death have been the source of many of 
the ghost stories and tales of haunted 
houses once common. Since ghosts, in 
the nature of things, could not be exam- 
ined, all kinds of powers, impossible in 
the physical world, were attributed to 
them. 

Though the belief in ghosts still sur- 
vives to a certain extent, it is by far less 
common ‘than in earlier times, when few 
localities were without their haunted 
house or their ghostly visitants. Among 


GIANT’S CAUSEWAY 


the famous agitations concerning ghosts, 
the most widely known is that of the 
Cock Lane Ghost at Clerkenwell, Eng- 
land, in 1762. The ghost seemed to make 
itself manifest by rappings about the bed- 
side of a young girl living in Cock Lane. 
The whole affair was finally proven to 
be a conspiracy for the purpose of con- 
victing an innocent man of the murder of 
his wife. Dr. Johnson’s account of the 
incidents occurring in connection with 
the mystery may be found in the Gentle- 
man’s Magazine, Volume 32, pages 32- 
81. Probably the most famous ghost of 
fiction is that of Hamlet’s father in 
Shakespeare’s well-known tragedy. 
Giants, in Norse myths, huge crea- 
tures born among the icebergs: The first 
of these was Ymir, who, slain by the 
gods, drowned in his blood all his de- 
scendants save one couple. These two 
fled to the polar region, Jotunnheim, 
where they propagated another race. 
Typifying evil, the belligerent forces of 
cold, ice, snow, stone and underground 
fire, the giants were continually being 
warred against by the gods, by whom 
they were usually outwitted; for the 
giants were clumsy in mind and in body; 
besides, they had only stone weapons. 
Giant’s Causeway, a_ celebrated 
promontory rising from the northern 
coast of County Antrim in Ireland. -It 
varies in thickness from 300 to 5000 ft. 
and is formed by the tops of about 40,000 
basaltic columns. The columns are from 


15 to 20 inches in diameter, are six-sided, 


fit closely together and are nearly equal, 
in height. The causeway is about 300 
yards in length, and is in three divisions, 
the Little Causeway, the Middle Cause- 
way, or Honeycomb, and the Grand 
Causeway. The pillars of the Little 
Causeway display a variety of forms, 
some being hexagonal prisms, others oc- 
tagons and pentagons. In the Grand 
Causeway a fan-shaped arrangement of 
columns is called the Lady’s Fan. An- 
other formation is called the Wishing 
Chair because of its resemblance to a seat. 
The Giant’s Well and the Giant’s Loom 
are similarly named from their likeness 
to these articles. The formation of the 


3467 


GIBBON 


causeway is attributed by ancient legend 
to giants, who were believed to have com- 
menced the building of a roadway across 
the channel from Ireland to Scotland. 
See BASALT; FINGAL’s CAVE. 7 
Gib’bon, the lowest ape of the Simian 
Family. The members of this genus are 
distinctly arboreal, or tree-dwelling, in 
habit, and are small, active creatures but 
are unusually awkward in appearance. 
Their arms are of such length that even 
when the gibbon stands upright, they are 
able to touch the ground. The brain is 
very small, but not proportionately 
smaller than that of other apes. The 
gibbon is found in southeastern Asia, 
where there are several species. 
Gibbon, Edward (1737-1794), an 
English historian, born at Putney on the 
Thames. He studied at’ Oxford, was 
converted to Catholicism in 1753, but, 
through the influence of his father and 
a Calvinist minister, he readopted Prot- 
estantism some 18 months later. Subse- 
quently he renounced all forms of reli- 
gion. His private studies were wide and 
varied, and in seclusion he amassed a 
fund of knowledge, almost unparalleled, 
which a retentive memory turned to good 
use in the scholarly productions that he 
afterwards published. His first attempt 
was a study of literature, a brief essay, 
appearing in 1761. After serving as 
colonel in the Hampshire militia, he 
visited the Continent, and upon crossing 
the Alps and going to Rome he first be- 
gan to plan his great work, the history 
of the Roman Empire. The work was 
begun in 1772, and the first volume ap- 
peared four years later; the last three 
volumes were published in 1788. The 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 
represents one of the great achievements 
of mental enterprise and of erudition. 
Considering the scope of the work, its 
accuracy is extraordinary, and the sus- 
tained brilliance of style, the dignified 
treatment, the constant recourse to orig- 
inal sources, mark it as a marvelous his- 
tory of the civilized world through 13 
centuries, a stupendous task done with 
the consummate skill of a historian pre- 
eminently fitted for the duties. A mis- 


GIBRALTAR 


leading gauging of the relation of 
events, overemphasis of the influence of 
paganism and attacks on Christianity 
are the gravest charges against it. 
Gibbons, James (1834-1921), a Ro- 
man Catholic prelate, born in Baltimore 
and educated at St. Charles’s College,. 
Maryland, and St. Mary’s Seminary, 
Baltimore, where he was ordained priest 
in 1861. He served as assistant at St. 
Patrick’s, Baltimore, for a few months, 
when he became pastor of St. Bridget’s, 
Canton, a suburb of Baltimore. Later 
he was secretary to Archbishop Spalding 
and chancellor of the arch-diocese. In 
1866 he was appointed assistant chan- 
cellor of the Second Plenary Council of 
the American Roman Catholic Church. 
Two years later he became vicar apos- 
tolic of North Carolina, with the rank 
and title of Bishop of Adramyttium. He 
was transferred to the See of Richmond 
in 1872. In 1877 he was appointed 
Archbishop of Baltimore and in 1884 
presided at the Third National Council 
held in that city. In 1886 he was named 
cardinal and in June of that year was © 
invested with the insignia of the office, 
being the second American upon whom 
this high honor was conferred. As 
senior cardinal, he was at the head of the 
Roman Catholic Church in the United 
States. Cardinal Gibbons was the author 
of The Faith of Our Fathers, Our Chris- 
tian Heritage, The Ambassador of 
Christ and a volume of popular sermons. 
Gibraltar, Jib rol’ ter, a British for- 
tress and colony, situated near the south- 
ern extremity of Spain at the western 
entrance to the Mediterranean. A low, 
sandy isthmus connects it with the main- 
land, and the Rock itself, nearly three 
miles in length, rising 1400 ft. above 
sea level, consists chiefly of gray lime- 
stone. Its sides are steep, except to the 
west, where the town is situated on 
its slopes; along the crest are the fa- 
mous Rock gun, the signal station, 
O’Hara’s Tower and Windmill Hill. 
The town of Gibraltar is situated at the 
northwestern corner of the Rock, front-> 
ing the bay, only a small part of it ex- 
tending over level surface and several 


1168 


GIBRALTAR, STRAIT OF 


of the streets ending in rough stone 
steps. The old buildings were destroyed 
during the siege of 1779-1783, and 
among modern structures are the “con- 
vent,’ the Anglican Cathedral, the civil 
hospital, the garrison, library, the court- 
house, exchange buildings, naval and 
military hospitals. 

Since 1705 Gibraltar has been a free 
port except in point of alcoholic liquors 
and tobacco. Several thousand men are 
employed in its chief business—the coal- 
ing of passing steamers. Wine is the 
principal export, and the main sources 
of wealth are revenues, port and har- 
‘bor dues. The harbor has been ex- 
tremely improved by new dockyard 
works, three large moles enclosing its 
440 acres. Gibraltar was formerly 
known as one of the “Pillars of Her- 


cules,” and among the Greek and Roman | 


geographers as Calpe. Its military his- 
tory dates back to its capture and forti- 
fication by the Saracen leader, Tariq, in 
71i. The Spaniards took possession of 
it in 1462, and in 1502 it was incorpo- 
rated with the domains of the Spanish 
Kingdom. In 1704 it fell into the hands 
of the British and Dutch. The memo- 
rable siege of 1779-1783, one of the most 
remarkable in history, ended in the de- 
feat of the Spanish and French forces; 


since that period the history of Gibral- 


tar has been comparatively uneventful. 
It is now a crown colony with little local 
government. Population in 1901, 27,460. 

Gibraltar, Strait of, the channel con- 
necting the Atlantic Ocean and the Med- 
iterranean Sea, and separating Spain 
from Morocco. It is about 36 m. long, 
has an average depth of about 900 ft. and 
varies in width from 9 to 13 m. There 
is a continual central current entering 
from the Atlantic and on both shores is 
an ebb and flow of tidal currents. An 
undercurrent setting towards the ocean 
is thought to carry off surplus waters of 
the Mediterranean. 

Gibson, Charles Dana (1867- ___), 
an American illustrator, born in Rox- 
bury, Mass. Following the publication 
of his Collection of Eighty-four Draw- 
mgs in 1894, he enjoyed for a decade 


GIDDINGS 


or. more a popular favor unequaled by 
that of any other contemporary Amer- 
ican artist. His fame rests chiefly upon 
his representation of a type of American 
womanhood, known as the ‘Gibson 
Girl,’ whom he portrays in every imag- 
inable situation. 

Gibson, John Morison (1842- ve 
a Canadian statesman, born in Ontario 
and educated at Toronto University. 
For many years he practiced law at 
Hamilton, being a leader of the provin- 
cial bar. A Liberal, he sat for West Hamilton 
and for East Wellington from 1879 to 1905, 
meanwhile being successively provincial secre- 
tary, commissioner of crownlands and attorney- 
general. Subsequently he sat in the Ross gov- 
ernment, without portfolio. From 1908-1914 he 
was lieutenant-governor of Ontario. He is 


Brigadier-General Reserve of Officers, and ac- 
tive in the banking life of Toronto. 


Gid’dings, Franklin Henry (1855- 
), an American sociologist, born at 
Sherman, Conn. He graduated at Union 
College in 1877, and for a number of 
years wrote for newspapers on the sub- 
jects of politics and economics. He then 
became lecturer and professor of polit- 
ical science at Bryn Mawr College, and 
in 1894 was elected professor of soci- 
ology in Columbia University. Profes- 
sor Giddings maintains that it is the 
province of sociology to deal with the 
elements and first principles of society. 
He attempts to explain social phenom- 
ena primarily by psychical forces, such 
as the “consciousness of kind,’ rather 
than merely in terms of environment. 
Among his chief works are Principles 
of Sociology, Elements of Sociology, 
Democracy and Empire and Inductive 
Sociology. 

Giddings, Joshua Reed (1795-1864), 
an American statesman, famed as a mod- 
erate abolitionist of slavery. Born in 
Pennsylvania, he served in the War of 
1812, taught school and practiced law, 
entering the Legislature and Congress, 
where he advocated the abolition of 
slavery in the territories. For a strong 
speech to the effect that slaves had a 
right to use any means whatsoever to 
gain their freedom, he was censured, 
and resigned, but, being reelected, was a 


1169 


, 
5 sj 
" A 


GIDEON 


leading opponent of slavery until the 
Civil War. 

Gid’eon, the fifth of the judges of 
Israel, son of Joash. He came into 
prominence in a time of general backslid- 
ing, when the Midianites were greatly 
oppressing the people of Israel. An an- 
gel of the Lord appeared to him while 
he was thrashing wheat to announce that 
he was called to deliver the people, and, 
subsequently, with 300 of the bravest of 
the Israelites, each armed with a sword, 
trumpet and earthen pitcher containing 
a lamp, he gained a decisive victory over 
the great host of the enemy. Gideon 
lived 40 years longer, during which time 
the country was at peace. ‘See Judges 
Vi-VU1. 

Gila, He'la, a river of southwestern 
United States, rising in western New 
Mexico and flowing in a westerly direc- 
tion through New Mexico and across 
Arizona. Its length is about 130 m. and 
it enters the Colorado River near Yuma 
in the southwestern part of Arizona. 
The course of the river lies in an arid 
desert region occasionally interrupted by 
mountains and plateaus. Silver and gold 
are mined in the Gila Valley, and the 
ruins of ancient cities, as well as the 
modern cities of San Carlos and Flor- 


ence, mark its course. Its principal trib- | 


utaries are the San Pedro, the Santa 
Cruz and the Rio Verde. 

Gila Monster, a lizard of the Helo- 
derm Family found in Arizona and New 
Mexico and comprising the only group 
of poisonous lizards known in the United 
States. Its body is generally about 20 
inches long and is covered with beadlike 
irregularities, its color is unevenly mar- 
bled with black and pink or yellow spots. 
This lizard is particularly vicious in dis- 
position and snaps its cruel jaws at the 
slightest provocation. The teeth, at the 
base of which lie the venom sacs, are 
grooved and direct the course of the 
poison to the wound made by the bite. 
Their food consists of eggs and small 
reptiles, and the tail, like the hump of a 
camel, is the reservoir of its extra food 
supply. Ordinarily the bite of the Gila 
monster is not fatal. See Lizarp. 


GILLETTE 


Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck (1836- 
1911), an English dramatist, born in 
London. From journalism he turned his 
attention to comic opera, and in collab- 
oration with Arthur Sullivan produced 
a series of fantastic burlesques which 
have enjoyed enduring popularity. Best 
known are H. M. S. Pinafore, The Mi- 
kado, The Pirates of Penzance and The 
Gondoliers. 

Gilder, Richard Watson (1844-1909), 
an American poet and journalist, born 
in Bordentown, N. J. He served for a 
time.in the Civil War, later engaged in 
editorial work and became assistant ed- 
itor of Scribner's Monthly, taking the 
editorship of this periodical in 1881, 
when its name was changed to the Cen- 
tury. Besides taking an active interest 
in public affairs, he published several 
volumes of poems. These include Lyrics, 
Five Books of Song, Poems and In- 
scriptions and In the Heights. 

Gilding, the process of covering a 
surface with a thin layer of gold. The 
oldest and best method consists in apply- 
ing a fine gold leaf to a surface which 
has been treated to a size, which, when 
partly dry, allows the gold to adhere. 
Gold dust or powder is also used for 
surfaces. The frames of mirrors, pic- 
tures and moldings are gilded by the ap- 
plication of gold leaf or by using tin foil 
or silver leaf, with a yellow varnish 
afterwards applied. The edges of books 
are gilded by coating with dextrine or 
mucilage and applying the gold leaf, and 
afterwards polishing. Metals can be 
gilded by coating with an amalgam of 
gold and mercury and applying heat, 
which drives off the mercury, leaving a 
coating of gold, which is then varnished. 
In gilding class, china, pottery, etc., gold 
powder is mixed to form a paint, and 
after giving them a coating the articles 
are baked in an oven at a low tempera- 
ture. It is then fixed in a kiln at high 
temperature. After cooling, the gilding 
is burnished. 

Gilia, Jil’i a. See PHiox. 

Gillette, Jz let’, William Hooker 
(1855- ), an American actor and 
playwright, born in Hartford, Conn. He 


1170 


GILMAN 


studied at the universities of New York 
and Boston while playing in stock com- 
panies in those cities, and later met with 
success in the South and West. In re- 
cent years he has taken part in plays 
written by himself, among which are 
The Private Secretary, Esmeralda, Se- 
cret Service and Sherlock Holmes. 

Gil’man, Daniel Coit (1831-1908), an 
American educator, born at Norwich, 
Conn. Graduating at Yale in 1852, he 
spent some time in study and travel in 
Europe. From 1856 to 1872 he held im- 
portant positions at Yale, resigning there 
to accept the presidency of the Univer- 
sity of California. He left this institu- 
tion in 1875 to become the first president 
of Johns Hopkins University at Balti- 
more; and retired from this position in 
1901 to become the first president of the 
Carnegie Institution at Washington. He 
was an exceptional judge of men, was 
quick to recognize workers in new 
branches of science and was an able ad- 
ministrator. He was an original mem- 
ber of the General Education Board, 
and was a trustee of the John F. Slater 
Fund, the Peabody Education Fund and 
the Russell Sage Foundation. For six 
years he served as president of the Na- 
tional Civil Service Reform League, and 
in 1893 became president of the Ameri- 
can Oriental Society. He wrote The 
Launching of a University, University 
Problems in the United States and other 
valuable works. 

Gin, Jin, an alcoholic liquor com- 
pounded from distilled grain and fla- 
vored with coriander seeds, angelica 
roots, juniper berries and various essen- 
tial oils. It contains from 40 to 50 per 
cent of alcohol. Gin is known as dry 
when unsweetened. It is made princi- 
pally in Plymouth, England, and Schie- 
dam, Holland. Cheaper grades were man- 
ufactured in the United States. See 
WINE. 

Gin, as used in machinery, is* the 
term applied to a device for hoisting 
weights, principally from shafts in mines. 
In its simplest form it consists of three 
poles of equal lengths fastened together 
at the top, and with the bottom of the 


GINGER 


poles spread apart to form a tripod. 
From the top is supported a tackle block 
with a pulley, over which a rope is passed 
to haul up loads. Subsequently a wind- 
lass was added to this contrivance and 
attached to an upright shaft, with gear- 
ing so arranged that a traverse beam 
could be carried around as a sweep by 
animal power, and hoist loads. 

Ginger, Jin’ jer, a plant or a product 
of a plant of the Ginger Family, valuable 
as a spice. It is a grasslike herb culti- 
vated in the East Indies and elsewhere 
in the tropics for the large, thickened 
roots which yield commercial ginger. 
The stems are cylindrical and sheathed 
by the bases of the long, narrow leaves 
something in the manner of our Indian 
corn. The flowers are clustered in a 
leafy head and are highly colored. There 
is a small, sheathing calyx surrounding 
a tubular corolla, which has three long, 
pointed lobes. The flowers are particu- 
larly noticeable because one of the sta- 
mens is broadened at the top into a flat 
lip which bends over the lobes of the 
corolla. 

The roots are dug for drying as soon 
as the leaves wither, generally in about 
nine or ten months after planting. If the 
ginger is to be exported dried, it is 
soaked in water, peeled and dried for a 
week. If preserved, it is boiled and 
dipped in sirup every. 24 hours for a 
week. It may be found in our markets 
in both forms. Probably most of our 
preserved ginger is imported from 
China. 

Wild ginger is a low, woolly herb of 
the Birthwort Family, growing in wood- 
lands throughout the United States. It 
has a thickened underground stem and 
long-stemmed, rounding leaves which 
have velvety surfaces and are inclined 
to be of purple-brown color underneath. 
The flowers are inconspicuous, being 
low, nodding blossoms that hide under 
the leaves and do not differ from them 
in color. There are no petals, and the 
calyx is a three-parted cup whose divi- 
sions spread broadly. The root of the 
wild ginger provides a popular remedy 
for measles and whooping cough. 


1171 


GINSENG 


Ginseng, Jin’ seng, a Chinese herb of 
the Ginseng Family and valued in China 
for a drug obtained from its roots. The 
name ginseng is the corruption of a Chi- 
nese word meaning manlike and refers 
to the shape of the root, whose likeness 
to the human form caused the Chinese 
to believe it had occult curative powers. 
The plant has straight, slender stems and 
broad leaves, whose five leaflets extend 
from the top of the leafstalk. The flow- 
ers are a bunch of small, clustered blos- 
soms, growing upon a slender, naked 
stem and followed by small, scarlet ber- 
ries. The root, which has a pleasing 
odor and a sweet taste, is large and 
thick; the value of the plant depends 
upon the size and quality of this root; 
thus ginseng growers give especial at- 
tention to aids to its better production. 

Ginseng grows plentifully in China 
but the demand greatly exceeds the sup- 
ply, since it is there used for almost 
every conceivable household purpose as 
well as for medicine. The wild ginseng 
was discovered in America early in the 
18th century, and roots were almost 1m- 
mediately exported. The trade became 
so profitable that ginseng is now culti- 
vated in large tracts to be shipped to 
Chinese exporters at American ports. 
At present it is grown in many states 
east of the Mississippi and north of 
Georgia. Almost the entire crop is sent 
to China, where extremely high returns 
-are procured. 

Giordano, Jor dah’ no, Luca (1632- 
1705), an Italian painter, born at Na- 
ples. His father was an artist of little 
reputation who taught his son the ele- 
ments of his art. When but eight years 
of age, Giordano painted a cherub into 
one of his father’s pictures, and for this 
he acquired early notoriety. His rapid- 
ity of execution earned for him the title 
of Luca Fa-Presto (Luke Work-Fast), 
from the constant injunction of his 
father, greedy for the price of his paint- 
ings. Giordano studied in Rome and in 
many other Italian cities. In 1687 he 
went to Madrid, where he remained for 
13 years at the court of Charles II. He 
left many works, most of which are re- 


GIORGIONE DA CASTELFRANCO 
markable for their brilliant, showy color. 
Some of those best known are Christ Ex- 
pelling the Traders from the Temple, 
Moses and the Brazen Serpent, The 
Judgment of Paris and Christ with the 
Doctors in the Temple. 

Giorgione da Castelfranco, Jar jo’ na 
dah Kas” tel frahng' ko, (about 1478- 
1511), one of the greatest Italian paint- 
ers of the Venetian School, born at Cas- 
telfranco, near Treviso, of humble par- 
ents. In early boyhood he went to Ven- 
ice, where he became a pupil of Gio- 
vanni Bellini. He was a person of social 


charm and distinguished bearing, a ro-- 


mantic figure and a musician. In 1500 he 
was commissioned to paint portraits of 
the’ Doge Agostino Barberigo and the 
Condottiere Consalvo Ferrante; four 
years later an altarpiece at Castelfranco, 
and in 1507 the Hall of the Audience of 
the ducal palace. Besides these impor- 


tant engagements he decorated in fresco 


numerous Venetian palaces. One of the 
most important events of his life was 
his meeting with Leonardo in 1500, when 


the Florentine artist visited Venice. He’ 


died of plague at the age of 33, in the 
full splendor of his powers. Of the 150 
paintings attributed to him, only a few 
are of unquestioned authenticity. Among 
those which documentary evidence as- 
cribes to him are an altarpiece of the 
Cathedral of Castelfranco; the Family 
of Gwtorgione (Venice), an idealistic 
group in a landscape setting; Three 
Eastern Sages (Vienna); The Concert, 
in the Pitti Palace; Christ Bearing the 
Cross, owned by Mrs. Jack Gardner of 
Boston; and the Sleeping Venus, at 
Dresden. The last of these is generally 


considered to be the most chaste and. 


exquisite representation of Venus in 
the art of the Italian Renaissance. 
Giorgione’s position in Venetian art is 
analogous to that of Leonardo in Flor- 
entine art. He freed it from the conven- 
tional and rigid formulas and traditional 
shackles of his predecessors. With both, 
the picture was the apotheosis of the idea 
behind it, and detail was subordinated to 
general effect. Many of his pictures tell 
no story, but embody a mood and appeal 


1172 


ural action and natural feeling.” 


GIOTTO DI BONDONE 


to the highest artistic sense through 
beauty alone. “He achieved a full ex- 
pression in art of phases of the splendor, 
charm, grace and poetic melancholy of 
the Venice of his day.” 

Giotto di Bondone, Jot’ to de Bon- 
do' na, (about 1267-1337), an Italian 
painter and architect, born at Vespig- 
nano, near Florence. There is a legend 
that he attracted the attention of Cima- 
bue, who first saw him drawing his 
father’s sheep upon a slate by means of 
a sharp stone, and thereupon took the lad 
as his apprentice. The legend, however, 
has little foundation, and it is more prob- 
able that his training came from other 
sources. Giotto’s great work has been 
the vitalizing of Italian art; it is said of 
him that “it is his glory to have been the 
first among his countrymen to breathe 
life into wall pictures and altarpieces, 
and to quicken the dead conventionalism 
of inherited practice with the fire of nat- 
He 
prepared the plans for the beautiful 
Campanile of Florence, known as Giot- 
to’s Tower. His pictures are mostly re- 
ligious in theme, and his figures have a 
grace of form and coloring that make 
them especially appealing. Some of his 
frescoes are still to be seen at Rome and 
at Assisi, and on the walls of the Chapel 
of the Arena at Padua. Among his best- 
known works are the four allegorical 
frescoes in honor of St. Francis and 
scenes from the life of Christ. 

Giraffe, Ji raf’, or Camel’opard, the 
tallest of ruminating animals and one of 
the two members of the Giraffe Family. 
It is found in central Africa, where 
herds of them are still numerous, but 
was formerly known throughout the en- 
tire continent. The extraordinary height 
of the giraffe is due to the lengthening 
of the vertebre of the neck and not to 
any increase in their number. This also 
gives the forelegs an appearance of great 
length, though they are really no longer 
than the hind legs. The body slants 
from the long neck to the tail, and the 
reddish, spotted coat is sleek and silky. 
In order to drink or to crop grass the 
giraffe must spread its forelegs wide 


GIRONDISTS 


apart in an ungainly attitude, but when 
feeding on the twigs and leaves of trees 
it presents a graceful figure. Between 
the ears is a pair of skin-covered projec- 
tions, the rudiments of horns lost in the 
course of evolution; the tail is tufted like 
that of a cow. It can run swiftly with 
a rocking camel-like gallop. 

‘ Girard, Stephen (1750-1831). Ship- 
master, merchant, banker and _ philan- 
thropist, born at Bordeaux, France. He 
left home at the age of fourteen as a 
cabin boy on a ship of which he was part 
owner, the gift of his father. Ten years 
later, as master of a ship, he entered 
New York. In 1776, he was forced into 
Chesapeake Bay to escape capture by a 
British ship. Having to abandon the sea, 
he entered business in Philadelphia and 
afterwards amassed great wealth as a 
banker and became the financial advisor 
and supporter of the United States dur- 
ing the War of 1812. 

When he died his fortune was the 
greatest in America at that time, being 
about $7,500,000, the larger part of 
which was left to Philadelphia and to 
found the college known by his name. 

Girard, Ji rard’, College, at Phila- 
delphia (1848). Established by a be- 
quest of Stephen Girard, it was designed 
and has been administered for the educa- 
tion of poor boys, and the age of admis- 
sion was between six and ten years and 
the age of leaving between 14 and 18. 
Later the scope of the work was greatly 
extended to meet growing educational de- 
mands. The college fits its students for 
entrance to the leading American col- 
leges and also provides thorough training 
in. the industrial arts. The college is 
under the management of a board of 
trustees appointed by the judiciary of 
Pennsylvania. The original bequest of 
$3,250,000 has been increased until the 
institution now controls property exceed- 
ing $40,000,000 in value. The enroll- 
ment is 1,540. 

Girondists, Ji ron’ dists, the party of 
moderate republicans in the French Rev- 
olution. The name was derived from the 
Department of Gironde, whose deputies 
were the recognized leaders of the party, 


1173 


GLACE BAY 


and they constituted the most notable 
group of men in the Legislative Assem- 
bly which convened in 1791. They were 
able orators and succeeded for a time in 
controlling the Assembly; but they 
lacked the definite and determined policy 
of their rivals, the radical Jacobins, and 
were overthrown by them, all of their 
prominent leaders being executed in 
1793. See Jacopins; FRENCH REVOLU- 
TION. 

Glacé, Glas, Bay, a city of Canada in 
the Province of Nova Scotia, on Glacé 
Bay and the Sydney & Louisburg Rail- 
way, 15 m. e. of Sydney, to which city it 
is connected by an electric railway. It is 
the center of a coal-mining region, being 
the seat of the Dominion Coal Company. 
Mining and fishing are carried on and the 
city contains machine works and a wood- 
working factory. The annual production 
of the coal mines amounts to about 3,000,- 
000 tons. A little to the southwest of 
Glace Bay is a station of the Marconi 
Wireless Telegraph, from which the first 
message from Canada to England was 
dispatched on Dec. 21, 1902. Population, 
17,007. 

Glacial, Gla’ shal, Period (or the 
Great Ice Age), a name used to desig- 
nate the period of geologic time occur- 
ting during the first part of the Quater- 
nary, when, in the Northern Hemisphere, 
glacial conditions prevailed similar to 
those existing at the present time in the 
Arctic regions. Northern Europe, the 
British Isles and the northern half of 
North America were covered with ice, 
in places several thousand feet thick, 
which was intermittently accompanied 
by intense cold. Glaciers are never sta- 
tionary, but move continually; and the 
ice mass of North America traveled 
southwestward and southeastward, ex- 
cept the parts over what is now Canada, 
which moved northeastward. Quantities 
of material, such as boulders, trunks of 
trees and fossil remains, were transported 
by the action of the ice, and New Eng- 
land, Long Island, Canada, New York 
and the states southwest as far as Iowa 
are thickly covered with foreign matter 


GLACIER 


deposited in this way. This material is 
commonly called drift. In some places 
the ice sheet excavated lake basins, in 
others, channels for streams, and in the 
basin of the Mississippi it pulverized the 
rock into soil, so that the high degree of 
fertility of much of that region is due.in 
no small degree to the results of the 
Glacial Period. 


The cold of the Glacial Period was - 


probably due to a variety of causes act- 
ing interdependently. Among the theo- 
ries advanced is the one to the effect 
that the continents affected were at the 
time on a higher level above the sea, and 
that the land interfered with oceanic cir- 
culation and that vertical circulation of 
the air was affected; that lack of mois- 
ture and carbon dioxide in the atmos- 
phere reduced the temperature of the 
heat envelope around the earth; and that 
the average temperature of the earth’s 


surface was reduced and redistributed. — 


See GLACIER; GEOLOGY. 


Glacier, Gla’ sher, an icy mass com- ~ 


posed of both ice and snow, covering the 
“ands of the Far North and the sides of 
mountains above the snow line.} These 
great ice fields move from 18 to 24 
inches in a day and sometimes approach 
the limits of warmer zones. Their sur- 
faces are marked by fissures, or crevasses, 
and ‘along their extremities and sides are 
piled heaps of rock and earth, as a snow 
plow leaves the heaps of snow along its 
track; these mounds are known as mo- 
raines and are lateral or terminal ac- 
cording to their formation by the sides 
or ends of the glacier. Some of the most 
remarkable glaciers are those of the 
Alps; the Mer de Glace on Mont Blanc 
lies 5700 ft. above sea level, The Andes, 
the Himalayas and the mountains of 
northern Europe are also covered with 
glaciers of vast extent. 

The glaciers of Alaska are the largest 
on the American continent. A vast one 
on Mt. Fairweather is far larger than 
those of the Alps (See FAIRWEATHER, 
Mount). Others of nearly equal size 
and grandeur are the Malaspina, the 
Valdez and the Muir. See GuactaAL PE- 
RIOD. 


1174 


pO 


GLACIER NATIONAL PARK 


Glacier National Park, a national 
park located in the northwestern part of 
Montana. It has an area of 1400 sq. m. 
and was set aside as a park by the gov- 
ernment because of the beauty and gran- 
deur of its scenery. Within its bounda- 
ries are 250 lakes, ranging from 10 m. 
to a few hundred feet in extent; and 60 


glaciers, of which Sperry Glacier is the | 


best known. Snow-covered peaks, wild 
gorges, dense forests and clear streams 
with numerous cascades are striking 
features of the scenery. The park is a 
game preserve and contains many wild 
animals. The summit of Cutbank Pass 
is literally the top of the North Ameri- 
can continent. At this point one can dip 
water from Cutbank Creek and pour it 
‘out so as to send it to Hudson Bay, to 
the Pacific or to the Atlantic. 

Glad’den, Washington (1836-1918), 
an American clergyman and author, 
born in Pottsgrove, Pa., and educated in 
Oswego Academy and Williams College. 
In 1860 he was ordained to the Congre- 
gational ministry, and became pastor of 
the State Street Congregational Church 
in Brooklyn, N. Y. He was also pastor 
at St. Albans, Vt., at North Adams and 
Springfield, Mass., and at Columbus, 
Ohio. He was one of the editors of the 
Independent for four years, from 1871, 
and for two years was editor of the Sun- 
day Afternoon. Mr. Gladden is the au- 
thor of Young Men and the Churches, 
Workingmen and Their Employers, So- 
cial Salvation and many other valuable 
books. ~ 

Glad”ia’tor, a person who fought 
with weapons in an arena. The first 
_ gladiatorial combats are said to have 
taken place at funerals and may have 
developed from the custom of offering 
human sacrifices at the burial ceremo- 
nies. For a long time captives, criminals 
and slaves were the contestants, and 
throngs crowded the arenas to witness 
the combats. Schools for the purpose of 
training the gladiators flourished and 
contests of various kinds were arranged, 
as between men and beasts, two men or 
two parties of men. They generally 
fought without other protection than 


GLADSTONE 


small shields, and the weapon used was 
usually a small dagger. If a gladiator 
was wounded and asked for mercy, he 
held up his hand, but if the populace in 
response held their thumbs down, a sign 
that no mercy was granted, he must con- 
tinue to fight until he could defend him- 
self no longer. The combats were brutal 
and appealed to the low traits of the peo- 
ple, but were popular in Rome through 
several centuries. 

Gladiolus, a stately plant of the Iris 
Family. It is commonly grown in con- 
servatories and flower gardens for its 

| spike of showy 
crimson, white 
or yellow flow- 
ers. The stem is 
straight and 
leafy, the leaves 
sword-shaped 
and the flowers 
somewhat irreg- 
ular. The lower 
blossoms of the 
spike open first, 
disclosing a fun- 
nel-shaped tube 
with unevenly 
divided lobes 
streaked with 
darker shades. 
Florists are con- 
stantly produc- 
ing new varie- 
ties. A, blwe 
gladiolus is a re- 
cent production. 
The cultivated 
varieties have 
spikes some- 
times growing to 
a height of six 
feet, and pro- 
duce large blos- 
soms that are 
very ornamental. 

Gladstone, William Ewart (1809- 
1898), an eminent British statesman and 


GLADIOLUS 


-orator, born in Liverpool. His ancestors 


having lost their estates in the Scottish 
lowlands, his father, John Gladstone, 
went to Liverpool, where he became one 


1175 


GLADSTONE 


of the merchant princes of the city, a 
baronet and a member of Parliament. 
William was educated at Eton and at 
Christ Church, Oxford, graduating in 
1831 with the highest honors in classics 
and mathematics. After spending six 
months in Italy studying art, he entered 
Parliament early in 1833, where for more 
than 50 years he gave himself to the pub- 
lic service of his country. 

Gladstone’s unusual ability as a debater 
had become evident in college and gained 
immediate recognition in Parliament. In 
1835 he became junior lord of the treas- 
ury under Sir Robert Peel. In 1841 he 
was made vice-president of the Board of 
Trade, and turned his attention to the 
field of national finance, in which he sub- 
sequently became so famous. Two years 
later he succeeded to the presidency of 
the Board of Trade, and entered the 
cabinet at the age of 33. In 1845 he was 
secretary of state for the colonies in Sir 
Robert Peel’s cabinet; but during this 
period of two years was not a member of 
Parliament. He was returned to Parlia- 
ment, however, in 1847, as one of the 
two members for the University of Ox- 
ford. 

The next three years constituted a pe- 
riod of mental growth and transition, as 
Gladstone gradually swung away from 
his old political moorings in the Con- 
servative Party toward Liberalism. In 
1852 he came into still greater promi- 
nence as a debater by his vigorous 
speeches against the budget of Disraeli, 
which caused the overthrow of the min- 
istry and established his reputation ‘as 
the leading financier of the day. In the 
new cabinet he was made chancellor of 
the exchequer under Lord Aberdeen, a 
position for which he was eminently fit- 
ted by his combination of financial, ad- 
ministrative and rhetorical gifts. 

In 1858 he went as high commissioner 
to the Ionian Islands. He became chan- 
cellor of the exchequer again in 1859, 
under Lord Palmerston, and was by far 
the most brilliant and conspicuous figure 
in the cabinet. Lord Palmerston died in 
1865, and Gladstone, retaining the chan- 
cellorship of the exchequer under the new 


GLADSTONE 


ministry of Lord Russell, became leader 
of the House of Commons; and upon the ~ 
retirement of Lord Russell from political 
life in 1867, he became the recognized 
leader of the Liberal Party, with which 
he had by this time fully identified him- 
self. In 1868 the Liberal Party returned 
a large majority to Parliament, and 
Gladstone became’ prime minister. The 
Liberals were defeated in 1874 and he 
resigned; but in 1880 they were re- 
turned to power, and Gladstone became 
prime minister for the second time, re- 
maining in office until 1885. 

In 1886 he became premier for the 
third time, and soon startled the country 
by the. introduction of a Home Rule bill 
for Ireland and a bill for buying out 
Irish landlords. His policy was defeated 
in the general elections that ensued, and 
he made way for Lord Salisbury. The 
general elections of 1892, however, re- 
sulted in a majority of 40 for Home 
Rule, and Gladstone became prime min- 
ister for the fourth time, at the age of 
83. His new Home Rule bill passed the 
House of Commons in 1893, but was 
thrown out by the House of Lords. He 
regarded his political work as now com- 
pleted, and made his last speech in the 
House of Commons on March 1, 1894, 
soon afterwards presenting his resigna- 
tion as premier, but retaining his seat in 
Parliament until its dissolution in 1895, 
when he retired to private life at Ha- 
warden. Upon his death three years 
later he was buried in Westminster Ab- 
bey with every mark of popular respect 
and affection. 

The English legislation of half a cen- 
tury was identified with Gladstone’s 
name. Through his efforts, among other 
measures, a school system was adopted 
establishing boards of education in each 
district ; the Irish Land Act was passed, 
for the relief of Irish tenants; compul- 
sory Church rates were abolished and re- 
ligious. tests in the universities elimi- 
nated; the English Church was dises- 
tablished in Ireland; appointment to the 
army and navy by merit was substituted 
for the purchase of commissions; the 
franchise was greatly extended, and the 


1176 


GLAND 


secret ballot established ; and Home Rule 
for Ireland was carried in the House of 
Commons. 

Gladstone was a remarkable public 
speaker, being one of the leading orators 
of the Victorian reign. Tall and com- 
manding in appearance, with a voice 
clear and melodious, possessing a mem- 
ory that supplied him with facts down to 
the minutest detail, a master of wit and 
invective, clear and lucid in statement, 
quick and keen in repartee and debate, 
earnest, courteous and convincing in de- 
livery, he always held the interested at- 
tention of his hearers, and presented *his 
political and moral convictions with per- 
suasive power. 

Gladstone was a Conservative by na- 
ture and training. The new needs of the 
new age, however, forced him into the 
Liberal Party, where, often against his 
own natural sentiments, he advocated re- 
form measures that changing conditions 
convinced him were necessary for the 
comimon good. He was deeply religious 
in spirit, and in executing his purposes 
seeméd to have the conviction that eter- 
nal truth and right were on his side and 
must prevail, a conviction that greatly 
increased his forcefulness as a national 

leader. 
- In the midst of an unusually busy life, 
Gladstone retained his literary and schol- 
arly interests, and found time for read- 


ing and authorship along many lines. | 


Among his writings are The State in Its 
Relations with the Church, Letters on the 
State Persecutions of the N eapolitan 
Government, Studies on Homer and the 
Homeric Age, The Vatican Decrees, The 
Irish Question and A Translation of 
Horace. 

Gland, in anatomy, a term applied to 
a secreting organ. A gland consists of a 
layer or group of cells resting upon a 
basement membrane and a network of 
nerves and blood vessels. All glands fall 
into two principal groups, true secreting 
glands and ductless glands. The se- 
creting glands are either tubular, being 
merely depressions of mucous membrane 
jined with secreting cells, or saccular, 
consisting of an aggregation of sacs 


GLANDERS 


lined with epithelial cells arranged 
around a short tube, or duct, into which 
their secretion is discharged. The prin- 
cipal secreting glands of the body are: 
the lachrymal glands, or tear glands, of 
the eye; the mammary glands; the kid- 
neys and pancreas; the submaxillary, 
sublingual, parotid and buccal glands, 
which secrete the saliva; the liver, the 
largest gland in the body; the sebaceous 


‘ glands of the skin, numerous in the 


scalp, which provide an oily secretion; 
and the sweat glands, found all over the 
body. | 

The ductless glands are the spleen, the 
suprarenal capsules,.and the thymus and 
thyroid glands. The suprarenal capsules 
are situated close to the kidneys, and se- 
crete a substance called adrenalin, which 
has the power of stimulating the nerve 
fibers which control the muscles of the 
small arteries, causing them to contract 
and thus increasing the circulation of the 
blood. A diseased condition which inter- 
feres with their proper functioning re- 
sults fatally. The thymus gland is situ- 
ated in the chest. It is very large at birth, 
but rapidly decreases in size and some- 
times seems to disappear altogether. In 
hibernating animals a large supply of fat, 
reserved for the period of seclusion, is 
stored up in this gland. The thyroid 
gland is situated in the throat. Common 
diseases of this gland are goiter, which 
usually occurs in adults, and cretinism, 
a condition causing insanity, and often 
present from infancy. See Liver; Pan- . 
CREAS; SKIN; SPLEEN. 

Gland’ers, a bacterial disease com- 
mon among horses. It is known in two 
forms, the acute and the chronic. In the 
former the affected animal usually dies 
in from three to eight weeks, while in 
the latter it may live for years and be 
only slightly affected until the disease 
suddenly changes to the acute form. The 
presence of the disease is marked by the 
hard lusterless condition of the coat, the 
formation of bunches that turn to ulcers 
under the skin of the thigh and shoulder, 
and an offensive discharge from the nos- 
trils caused by the diseased condition of 
the lungs. The disease is spread by 


#1 1177 


GLASGOW 


means of infection from the discharges, 
and occasionally affects man as well as 
horses. At present no cure is known for 
it, but stringent laws are in effect in 
most states designed to prevent the 
spread of the disease. 

Glasgow, Glas’ ko, a city of Scotland, 
the largest of the country and next to 
London the largest in the United King- 
dom, situated on both banks of the 
Clyde River. To the northwest the level 
ground, on which the main part of the 
city is built, rises in a series of irregu- 
lar elevations. The streets are straight 
and wide and a good view of the river is 
obtained, with its bridges of light and 
attractive architecture. Buchanan Street 
separates the eastern, or old quarters, 
from the western part, which contains 
the fashionable residences. Most of the 
houses are built of white freestone. 
Among the old buildings is the Cathe- 
dral, begun in 1238, of .early English 
architecture and elaborately decorated. 
Above it is the Necropolis with impos- 
ing monuments. Other edifices are the 
handsome new buildings of the univer- 
sity, the Royal Exchange, the Bank of 
Scotland, the Merchants’ House, the 
General Post Office, the Institute of Fine 
Arts, the corporation galleries, the 
Mitchell Free Library and several col- 
leges and technical institutions. There 
are statues of Queen Victoria and the 
Prince Consort, Sir Walter Scott, James 
Watt, Sir John Moore, Sir Robert Peel, 
The Duke of Wellington and William 
Pitt, 

The industrial development of Glas- 
gow is largely due to its geographical 
position at the mouth of the Clyde River, 
which gives it an excellent harbor, as 
well as to the heavy iron and coal de- 
posits of the surrounding country. The 
commerce and manufactures are very 
significant. The exports include coal, 
chemicals, liquors, machinery and cot- 
ton, woolen and linen goods. The ship- 
building industry is the most important 
in the world, and here were built the 
celebrated “ocean greyhounds,” the Lusi- 
tania and Mauritania and the larger 
Olympic. The constructing of all kinds 


GLASS 1 


of machinery, cotton spinning, weaving, 
dyeing, calico printing and brewing are 
the chief industries. The St. Rol- 
lox Chemical Works are known as one 
of the largest establishments of their 
kind in the world. 

Glasgow has taken the lead in munici- 
pal activity and reform in the United 
Kingdom. There is a municipal coun- 
cil which divides into numerous subcom- 
mittees, these supervising the different 
departments of city administration. The 
city operates its own hospitals, tene- 
ments, lodging houses, public baths, sew- 
age plant, waterworks, street cars, light- 
ing plants, markets, slaughterhouses and 
harbor ferries. On all these investments 
it now gains a net profit. Glasgow was 
built as early as 560, and since the union 
of Scotland with England in 1707, its 
commercial growth has been very rapid. 
Population in 1922, 1,034,069. 

Glasgow, University of, at Glasgow 
(1450). It had a struggling existence 
until the middle of the 18th century, 
when it became famous and for a time 
enrolled a large number of students. In 
the 19th century it was reorganized and 
is now one of the largest British univer- 
sities. The site was changed in 1870 to 
more spacious grounds, and the new 
buildings were well planned and well 
equipped. The chancellor and principal 
of the university are appointed for life, 
and the rector is chosen by the students 
every three years. There are depart- 
ments of arts, medicine, theology, science 
and law, a library of two hundred and 
ten thousand volumes and numerous mu- 
seums and scientific laboratories. Queen 
Margaret College is for women. The 
average enrollment is four thousand five 
hundred. 

Glass, a common and usually trans- 
parent material made by melting together 
sand and some alkaline substance, such 
as potash, soda, lime or oxide of lead. 
When cold, glass is brittle, but it softens 
when heated, and at high temperature it 
can be molded into any desired form 
and drawn into fine threads suitable for 
weaving with silk. 

Varieties. The different substances 


1178 


GLASS 


used and the methods of manufacture 
employed give rise to numerous varie- 
ties of glass. Pure materials are essen- 
tial to a good quality of glass, whatever 
the variety. Sand is the foundation of 
all kinds of glass, and is the most diffi- 
cult substance from which to separate 
impurities. Iron is the most objection- 
able impurity, since it discolors the glass 
and makes it less valuable. Lime makes 
a hard, brilliant glass, but if too much 
is used, the glass is brittle. Potash makes 
a clear, transparent glass; soda imparts 
a green tint, seen in cheap bottles; oxide 
of lead makes a soft glass having a 
brilliant luster. 

Window Glass. Window glass is 
made of sand, soda and lime. The 
American window glass is first blown 
in the form of cylinders. These are 
flattened, and the sheet thus formed is 
cut into panes. 

Crown Glass is English window glass. 
It is blown in the form of a sphere, 
which is cut,open and flattened, forming 
a circular sheet that is cut into panes. 
It is now but little used. 

Colored Glass. Glass is colored by 
the oxides of different metals, which are 
added in small quantities to the ordinary 
ingredients. Iron gives all the rainbow 
colors, but its most common effects are 
orange and green. Manganese produces 
a pink or amethyst, but too high a tem- 
perature will turn it brown, then yellow, 
then green. Copper imparts a red to 
cheap glass, but when further heated it 
turns purple, blue and green: Cobalt 
produces a rich blue or a black. Gold 
in the form of purple of Cassius pro- 
duces the finest ruby, also violet and 
amber. Tin produces white. By mix- 
ing these coloring matters, many beauti- 
ful tints can be obtained. Sometimes 
glass is colored by dipping a white glass 
into a colored one in a molten state. 
Colored glass is extensively used in 
church windows. The most elaborate 
designs are first painted on the glass, 
then the colors are baked or burned in. 
Glass prepared in this way is called 
stained glass. . 

Flint ,Glass, remarkable for its clear- 


GLASS 


ness and transparency, is made of sand 
of excellent quality and lime and alu- 
mina. 

Plate Glass. This is the most expen- 
sive, as well as the most desirable grade 
of window glass, and is used in the 
large windows in stores and other public 
buildings. Its clearness and luster are 
due to the purity of the materials used 
in its manufacture and the high polish 
given the surface. It is made by pour- 
ing the molten glass on a table con- 
structed for the purpose, and flattening 
the sheet to a uniform thickness with a 
roller. When cool the surfaces are pol- 
ished. Skylight glass is a cheaper grade 
of plate that has not been polished. 

Wire Glass. This is a variety of 
plate glass containing woven-wire net- 
ting. The netting is stretched just far 
enough above the surface of the table to 
place it midway between the surfaces of 
the sheet, and the molten glass is poured 
around it. Wire glass is used for base- 
ment windows and in other places where 
ordinary glass is liable to be broken. 

Triplex Glass. This is a variety of 
glass recently invented in France. It 
consists of two plates cemented together 
with gelatin. The surfaces of each plate 
that are to face each other are covered 
with a thin coating of gelatin. These 
surfaces: are then placed together with 
a thick sheet of celluloid between. The 
whole is then subjected to pressure in a 
hydraulic press to make the combination 
solid. The triplex glass thus formed is 
to all appearances as transparent as or- 
dinary plate. If broken, the celluloid 
sheet prevents the fragments from fly- 
ing. Triplex has all the advantages of 


wire glass with the additional advantage 


of being transparent. 

Pressed Glass. This term is applied 
to glassware, that is, fashioned by press- 
ing the molten glass in a mold, and does 
not apply to the quality of glass used. 
All the cheaper grades of tableware are 
of pressed glass. 

Cut Glass. This is the most expensive 
elassware for table use. The articles are 
first cast in a mold, or blown, and have 
plain surfaces. A design is then marked 


1179 


GLASS 


upon them, and this is cut into the glass 
by holding the object against a grind- 
stone, shaped for the purpose. Water 
and sand continually drop upon the 
stone. The workman is guided by the 
pattern and his eye, and depends wholly 
upon his skill to produce the pattern. 
The grade of material, amount of labor 
and high degree of skill required in the 
manufacture of cut glass make this ware 
very expensive, and it often exceeds the 
price of silverware. 

MANUFACTURE. Furnace. The fur- 
nace is the most important part of a 
glass factory. This may be circular or 
rectangular, and in either case is the 
base of a huge chimney. The fuel is 
commonly gas, either natural or made 
from coal. In order to melt the mate- 
rials, they are either placed in fire-clay 
pots holding 1500 to 2000 Ib., which rest 
upon a shelf, or the materials are melted 
in a tank of fire brick. For the glass 
that is to be blown, pots are generally 
used, while for pressed glass, the tank 
furnace is employed. 

Preparation of Material. The sand 
and other materials are ground to a fine 
powder and intimately mixed in proper 
proportions, making what is known as a 
batch, and to this a small quantity of 
broken glass, or cullet, also ground fine, 
is added to assist in melting. When 
using pots it requires about 24 hours for 
the glass to melt. In tank furnaces the 
material is ‘constantly added and the 
glass constantly withdrawn, making the 
process continuous. 

Methods. The methods of shaping 
glass are pressing, molding and blowing. 
Window glass, bottles, vases, goblets and 
the finest tableware are made by blowing. 
The glass blower gathers on the end of 
a blowpipe, which is a straight iron 
pipe about four feet long, a quantity of 
melted glass, then by blowing, rolling and 
swinging the pipe he fashions the object, 
using also such tools as calipers, shears, 
etc. When blowing window glass, the 
glass blower stands over a trench several 
feet in depth, so that he may have more 
room to swing his blowpipe. He gathers 
on the end of the blowpipe a large mass, 


GLASS 


probably 25 Ib. in weight, and by blow- 
ing and swinging the pipe he causes the 
glass to take the shape of a pear, and 
by holding the pipe upright and con- 
tinuing to blow, and revolving the mass, 
he gets it into the.form of a cylinder. 
Afterwards the ends are cut off, and the 
cylinder is scratched with a diamond, 
cracked open and put into a flattening 
furnace, when, as it becomes heated and 
softened, a workman flattens it by press- 
ing it down upon a table. In this man- 
ner a pane of ordinary window glass is 
made. 

Machinery for blowing and special de- 
vices for assisting in molding and rolling 
glass are used. In many operations blow- 
ing and molding are combined. See 
Botte, 

Annealing. All articles made from 
glass have to be carefully annealed to 


prevent breaking from change of tem- 


perature. The process consists of slowly 
heating the articles until they approach 
the melting point, and then ,cooling them 
very slowly. This is accomplished by 
passing the articles through a chamber, 
whose various compartments are heated 
to different degrees of temperature. 
When glass is cooled too quickly a hard 
surface is formed before the molecules 
inside the glass have time to become ad- 
justed to the change of temperature. 
Pouring hot water into such a vessel or 
slightly scratching the surface will usu- 


ally cause it to break into a number of — 


pieces. 

History. The invention of glass is 
probably due to the Egyptians, among 
whom glass is mentioned in 3300 B. C,, 
made in the form of beads, vases, small 
figures, etc. The Phcenicians-took up 
the art and introduced it among the 
Romans during the empire, though they 
had long before imported glass articles. 
After its decline in Rome, the manufac- 
ture was transferred to Constantinople, 
where it flourished during the Dark Ages. 
The Arabs obtained a knowledge of 
glassmaking about this time, and the 
glassware made at Damascus during the 
Middle Ages became quite celebrated. 
Mirrors, goblets and cups from Venice, 


1180 


—————— 


a 


GLASS SNAKE 


known as Venetian glass, became famous 
for their beauty over the entire world. 
Germany, France and England became 
noted later for their glassware. The 
first glass factory in the United States 
was erected at Jamestown, Va., in 1608, 
but now the chief centers of manufac- 
ture are located in Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey, New York, Ohio, Indiana and 
Illinois. 

Glass Snake, a misnamed lizard of 
the Anguida Family and because of its 
invisible limbs often thought to be a 
snake. It is easily recognized as a liz- 
ard, however, because, unlike the snakes, 
it has well-developed eyelids and no ear 
openings. Its scales are so hard and 
glassy as to look as though newly var- 
nished; in color they are green, brown 
or black. The body has a fold of skin 
on each side from head to tail. Like all 
lizards it can part with its tail when at- 
tacked, but cannot, as some suppose, 
shatter itself against rocks and then put 
itself together again when the danger is 
past. Glass snakes are found in cen- 
tral and southern United States and in 
Europe and Asia.. An African species 
attains a length of four feet. 

BLINDWoRM. The blindworm is a 
nearly related species of the same family 
and differs mainly in being smaller, less 
stiff in its movements and in having 
grooved teeth, which indicate that the an- 
imal was once poisonous. It, too, seems 
to have been misnamed, as it has keen 
eyes, which are protected by a thin mem- 
braneous covering. Both the blindworm 
and the glass snake have underneath the 
skin the rudiments of limbs which have 
long been useless organs. See LIZARD. 

Glauber’s, Glow’ bers, Salt, a bitter, 
salty, crystalline compound, which takes 
its name from a German chemist who 
first prepared it as a medicine in 1658. 
Chemically, it is a sodium sulphate, white 
in color and having crystals that are re- 
duced to powder when exposed to the 
air. It occurs as the constituent of the 
medicinal waters of Karlsbad and Seid- 
litz, Germany, and elsewhere throughout 

urope, and in Great Salt Lake, Utah. 
Aside from its uses as a medicine, it is 


GLENS FALLS 


valuable in the manufacture of certain 
kinds of glass, and as a mordant in dye- 
ing and printing. See DvEINc. 
Glau’cus, in classic myths a fisher- 
man who became a sea god on tasting 
some magic herb. He loved the maiden 
Scylla, who spurned him. In his grief 


he applied to the sorceress, Circe, beg- 


ging not to be cured of his passion, but 
to have it returned. Now Circe, for her 
part, loved Glaucus, and so enraged did 
she become on not being able to win his 
affection, that she vented her spite on her 
rival. By poisoning the water in which 
Scylla was wont to bathe, Circe trans- 
formed her into a destructive monster. 
See CHARYBDIS. 

Another Glaucus was the Trojan hero, 
grandson of Bellerophon, who, with Sar- 
pedon, led the Lycian forces of Priam. 

Glendower, Glen’ door, Owen (about 
1359-about 1416), a Welsh chieftain, 
descendant from the last regular Prince 
of Wales and noted for his rebellion 
against Henry IV. Before Henry be- 
came king, Glendower was a follower of 
Richard II, but upon Henry’s accession 
he changed his allegiance. Later, be- 
cause of depredations upon his estate, 
which Henry took no measures to pre- 
vent, Glendower declared himself Prince 
of Wales, gathered about him a band of 
followers, intrenched himself in the 
mountains and resisted the King’s force 
for a number of years. 

Glens Falls, N. Y., a city of Warren 
Co., 40 m. n. of Troy and 60 m. n. of 
Albany, on the Hudson River and on 
the Delaware & Hudson Railroad. The 
region abounds in points of interest con- 
nected with the French and Indian and 
Revolutionary wars. It derives its name 
from the falls in the Hudson, which sup- 
ply excellent power. The city contains 
the Crandall Free Library, a state arm- 
ory, St. Mary’s and Glens Falls acade- 
mies, an old ladies’ home and the Parks 
Hospital and an excellent public school 
system. There are large quarries of 
limestone, extensive limestone works, 
cement works, saw and planing mills 
and manufactories of paper, shirt waits, 
collars, etc. Population, 1920, 16,638. 


1181 


GLOBE 


Globe, a sphere. Artificial globes 
constitute an important part of school- 
room apparatus. They may be made of 
metal, plaster or cardboard. There are 
two kinds of globes, the terrestrial and 
the celestial, the former containing a rep- 
resentation of the earth’s surface, the lat- 
ter a diagram showing the positions of 
the heavenly bodies. The terrestrial 
globe is held in position on a frame by 
a rod through the center corresponding 
to the earth’s axis; and by means of it 
the globe is free to rotate, and its inclina- 
tion to the plane of its axis is the same 
as that of the earth’s body. On the 
globe, parallels of latitude and the merid- 
ians are indicated, and sometimes ele- 
vations of land, such as mountain ranges. 
The finest celestial globes, if set in proper 
position, so exactly represent the posi- 
tions of the stars that a straight line be- 
ginning at the center of the globe and 
passing through the point on its surface 
indicating a particular star, if projected 
into space, wotld pass through the star 
so indicated. 

Globe, Ariz., county seat of Gila Co., 
124 m. n.w. of Bowie and 112 m. n. of 
Tucson, on Pinal Creek and on the 
Arizona Eastern Railroad. The city is 
noted for its great output of copper ore, 
and since the first settlement in 1873 has 
developed from a mining camp into a 
modern city. The adjacent region is 
rich in mineral wealth, and the city is 
surrounded by the Mogollon, White, 
Mazatzal and other mountains. The 
climate is exceedingly mild. Globe con- 
tains good municipal buildings and an 
excellent system of public schools. A 
city charter was granted in 1907. Popu- 
lation in 1920, according to the U. S. 
Census, 7,044, in 1922, estimated, 10,000. 

Globigerina, Glo bij"er 7’ na, a family 
of microscopic animals of the group 
known as Foraminifera. The various 
species are chiefly found in the deep sea, 
where they form a part of the floating 
plankton and where after death they 
sink and their tiny shells form the soft 
mud known as globigerina ooze. At 
great depths in the ocean floor this forms 
a stratum known as gray chalk. The 


GLOUCESTER 


sheli of the globigerina consists of a thin, 
limy covering separated into a few 
spirally-arranged chambers;: upon the 
outside are several depressions and 
spines which aid it in keeping afloat; 


some of these chambers contain a light 


liquid of less specific gravity than water, 
and these, too, aid in keeping it at the 
surface. The globigerina has no skele- 
ton and no specialized canal systems. Its 
most conspicuous feature is the mouth 
opening, a characteristic which it has in 
common with all Foraminifera. The 
elobigerina is the most abundant of this 
group. See PRroTozoA; PLANKTON. 

Gloucester, Glos’ ter, Mass., a city 
and port of entry of Essex Co., 28 m. 
n.e. of Boston, on Massachusetts Bay. 
It is beautifully situated on the south side 
of the Peninsula of Cape Ann, and is 
connected by the Boston & Maine Rail- 
road with the principal seaports and 
towns of the seaboard and interior. The 
city is a popular summer resort and the 
picturesqueness of its surroundings at- 
tracts many artists and tourists. There 
is a large, accessible and safe harbor for 
vessels of the largest class, and coal, salt 
and lumber are extensively imported. 
Gloucester is one of the most important 
fishing ports and fish markets in the 
world, having over 500 vessels engaged 
in the fisheries. Cod, herring, halibut 
and mackerel are the chief catches. It 
has also extensive granite works, foun- 
dries, forges, shipyards and manufacto- 
ries of oil clothing, twine, sails, shoes, 
fish glue and anchors. Not far distant 
is the massive sunken rock called Nor- 
man’s Woe, rendered famous by Long- 
fellow’s Wreck of the Hesperus. Nu- 
merous vessels have been wrecked in the 
vicinity. 

Gloucester was occupied as a fishing 
station as early as 1624, being the first 
settlement made on the north shore of 
Massachusetts Bay. The first settlers 
were from Gloucester, England, from 
which it received its name. It has the 
oldest Universalist church in the United 
States, founded in 1770. Annisquam, 
Bay View, East Gloucester, Lanesville, 
Magnolia, West Gloucester and Fresh- 


1182 


GLOUCESTER 


water Cove are near-by villages and sum- 
mer resorts. Gloucester was chartered 
as a city in 1874. The city has the com- 
mission form of government. Popula- 
tion in 1920, 22,947. 

Gloucester, N. J., a city of Camden 
Co., about 1 m. s. of Camden, opposite 
Philadelphia, on the Delaware River and 
on the Atlantic City and the West Jer- 
sey & Seashore railroads. It has ferry 
connection with Philadelphia. The city 
has manufactories of Smyrna rugs, 
woolen yarns, incandescent gas burners, 
boats, drills, fertilizers, etc. Gloucester 
was settled in 1677 and incorporated in 
1868. Population in 1920, 12,162. 

Glove, Gluv, a covering for the hand 
that encloses each finger in a separate 
sheath. A mitten has a separate sheath 
for the hand alone. The glove is of very 
ancient origin, and we do not know when 


or where it first come into use, but there . 


are authentic accounts of gloves being 
worn by the ancient Persians. The an- 
cient Greeks and Romans corisidered 
gloves unnecessary as a means of protec- 
‘tion, but in the latter part of the Roman 
Empire they were worn by the nobility 
and were highly ornamented. During 
the Middle Ages the glove was a mark 
of distinction, and those worn by officials 
of high rank were elaborately orna- 
mented. They were taken off in the 
presence of superiors. The gauntlet, or 
glove of mail, was a part of the knight’s 
armor, and throwing it down before an 
adversary was a challenge to combat. If 
the adversary picked up the gauntlet he 
accepted the challenge. 

There are two principal classes of 
gloves, those made of cloth, yarn or 
thread and those made of the skins of 
animals, either with or without the fur. 
Leather gloves of the finest quality or 
genuine kid gloves are made from the 
skins of young goats, but most of the 
so-called kid gloves on the market are 
made from sheepskin. Buckskin gloves 
are generally made of sheepskin, calf- 
skin, cowhide and horsehide, tanned, 
dressed, finished and split for the pur- 
pose. 


MANUFACTURE. Gloves are stamped 


GLOWWORM 


out of the finished leather into forms by 
special dies; the parts are sewed to- 
gether by a special type of sewing ma- 
chine; and afterwards the gloves are 
shaped and stretched over a metal hand 
heated by steam from within. While 
on this hand they are smoothed, polished 
and finished. Finally they are marked, 
assorted into sizes, arranged in pairs and 
wrapped in boxes ready for shipment. 
Kid gloves bearing the names of Paris 
factories have generally enjoyed the rep- 
utation of being the finest, particularly 
those made for women for full dress, 
and those of so-called dogskin for men’s 
wear from London have been similarly 
favored. However, by introducing im- 
proved methods of tanning and prepar- 
ing the leather, and, furthermore by im- 
porting skilled labor, the United States, 
which now makes an immense number of 
kid: gloves, has made rapid progress in 
glove manufacture. 

Knitted white gloves of cotton are 
used largely by policemen, porters and 
carriage drivers. Mittens of cotton 
cloth are made in great quantities, and 
are principally used by farmers, mechan- 
ics and laborers to protect their hands 
against injury when handling materials. 
Gloves made of rubber combined with 
cloth are used by housewives when dust- 
ing, sweeping and in washing dishes. A 
very thin glove made of rubber is em- 
ployed by physicians and surgeons to 
prevent infection. Knitted wool gloves 
and those of fur are the best gloves for 
protection against cold. 

Gloversville, N. Y., a city of Fulton 
Co., 53 m. n.w. of Albany, on the Fonda, 
Johnstown & Gloversville Railroad. The 
Nathan Littauer Hospital is located here. 
The city contains many fine public build- 
ings. It is the principal seat of the 
glove manufacture in the United States, 
its factories, with those of Johnstown, a 
sister city, controlling a large propor- 
tion of the entire production of the coun- 
try. It has also extensive manufactories 
of glove and shoe leather. Population 
in 1920, U. S. Census, 22,075. 

Glow’worm”, a name variously ap- 
plied to a number of wingless insects 


1182 


GLOXINIA 


having the power to emit light. This 
ability is seated in certain organs 
called luminous patches, which are lo- 
cated generally just beneath the skin on 
different parts of the body; they are 
composed of a network of nerves and of 
fatty tissue connected with the trachea 
in such a manner that air may be passed 
through them. The union of the oxygen 
and the tissues produces a slow combus- 
tion with the evolution of light. In 
America the wingless female of the firefly 
and its larve are called glowworms. See 
FIREFLY. . 

Gloxin’ia, a native of the tropics be- 
longing to the Gesneria Family. It is an 
almost stemless plant with wavy-mar- 
gined leaves and irregular, bell-shaped 
fiowers of various colors. The gloxinia 
is a favorite greenhouse plant and under 
cultivation produces.) numerous showy 
flowers. It is also used as a garden and 
house plant.. 

Glucinum, Gloo si’ num, or Beryl’- 
lium, an element found in the mineral, 
beryl, which under some conditions is 
known as emerald, a gem. On account 
of the sweetish taste of its salts, it was 
first called glucinum, and the two names 
are both in use at the present time. 
Glucinum was first obtained free by Bus- 
sey, in 1828. It is a comparatively rare 
element, though it is found in other min- 
erals, notably the emerald. 

Gluck, Glook, Christoph Willibald 
(1714-1787), a musical composer, of 
German parentage, but identified with the 
French school, born near Nuremburg. 
After study in Milan he wrote many 
florid operas in the contemporary Ital- 
ian style. In 1745 he went to London, 
where the scathing criticism of Handel 
awakened in Gluck a realization of his 
deficiencies, and going to Paris he de- 
veloped a music drama that was to be 
epoch-making. His later themes were 
lofty, many of them taken from classic 
drama, and in his handling of them all 
former flowery effects were sacrificed 
for the sake of dramatic consistency. 
The greatest of his operas are Orpheus 
and Eurydice, Iphigenia in Aulis, Iphi- 
gemia in Tauris, Armide and Alcestis. 


GLUCOSE SIRUP 


Glucose, Gloo' kose, commercially the 
name of sirup made from starch. The 
glucose placed on the market in the 
United States is made from corn. The 
process consists first in making starch 
from the corn (See STARCH), and then 
producing glucose from the starch. The 
starch is converted into sugar by form-. 
ing it into a paste with water containing 
sulphuric acid, and boiling the mixture. 
The acid is removed by adding chalk, 
and the mass is again heated and filtered 
through a press under steam at a pres- 
sure of 25 to 40 lb. per square inch. 
This gives a clear sirup, which when 
cooled forms solid glucose. This prod- 
uct is refined by reducing it to liquid 
form and filtering through charcoal, 
two products being obtained, the glu- 
cose of commerce and a residue known 
as grape sugar, because of its resem- 
blance to sugar obtained from grapes. 
Glucose is used extensively in brewing 
malt liquors, as a substitute for sugar, 
and in the manufacture of candy and 
artificial honey. It is not as sweet as 
cane sugar, but when properly prepared, 
it forms a cheap and healthful food. It 
is made chiefly in Germany and the 
United States, See Corn. 

Glucose Sirup, or Corn Sirup, a sirup 
made from the starch of corn, used ex- 
tensively in canning fruit and in making 
confectionery. Its manufacture has be- 
come a great industry in the United 
States, where the standard sirup does not 
contain more than 25 per cent of water 
nor more than three per cent of ash. 
The entire process of manufacture re- 
quires more than three days. The corn 
is steeped in water containing sulphurous 
acid, after which it is ground and the 
starch allowed to separate. The starch 
is then cleaned and heated with hydro- 
chloric acid and water in closed vessels 
called converters. At the close of this 
step, or when the starch has all been 
converted to sugar, the remaining acid 
is neutralized and a long process of fil- 
tration and concentration follows. The 
filtration is both bag filtration and bone- 
black filtration. With the final concen- 
tration the liquid becomes a thick, sirupy 


1184 


GLUE 


mass which does not crystallize readily 
and which is sweet to the taste, although 
only about one-half as sweet as cane 
sugar. 

Glucose sirup is used in adulterating 
other sirups, as a substitute for malt in 
brewing and, most widely, in making 
confectionery and in canning and pre- 
serving fruit. Consult Bulletin 66, Bu- 
reau of Chemistry, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, for a complete dis- 
cussion of its manufacture and use. 

Glue, a fluid cement, or adhesive 
preparation. It is usually impure gela- 
tin (See GELATIN). Glue is employed 
to unite pieces of wood and other ma- 
terials. It is purchased at stores in thin, 
hard, brittle cakes of dark brown color, 
which, on boiling with water in a kettle 
surrounded with water to prevent scorch- 
ing, forms a sticky mass known as liquid 
glue. Isinglass dissolved in cold water 
makes a glue known as fish glue. This 
is used in making a gum for sealing en- 
velopes. Isinglass glue is made by soak- 
ing isinglass in cold water until it 
swells, and then adding spirits of wine 
and chalk. Marine glue is equal parts 
rubber and shellac, dissolved separately 
in naphtha and then mixed. 

Glutton. See WOLVERINE. 

Glycerin, Glis' er in, an oily, colorless 
liquid obtained in large quantities in soap 
factories by treating fats with steam ata 
high temperature, or with lime. Pure 
elycerin is solid, but the presence of the 
slightest impurities prevents it from 
crystallizing; hence it usually occurs in 
liquid form. It is about as thick as sirup 
and has a slightly sweetish taste. It dis- 
solves readily in alcohol, but is insoluble 
in ether. It mixes with alcohol or water 
in any proportion. 
preserving animal and vegetable sub- 
stances; as a vehicle for administering 
medicines; for many purposes in the 
arts, such as keeping a material moist; 
in the manufacture of tobacco; in keep- 
ing paper moist for printing; in spin- 
ning, weaving, tanning; and in rope 
making. It absorbs moisture from the 
air and lowers the freezing point of 
water. It is employed in the manufac- 


Glycerin is used in. 


GNEISS 


ture of nitroglycerin. As an ingredient 
of toilet soaps, it is valuable in soften- 
ing the skin. In medicine it is used to 
soothe and heal. Confectioners employ 
it, and it is used to adulterate beer, wine 
and milk. It is sometimes itself adul- 
terated with glucose. 

Glyp’todon, an extinct animal 10 or 
12 ft. in length, allied to the armadillo 
and somewhat resembling the turtle. It 
had short, stout legs and stubby, hooflike 
toes, and stood in a more upright posi- 
tion than the turtle. A bony armor cov- 


ered the back and extended down over 


GLY PTODON 


the sides of the body. The tail and head 
were similarly protected. Fossil re- 
mains of the animal have been found in 
Florida, Texas, Mexico and South 
America. 

Gnat, Nat, a name given to a number 
of small, annoying insects of the order 
Diptera. Members of the family are al- 
ways disliked because of their blood- 
thirsty habits and their long, sharp pro- 
boscis which forms their organ of tor- 
ture. The eggs are laid upon the water 
and float there for three days, after 
which they hatch into aquatic larve. Fif- 
teen days are necessary for the larve 
to pass through the stages of develop- 
ment to the adult form. To rid a com- 
munity of gnats is comparatively easy if 
the pools of standing water are removed. 
The name gnat is becoming less common 
in usage and is being replaced by that of 
mosquito, which formerly referred to but 
one genus of gnats. See Mosquito. 

Gneiss, Nise, a family of metamorphic 
rocks composed chiefly of mica, feldspar 
and quartz and numerous accessory min- 
erals, among them garnet, graphite and 


1185 


GNOMES 


tourmaline, and sometimes copper, iron, 
cobalt, gold, silver and other metallic 
ores. It has nearly the same mineral 
composition as granite, but differs from 
granite in structure, the constituents 
lying in layers instead of massive, as in 
granite. It is the most widely distrib- 
uted of all metamorphic rocks. The or- 
igin of gneisses is not certainly known. 
They are of great geological age and 
were the typical rocks of the Archzan 
series. They are often found accompa- 
nied by limestone, graphite, ‘schists, 
quartzites and other sedimentary rocks, 
and for this reason many of them are 
thought to be sedimentary in origin, hav- 
ing been transformed into their present 
state by crushing, heat, recrystallization 
and other metamorphic agents. Also, 
their chemical composition differs from 
that of other igneous rocks. Many 
gneisses are igneous and, in structure, 
modifications of the normal type. They 
are sometimes an intermixture of sedi- 
mentary and igneous rocks. The com- 
monest and most important class of 
gneisses are those containing mica. Por- 
phyritic gneisses contain large crystals of 
feldspar, which sometimes traverse sev- 
eral layers. 

Gnomes, Nomes, in Norse mythol- 
ogy, part of an army of maggotlike crea- 
tures bred in the body. of Ymir, giant 
of fire and ice, to whom the gods gave 
forms and divine intelligence. These 
gnomes, dark, crafty beings, were con- 
demned to underground Svart-alfa-heim 
(home of the black dwarfs), and ap- 
peared in daylight only under penalty of 
being turned to stone. Under the lead- 
ership of Sindri they mined gold, silver 
and rich stones, besides acting as smiths 
for the gods. The female gnomes occa- 
sionally crept out to torment man. In 
this case he had nightmare. Dwarfs, 
trolls and kobolds were other names for 
gnomes. See Fairy. 

Gnu, Noo, or Wildebeest, Wild'- 
beest", a peculiar African animal of the 
Bovine Family and related to the an- 
telopes. It has a strong, but slender 
body and a heavy, buffalolike head with 
strong, curving horns. There are two 


_a cloth called mohair. 


GOAT 


chief varieties: one with brown fur, a 
long, reddish-white mane and tail and 
long, dark hair on the chest; the other 
with blue-black coat and black mane and 
tail. Both species require a great deal 
of water and are thus unable to live in 
the desert. The wild gnu has been al- 
most completely exterminated. 7s 

Goat, a useful member of the Bovine 
Family, which in many countries takes 
the place of the sheep, the cow and the 
mule. It is extremely hardy and can be 
used as a beast of burden in mountain- 
ous countries because of its sure-footed- 
ness and its ability to feede upon the 
coarse vegetation which would not sup- 
port more delicate animals. The goat is 
also valuable for its milk, which is sweet 
and nourishing, and for its coarse, 
strong hair, which is useful in making 
The Angora goat 
is a highly prized variety of the domes- 
tic goat, whose long, silky fur produces 
the best mohair; the cloth made from 
its fur remains firm and does not mat. 

Asia, especially the southern portion, 
is famous for its cashmere goats, which 
are another silky-haired variety. From 
their fur are made the valuable cash- 
meres of India (See CASHMERE GOAT). 
In America large herds of goats are less 
common. Their principal use is as pets 
or for clearing ground of coarse brush. 
In their feeding they are omnivorous 
and voracious. Goats have hollow, curv- 
ing horns, slender, agile limbs and short 
tails. The face is somewhat sheeplike, 
although the snout is more pointed and 
the eye more eager than that of the 
sheep. The male goat is bearded and is 
apt to be of rather uncertain temper. 

At present there are in the United 
States, according to the census of 1910, 
2,/98,160 goats having a total value of 
$5,964,812, and yet in the past ten years 
Americans have sent to foreign coun- 
tries $250,000,000 for goatskins. Con- 
sidering that the goat is of value not only 
for its skin but also for its flesh, milk and 
tallow, it would seem that larger herds 
might be raised with great profit in the 
United States. See Rocky Mountain 
GOAT. 


1186 


GOATSUCKER 


Goatsucker, a bird of the Whippoor- 
will Family. It is about ten inches in 
length, and is ash-gray, spotted and 
barred with brown, black and chestnut. 
White spots are conspicuous on the 
wings and the outer feathers of the tail. 
The mouth is very large, the gape ex- 
tending back to the eye. The two eggs 
are laid on the bare ground. The goat- 
suckers, which are confined to the Old 
World, were so named because of an 
ancient superstition that they sucked the 
milk from goats and cattle. The name 
“night jar” is often used for these birds 
and is given on account of the purring 
or jarring noise which they make. 

Gobi, Go’ be, Desert of, a desert re- 
gion of central Asia, forming an exten- 
sive plateau about 3000 ft. above sea 
level, a dreary stretch of sand, table- 
lands and mountains. The climate is 
generally severe, but during the summer 
the rainfall suffices for an adequate pas- 
turage for flocks and herds. Nomadic 
tribes, chiefly Buddhists, inhabit the cen- 
tral part, and to the north are several 
permanent settlements; numerous cara- 
van routes connect Siberia and China 
proper. 
~ God, the creator and ruler of the 
universe. In all languages there is some 
word or expression that voices, directly 
or suggestively, this idea of a supreme 
or superior being or beings who inspire 
reverence or worship. The idea is often 
vague and elusive among primitive peo- 
ples, manifesting itself in superstitious 
fear of the powers of nature and of 
ghosts. As such spirits peopling the uni- 
verse are many, polytheism, the belief in 
many gods, is the result. But with ad- 
vancing civilization and increasing intelli- 
gence and knowledge, the tendency is 
to a belief in one true and supreme God. 
The God believed in and worshiped by 
Christian nations is the God revealed or 
discovered in the history of the Hebrew 
people, supplemented by the life and 
teachings of Jesus. This God is a 
spiritual being, self-existent, all-power- 
ful, all-wise, everywhere present, a 
wholly just and loving personal spirit. 

Various arguments have been used in 


GODFREY OF BOUILLON 


the course of history to prove the exist- 
ence of God. The following are the most 
noted of these: The ontological argu- 
ment holds that the subjective existence 
of the idea of God involves the objective 
existence of God himself. The cos- 
mological, or causation, argument pro- 
ceeds from the existence of secondary 
causes back to the final cause of the uni- 
verse. The teleological argument, or argu- 
ment from design, holds that the evi- 
dences of plan, harmony, purpose and 
adaptation in the world prove the exist- 
ence of an intelligent designer. The 
moral argument maintains that the 
moral law within us involves a moral 
lawgiver in the world outside of us. The 
validity of these arguments has been 
called in question, and it is true that no 
one today would attempt to present them 
in the strictly logical form of the past, 
although the conceptions that underly 
them still have weight. But the reasons 
for the belief in the existence of God 
have now taken a wider range, including 
the study of human history, of human 
nature and the existence of the whole in- 
telligent and moral world, and make the 
postulate of the existence of God vastly 
more probable than any other view. See 
RELIGION; JESUS CHRIST; MOHAMME- 
DANISM; CHRISTIANITY. ; 
Godavari, Go dah’ va re, River. See 
Inp1A, subhead Physical Characteristics. 
Godfrey of Bouillon, Boo”yon', (about 
1060-1100), a leader in the First Crusade, 
born in Belgium. When the forces of 
Henry IV, Emperor of Germany, be- 
sieged Rome, Godfrey was the first to 
scale the walls. For this act Henry 
made him Marquis of Antwerp and Duke 
of Lorraine. He raised an army of 
80;000 infantry and 10,000 horsemen, led 
them with great ability through Ger- 
many to Constantinople, captured An- 
tioch and arrived at Jerusalem in 1099. 
After a siege of five weeks a breach was 
made in the walls and Godfrey was 
among the first to enter. He ruled in 
Jerusalem for a year and elaborated the 
system of medieval jurisprudence called 
Assize of Jerusalem. He died in 1100 
and was buried in the Holy Sepulchre. 


1187 


GOD SAVE THE KING 


God Save the King (or Queen), the 
national anthem of Great Britain. The 
origin of the words and music is a mat- 
ter of dispute. The familiar song My 
Country “Tis of Thee is sung to the 
same tune, and Germans and Russians 
also have national songs written to this 
music. 

God’s Truce. See TRUCE OF Gop. 

Godwin, Parke (1816-1904), an 
American journalist, born in Paterson, 
N. J. He was associated with his father- 
in-law, William Cullen Bryant, in edit- 
ing the New York Evening Post, and he 
edited Putnam’s Magazine for a short 
while. As an author he is known for 
his Handbook of Umiversal Biography, 
A Mythological Tale, Political Essays 
and for his edition of The Life and 
Works of Wiliam Cullen Bryant. 

Goethals, Go’ thals’, George Wash- 
ington (1858- )3 the builder of the 
Panama Canal, was born in New York 
City and educated at West Point, gradu- 
ating in 1880. He was for four years 
instructor in civil and military engineer- 
ing at West Point. He superintended 
the construction of the Mussel Shoals 
Canal along the Tennessee and during 
the Spanish American War was en- 
gineer for the volunteer army. In 1907 
Colonel Goethals became Chief Engineer 
of the Panama Canal where his skill as 
an engineer and administrative ability 
won him a world-wide reputation. In 
1915 he was made Brigadier General and 
appointed Governor of the Canal Zone. 

Goethe, fon Gw' te, Johann Wolfgang 
von (1749-1832), a German poet, dram- 
atist and philosopher, born at Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main. His father’s serious- 
ness and his mother’s impulsive imagina- 
tion as well as poetic gifts were a pre- 
cious inheritance to the young boy, who 
fed his childish fancies on books, an- 
tiquities and works of art in the old 
home. He was a precocious child, know- 
ing something at eight of French, Ital- 
ian, Latin and Greek. In 1765 he went 
to Leipsic to study law, and, after a brief 
illness which compelled him to return to 
Frankfort, he continued his legal stud- 
ies at Strassburg. There he also took up 


GOETHE 


music, anatomy, art and chemistry. | 
met Herder and a close intimacy was 
formed between the two; they spent 
their time studying the masterpieces, 
Herder urging the need to create na- 
tional ideas and to appreciate Shakes- 
peare and the folk songs. About the 
same time Goethe fell in love with a 
charming girl, an experience which col- 
ors some of his later literary work. 

He returned to Frankfort after grad- 
uating in 1771, went to Wetzlar to prac- 
tice law, and soon published his first 
drama, Gotz von Berlichingen. Then 
there came a new love affair, which the 
novel, The Sorrows of W erther, immor- 
talizes. In 1775 he was invited by Karl 
August to become one of the court at 
Weimar, and gradually the heavy State 
duties forced the young poet to give up 
his round of merry pleasures. As a man 
of affairs his foresight, energy and bal- 
anced judgments brought him wide polit- 
ical recognition. Agriculture, horticul- 
ture, geology and mineralogy, as inter- 
ests of the State, soon became his own, 
and he devoted only a small part of his 


time to writing during the ten years that 


followed. In 1786 he asked leave to visit 
Italy, and could scarcely restrain his im- 
patience at the thought of the long-ex- 
pected journey which was to exert so 
tremendous an influence on him, 

In Italy, the land of blue skies, he 
gained a clearer vision of his duty and 
mission as a poet, and from -the year 
1788 he worked with the calm and self- 
possession of a seer. Never wholly in 
sympathy with the “Storm and Stress” 
movement of the literature of his native 
country, he here caught the spirit and 
the beauty of the Greek classics, and a 
change becomes apparent in all his sub- 
sequent work. The unfinished products, 
Iphigenie, Egmont, Tasso and Faust 
which he brought with him to Italy, were 
later completed in a wholly different vein 
from the one in which they were begun. 
On his return to Germany he found his 
country backward in its literary activ- 
ity as well as appreciation, and for some 
time he renounced writing, devoting him: 
self to scientific pursuits, 


1188 


He 


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. a... ee ee 


GOETHE 


His renewed interest in literature was 
brought about through the influence of 
Schiller, who soon proved to be an en- 
couraging and sympathetic critic. Goethe 
now wrote Reinecke Fuchs, Wilhelm 
Meister, the fragment of Achilleis, his 
share of the Xenien and Hermann and 
Dorothea. The last is a classic of sim- 
plicity, done with Homeric insight, with- 
out sentimentality and without idealiza- 
tion. He made use of an old and homely 
story, and made it a masterful tribute 
to family life. An unsuccessful attempt 
was also made to complete the first part 
of Faust. He published an exquisite 
cycle of ballads, Der Zauberlehrling, 
The Bride of Corinth, Alexis and Dora 
and The Good Women. 

_ Despite the fact that he was not in 

sympathy with the Romanticists they 
looked upon him as their master, and 
when the first part of Faust appeared 
in 1808 they hailed it enthusiastically as 
the very triumph of their art. After the 
death of Schiller, whose loss Goethe 
deeply mourned, a third period of activ- 
ity followed, during which he wrote 
Elective Affinities, his autobiography 
published under the title, Truth and Fic- 
tion Relating to My Life, the Conver- 
sations, the continuation of Wiulhelm 
Meister and the second part of Faust. 
During the last years of his life he lived 
in retirement, except for the pilgrimages 
made to his home by the younger gen- 
eration, who looked upon him as a lit- 
erary giant, a survivor of an heroic past. 

Of his work in the many fields, poster- 
ity has shown a willingness to ignore his 
scientific researches and economic the- 
ories, despite the fact that they were 
modern to an extraordinary degree; 
even his art criticism and his novels 
have minor significance. But as a lyric 
poet he stands supreme in a country es- 
sentially lyric in its literary expression. 
There is an exquisite grace and a sweet- 
ness about his verse, and a combination 
of melody and music of words, as well 
as sentiment and depth of feeling, such 
as few poets of the world have paral- 
leled. And Faust, his masterpiece on 


which he labored from early manhood. 


GOITER 


until the approach of old age, is Ger- 
many’s most national drama. It is the 
full “confession” of his life and ex- 
perience. But it is more than the story 
of individualized experience; it embraces 
the strivings of the Humanists of the 
18th century, and in the Second Part the 
poet enters the unreal world of allegory 
and presents the whole of human life 
and activity. His theme is the turning 
of an idealist from private haunts, 
thoughts and dreams, from all that is un- 
natural, to the real world, to the com- 
pany of men and to nature and the 
founts of life. There is here a noble 
expression of the poet’s faith in the ulti- 
mate triumph over the powers of evil, 
and his world-wisdom and philosophy of 
life are sounder and wiser than any other 
that literature has recorded since the 
Renaissance. That Goethe himself con- 
sidered it the culmination of his life work 
is apparent by his exclamation when he 
was sealing the manuscript of the Sec-_ 
ond Part: “The rest of my life may be 

regarded as a free gift. It is now really 
indifferent what I do, or if I do anything 
at) all.’ 

Goethe’s genius was of the universal 
type, a mind responsive to all the intel- 
lectual interests that literature, art, sci- 
ence and philosophy might offer. He 
was first and last modern, quick to sym- 
pathize with the changing social condi- 
tions of the 19th century, and as ready 
to grant that the idyllic age of his early 
years, the last decades of the 18th cen- 
tury so fruitful in their contributions to 
art, must yield to the demands of a new 
industrial system. As a philosopher and 
as a moralist he exerted a powerful in- 
fluence. Greater only than his work was 
the fullness and richness of his life itself. 

Goi’ter, a disease causing swelling of 
the thyroid gland in front of the throat. 
It is universal, but in certain localities 
the cases are more numerous than in 
others. It is a common occurrence in 
Switzerland and is not infrequently 
found in the Alps, Andes and Himalaya 
Mountains, in Derbyshire, England, and 
in various other localities where the geo- 
logical formation consists largely of lime 


1189 


GOLD 


and the drinking water is impregnated 
with that mineral. Women are oftener 
affected than men. 

Gold, a precious metal, which, on 
account of its luster and resistance to 
oxidation, has always been used in orna- 
mentation and as money. Gold is found 
in quartz veins in the oldest rocks and 
in the sand of most river beds. It is 
estimated that there is two cents’ worth 
of gold in every ton of sea water. Gold 
is found in association with lead, silver 
and copper, and many processes for sep- 
arating it from its alloys are now in use. 
See METALLURGY. 

Gold is a relatively soft, reddish-yel- 
low metal of such ductility that it can 
be drawn into exceedingly fine wire 
threads and beaten into very thin leaves. 
The light passing through these leaves 
has a greenish tinge, and gold when 
melted is a greenish liquid. Gold does 
not tarnish in air even when heated, and 
is attacked by only one single acid, 
selenic, or by the compound nitric-muri- 
atic acid, called aqua regia. It is also 
soluble in potassium cyanide. 

Gold is so soft and wears away so 
rapidly that it is seldom, if ever, used 
pure, but generally in alloy with cop- 
per or silver. With the former it has 
a tinge of red, and with the latter a 
paler gold color. American gold coins 
are 90 per cent gold and 10 per cent 
copper. Goldsmiths estimate the pu- 
rity of gold in carats, 24 carats being 
pure gold. Most jewelry is from 14 to 
18 carats fine. Gold is used everywhere 
for the choicest ornaments and ranks in 
this respect with the precious stones. It 
is also the standard for money in all 
civilized countries. 

The chief gold-producing countries 
are South Africa, United States, Aus- 
tralia, Mexico, Canada and Russia. The 
annual production of gold in the world 
is about $350,000,000. Of this amount 
the United States produces about 
$96,000,000, Africa about $175,000,000 
and Australia about $65,000,000. The 
leading gold-producing states of the 
United States are California, Colorado, 
Nevada and South Dakota. 


GOLDEN EAGLE 
Gold and Silver Certificate. See 
Money, subhead Paper Money. 

Gold Beating, the process by which 
gold is hammered into extremely thin 
leaves, making what is known.as gold 
leaf. This is used in ornamental gilding 
to protect metal surfaces against rust, 
and for filling teeth. The arts of gold 
beating and gilding were known to the 
Egyptians many centuries before the 
Christian Era. The process in gold beat- 
ing is first to cast the gold into thin, 
oblong pieces weighing two ounces. 
These are flattened into a ribbon 6f about 
1/800 of an inch thick, and the ribbon 
is then cut into pieces one inch square; 
150 of these are placed between inter- 
vening leaves of vellum, or tough paper, 
and enclosed in a parchment case. This 
pack is beaten on a wooden block with a 
heavy hammer until the gold pieces meas- 
ure four inches square. These are then 
cut into four pieces, when they are again 
beaten in a similar manner, but this 
time between leaves of goldbeater’s skin, 
a membrane from the intestines of cat- 
tle. The final result is a thickness of 
about 1/200,000 of an inch, making an 
ounce of gold cover about 100 sq. ft. 
By using silver and other different met- 
als as alloys a variety of colors is ob- 
tained, but if the gold is too much adul- 
terated, its malleability is destroyed. 
See ALLOY; GILDING. 

Gold Coast, a British crown colony 
of West Africa, lying between the Ivory 
Coast and Togoland and reaching from 
the Gulf of Guinea to French West Af- 
rica. In its southern part lies the Prov- 
ince of Ashanti (See ASHANTI); its 
total area is 82,000 sq. m. Near the 
coast the country is level, but farther in- 
land are low mountain ranges. The soil 
is fertile, but because the climate is not 
healthful settlers are not attracted to the 
country. Palm oil, palm kernels, valu- 
able woods and gold dust are exported. 
The population is about 1,502,900, most 
of whom are pagans. 

Golden-Crowned Thrush. See Oven- 
BIRD. 

Golden Eagle. 
Golden Eagle. 


See EacLe, subhead 


1190 


GOLDEN FLEECE 


Golden Fleece, in classic myths the 
ram’s fleece for which Jason and _ his 
hero crew sailed to Colchis in the Argo. 
See ARGONAUTS; JASON, 

Golden Gate. See CALIFORNIA, sub- 
head Scenery. 

Golden Robin. See OrioLe, subhead 
Baltimore Oriole. 

Goldenrod, an American wild flower 
of the Composite Family, so common 
that it has been chosen the national flower 
of the United States and the state flower 
of Missouri, North Carolina, Alabama, 
Kentucky and Nebraska. There are over 
100 species known in the United States, 
and all are roadside or river-bank plants, 
blooming in the late summer and early 
autumn. The stems are brown and dry, 
varying in height and being smooth or 
hairy according to the species. The 
leaves also vary greatly in the different 
species, being rough or smooth, parallel- 
veined or much-divided. In all but one 
species, the white goldenrod, or silver- 
rod, the flowers are yellow. 

The most common species, the early 
goldenrod, the showy goldenrod and the 
late goldenrod, bear their flowers in long, 
loose clusters, often mostly on one side 
of the stem and often in partly pyramid 
form. The other common species are 
rather easily distinguished, from their 
names: broad-leafed goldenrod, acute- 
leafed goldenrod, seaside goldenrod and 
sweet goldenrod. The last species has a 
noticeable fragrance when crushed. 

Goldfinch, a bird of the Finch Fam- 
ily. The American goldfinch, also known 
as the yellowbird and the wild canary, 
is a beautiful little bird about the size 
of a canary, which it closely resembles. 
In summer the male is bright yellow, 
with. black crown, wings and tail and 
white wing and tail markings. The fe- 
male is olive-brown above and yellowish 
below and has no black on the forehead. 
In the winter the male is of the same 
color as the female. The song resembles 
that of the canary. The nest is placed 
in the crotch of a tree or bush not far 
from the ground, and is a cup-shaped 
structure, skillfully woven and lined with 
thistle down, thus giving the bird locally 


GOLDSMITH 
the name thistle bird. It contains three 
to five bluish eggs. In autumn these 
birds collect in flocks. They feed upon 
seeds, being especially fond of the gold- 
enrod, thistle and sunflower. They do 
not migrate and can be kept near dwell- 
ings during the winter by planting sun- 
flowers in the garden and leaving them 
for the birds to feed upon. 

Chapman says: “I wish everyone 
knew the goldfinch. His gentle ways and 
sweet disposition are never failing anti- 
dotes for discontent.” 

Goldfish, a Chinese fish of the Carp 
Family, introduced into the United 
States and other countries because of its 
beautiful form and color. A darker color 
is natural to the goldfish, and the pure 
yellow fish are obtained only through 
careful selection and breeding. The 
goldfish are small, rarely more than six 
inches in length, and are among the very 
few fish which are tamable and show 
any signs of affection. They have be- 
come domesticated on the Potomac 
through escape from fountains and 
aquariums, but have there reverted to 
their natural dark color. 

Goldschmidt, Jenny Lind. See Linn, 
JENNY. 

Goldsmith, Oliver (1728-1774), an 
English poet, novelist and playwright, 
born probably in Pallas, Ireland. He 
studied at Dublin University, graduating 
in 1749, and attempted to enter five or 
six professions without success. When 
he applied for ordination he was quickly 
dismissed from the episcopal palace for 
appearing in a bright scarlet costume; 
the money his uncle gave him to study 
law in London was lost in a gambling 
den; his stay at the University of Edin- 
burgh and at Leyden left him with only 
a smattering knowledge of medicine. 
From 1753 to 1756 he wandered through 
Europe, making his way (as runs the 
story) with a flute, on which he played 
so merrily that the dancing peasants hos- 
pitably offered him a bite to eat and a 
bed. Then he turned to hack-writing, 
and in the magazines for which he wrote 
appeared his Enquiry into the Present 
State of Polite Learning in Europe, the 


1191 


GOLD STANDARD 


Chinese Letters (later known as The Cit- 
izen: of the World) and the Life of 
Richard Nash. In 1764, his whimsical 
and delightful writings having attracted 
attention, he became one of the original 
members of the famous Literary Club in 
London. Dr. Johnson, as the account 
goes, was the agent for the sale of the 
manuscript of the Vicar of Wakefield, 
which was sold in 1764, appearing two 
years later. Despite the successes of his 
novel, poems and comedies alike, he al- 
ways remained poor, himself and his 
own mismanagement to blame for his 
sharp distresses. 

The two productions which made him 
famous as a poet are The Traveller and 
The Deserted Village. In both are found 
a spirit of quiet meditation, a moralizing 
strain and a winsome view of rustic life. 
His classical couplet is a close approach 
to the polish and perfection of Pope’s. 
His comedies are pure and laughing, in 
drollery and rich mirth far surpassing 
anything previously written during this 
period. The Good Natured Man was not 
warmly received, for the public was too 
accustomed to the sentimental comedy of 
the age to recognize its merits. But the 
sprightly, uproarious humor of She 
Stoops to Conquer triumphed and its 
first night was a splendid success. No 
less fascinating in its humor and gentle 
satire on village life was the Vicar of 
Wakefield, a novel with an aimless plot 
but with sparkling fun and inimitable 
character portrayal. Goldsmith adhered 
with difficulty to fact, and his History of 
England, as well as his essays, though at 
their worst very readable, are lacking 
even in any pretense of accuracy. 

Gold Standard. See BIMETALLISM. 

Golf, a game known to have existed 
in very ancient times among the people 
of Holland and Belgium, where, how- 
ever, it was most commonly played on 
the ice. It derived its name from the 
Dutch word for club. Introduced into 
Scotland previous to 1457, it had by that 
time begun to rival archery in the affec- 
tions of the people; and has now long 
been known there as “The Royal and An- 
cient Game of Goff.” Since 1880, how- 


GOLF 


ever, the tremendous interest among the 
English people has greatly stimulated in- 
terest among the Scotch; while, in the 
United States, the game has become im- 
mensely popular since about 1890. 

Golf is played on fields, or links, over 
courses of either 9 or 18 holes, these 
being four and one-half inches in diam- 
eter and not less than four inches deep, 
and located at the center of carefully 
tended spots called greens. A course of 
18 holes should be not less than three 
nor more than five miles long. The 
holes should be from 100 to 600, or 
more, yards apart; and the last should 
be near the first. The location of each 
is indicated by a metal flag supported 
on an upright iron rod which rests in 
the hole except when temporarily re- 
moved by a player. If one plays alone, 
he aims to drive a white gutta-percha 
ball, one and three-quarter inches in 
diameter and weighing from 26 to 28 
pennyweights, over the entire course, 
putting it successively into each of the 
holes, with the fewest strokes possible. 
He is said to play against bogey, a speci- 
fied number of strokes allowed for each 
hole, and for the course. 

It is desirable to have numerous ob- 
stacles, or hazards, between holes. 
Where such do not exist, in the form of 
walls, trees, pits or water courses, they 
are supplied by artificial means. For 
overcoming these various difficulties, 
clubs of different size and form have 
been devised. Six are usually deemed 
sufficient,—one for long drives, and oth- 
ers to raise the ball over obstacles, re- 
move it from difficult positions or for 
the short strokes necessary upon ap- 
proaching a hole. In starting, and after 
the ball is removed from a hole, it is 
placed on a little elevation, called a tee, 
which is commonly of sand. This makes 
possible a long drive at a single stroke, 
perhaps 200, 250 or 280 yards. When 
two or more compete, they play in reg- 
ular order; and, after each hole, in the 
order in which-they made that, or holed 
out. 

The game is called singles when be- 
tween two, and foursomes when two, as 


1192 


GOMEZ Y BAEZ 


partners, compete against two others. 
In match play the winner has finished 
the course with fewer strokes than his 
opponent. In medal play the game goes 
to the one who wins the largest number 
of holes. In America, the central au- 
thority, since 1894, has been the United 
States Golf Association. There are, 
however, numerous subordinate leagues 
and associations and numerous independ- 
ent clubs. 

Gomez Y Baez, Go’ mase e Bah’ ase, 
Maximo (1826-1905), a Cuban patriot 
and general, born at Bani, San Domingo. 
When a young man he served for a time 
in the Spanish army, but later became a 
planter. On the breaking out in 1868 of 
the series of insurrections, Gomez took 
his place among the insurgents. He soon 
became a leader and then a commander 
of Cuban forces. In 1895 he was made 
general-in-chief of the Cuban army, but 
was dismissed in 1899 because he re- 
ceived for his soldiers $3,000,000 appro- 
priated by the Congress of the United 
States. He cooperated with the United 
States in the effort to secure Cuban in- 
dependence, but his motives were not 
always appreciated by his compatriots, 
so that he spent some time in exile. 

Gomor’rah. See Sopom. 

Gom/’pers, Samuel (1850- ), an 
American labor leader, born in London, 
England. He received his education in 
a night school. He was a shoemaker and 
later a cigar maker. While serving in 
this latter capacity he became greatly 
interested in the conditions of laboring 
people and in the social questions in- 
volved. After coming to the United 
States he continued his efforts to im- 
prove the conditions and lighten the bur- 
dens of the laboring classes. Mr. Gom- 
pers was one of the founders of the 
American Federation of Labor, and, with 
the exception of one year, has been its 
president. He is also the editor of The 
American Federationist, the official organ 
of the society. He is also vice- -president 
of the National Civic Federation. 


Gon’dola, a boat usually about 30 


feet long and four or five feet wide, each 
end of which is sharp and raised to the 


‘ized on the fraternal order. 


GOOD TEMPLARS 


height of perhaps five feet. On the 
canals of Venice, they were for centuries 
the only means of transportation. They 
have never been much used elsewhere, 
and power boats are now threatening 
their existence even in Venice. In ac- 
cordance with an ancient law, they have. 
always been painted black, except those 
of certain officials. The oarsman, or 
gondolier, stands in the stern facing for- 
ward, and rows with a single long oar. 
Sometimes there is a second oarsman in 


the bow. Passengers occupy a cabin 
amidships. 
Goo’ber. See PEANUT. 


Goode, George Brown (1851-1896), 
an American scientist, born in New AI- 
bany, Ind., and educated at Wesleyan 
University. From 1887 until his death 
he was assistant secretary of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, in charge of the Na- 
tional Museum at Washington, D. C. 
He was a prominent authority on fishes 
and was connected with various popular 
scientific exhibitions. His publications, 
about 400 in number, deal mostly with 
ichthyology and the management of 
museums. 

Good Friday, a Christian feast hon- 
oring the death of Christ on Calvary, 
and observed on the Friday before 
Faster.. Nearly all Christian Churches 
have fitting services on this day. In the 
Catholic Church mass is not said, nor is 


‘communion given; but all peoples of the 


world are prayed for, and at three 
o'clock the “Way of the Cross” is re- 
cited. Candles are unlighted and the 
stripped altar is overshadowed by a cross 
veiled in mourning. The vestments worn 
are black. 

Good Templars, Independent Order 
of, a temperance brotherhood organ- 
It originated 
in Fayetteville, N: Y., in 1851, The 
members are pledged to abstain from the 
use of intoxicating liquors and to con- 
form to the rites and ceremonies of the 
order. The organization includes local 
lodges, county lodges and an interna~ 
tional right worthy grand lodge. There 
is also a juvenile order. The total mem- 
bership is about 620,000. 


1193 


GOOD WILL 


Good Will, in business whatever ad- 
vantage has occurred to a business be- 
cause of its location, long continuance, 
the reputation established by upright 
dealing and by its connections. In law 
the good will of a business is considered 
property and one of the factors in de- 
termining the valuation of the business 
in case of transfer.. In such case when a 
business is sold it is not supposed that 
the former proprietor will engage in the 
same business in a locality where his 
trade will affect the trade of the party 
to whom he has sold. 

Goodwin, Nathaniel Carl (1857- 
1919), an American actor, born in Bos- 
ton, Mass. He made his début in 1873, 
playing in Joseph Bradford’s Law, and 
his first decided success was as Captain 
Crosstree in Black-Eyed Susan. In 1898 
he married the well-known actress Max- 
ine Elliott, with whom he was associ- 
ated in several performances. Among 
the burlesques and light comedies in 
which he established his wide reputation 
as a comedian are Black-Eyed Susan, A 
Gilded Fool, Nathan Hale, The Altar of 
Friendship and When We Were Twenty- 
one. 

Goodyear, Charles (1800-1860), an 
American inventor, born in Connecticut. 
He early began to manufacture hard- 
ware in Philadelphia, soon discovering 
that the surface of rubber hardened 
when dipped in nitric acid, thus making 
it less sticky in warm weather and less 
brittle in cold weather. This process 
was used for years in manufacturing rub- 
ber shoes. Later, Goodyear perfected 
the vulcanizing of rubber, which he ap- 
plied to many practical uses. His pat- 
ents are in general use today. He was 
awarded medals at the London (1851) 
and Paris (1885) expositions, and be- 
longed to the Legion of Honor. See 
RUBBER. 

Goose. See CANADA GOOSE. 

Gooseberry, a wild or cultivated 
shrub of the Saxifrage Family, best 
known from its juicy, edible fruit. It 
is a slender, bushy shrub growing gen- 
erally in close thickets about four feet 
in height. The leaves are thick, dark 


GOPHER 


green in color, with rounding, wavy- 


margined lobes, and are often covered: 


with fine, rough hairs. The greenish-yel- 
low flowers are arranged along a slen- 
der, curving stem; each single blossom 
has a tubular five-parted calyx, often 
colored like the five short petals and en- 
closing five stamens. The berries are 
often armed with sharp prickles, which, 
in cultivated varieties, are less spiny; 
when ripe the fruits are brown-purple 
in color, larger than currants and ex- 
tremely juicy; they are used in making 
preserves, jelly and medicinal drinks. 
In the swamp gooseberry the stems are 
covered with spines, and the berries, 
which are very spiny, are not pleasant to 
the taste. 

Gopher, Go’ fer, a name applied to 
various members of the Bat and the 
Squirrel families, all of which are bur- 
rowing animals. The true gopher is bet- 
ter known as the pocket gopher and be- 
longs to the former family. It is a 
plump Western animal about the size of 
a rat, has small eyes and ears, a head 
which seems clumsily fitted to its body 


and a sensitive tail that has the appear-. 


ance of having belonged to a different an- 
imal. The mouth is rather small but dis- 
closes long, gnawing teeth, and upon 
each side of it but not opening into it, 
is a large fur-lined pouch whose object 
seems to be the prevention of the dirt, 
dislodged in tunneling, from entering the 
throat. The claws of this gopher are 
extremely long and strong and assist in 
digging its winding passageways. <A 
Southern variety of the pocket gopher is 
called the salamander. 

The striped gopher is of the Squirrel 
Family and its white-striped, red-brown 
coat is familiar in the Central and West- 
ern states. It is smaller than other go- 
phers, has a long bushy tail and, like the 
squirrel, an elastic spine which permits 
it to travel by means of a succession of 
rapid leaps. It is closely related to the 
chipmunk and is like it in habits, run- 
ning along fences, dodging in and out of 
thickets and chattering continually. 

A burrowing land tortoise is known in 
the Southern States as the gopher. 


1194 


ee eee 


GORDIAN KNOT 


Gor’dian Knot. In ancient legend, a 
Phrygian peasant, named Gordius, was 
raised to the throne by the intervention 
of the gods. According to the story, 
the Phrygians consulted the oracle dur- 
ing a sedition, and were told that their 
troubles would cease should they choose 
for their ruler the first man they met 
driving a cart toward the temple of Ju- 
piter. Gordius, as their choice, immedi- 
ately dedicated to Jupiter his cart and 
yoke, the knot of which was tied in an 
exceedingly artful manner. Report soon 
spread that the oracle had promised the 
Empire of Asia to him who could un- 
loose the Gordian knot. Many had 
failed in this attempt, when Alexander 
the Great passed through Gordium, and, 
cutting the knot with his sword, declared 
the oracle fulfilled and himself justified 
in his claims to universal empire. 

Gor’don, Charles George (1833- 
1885), sometimes called “Chinese Gor- 
don” or “Gordon Pasha,” a British sol- 
dier, born at Woolwich, England. He 
attended school at Taunton and later the 
military academy at Woolwich, after 
which he joined the royal engineers in 
1852. Gordon saw service at Sébasto- 
pol and in surveying the boundaries of 
Turkey and Russia. In 1860, after hav- 
ing served in the Crimean and Chinese 
wars, he remained in China and took part 
in the capture of Peking. In 1863, com- 
manding a Chinese force, he succeeded 
in suppressing the Taiping rebellion, for 
which he was honored both in China 
and in England. In 1873 he was em- 
ployed by the Sultan of Egypt to open 
the country of the Lower Nile and of 
certain lakes. During the three years 
that he spent in this work he became 
sreatly interested in the abolition of the 
slave trade in the Sudan. His appoint- 
ment to the governorship of this region 
in 1877 made it possible for him to do 
something to relieve the distress that had 
troubled him. He declined an excellent 
offer from the King of Belgium to go to 
the relief of a garrison in the Sudan, 
was besieged in Khartum and after a 
gallant defense was betrayed and mur- 
dered two days before relief came. 


1195 


GORE 


Gordon, Charles William (1860- 
), a Canadian author and clergyman, 
generally known by his pen name Ralph 
Connor, born at Indian Lands, Glen- 
garry, Ontario. He was educated at 
Knox College, Toronto, and at Toronto 
University, and spent some time in study 
at Edinburgh. He became a missionary 
to the miners and lumbermen of the 
North West Territories in 1890 and for 
four years worked among them in the 
Rocky Mountain mines and camps. Here 
he obtained the material for his stories, 
which depict Western life. In 1894 he 
became the pastor of St. Stephen’s 
Church, Winnipeg. His novels are of 
high moral tone and contain vivid de- 
scriptions of Western scenery, and sym- 
pathetic delineations of the class of peo- 
ple among whom he worked. He has a 
wholesome, pleasing style and displays 
his love of human nature in a combina- 
tion of humor and pathos that is appeal- 
ing and has won for his books a wide 
audience. Mr. Gordon has held many 
public offices and has thus rendered great 
service to his city. His novels include 


Black Rock, The Sky Pilot, The Man 


from Glengarry, Glengarry School Days, 
The Prospector, The Doctor, The Angel 
and the Star, The Foreigners and Cor- 
poral Cameron. 

Gordon, John Brown (1832-1904), 
soldier and governor of Georgia, born 
in Upson County, Ga. He graduated 
from the University of Georgia, and was 
admitted to the bar, but when the Civil 
War began he enlisted as captain in the 
Confederate army, rising. steadily by 
meritorious service to the rank of lieu- 
tenant-general. He served in the United 
States Senate from 1873 to 1880, and 
again from 1891 to 1897. Meantime he 
was governor of his state from 1887 to 
1890. He gained a wide reputation as a 
popular lecturer on war topics. 

Gore, Thomas Pryor (1870- ee: 
United States senator, born in Webster 
County, Miss. In his childhood he lost 
the sight of both of his eyes. He at- 
tended school, however, and went to col- 
lege, graduating from the law depart- 
ment of Cumberland University. Leba- 


GORGONS 


non, Tenn., in 1892. In 1896 Mr. Gore 
moved to Texas, and in 1901 to Okla- 
homa, where he was for one term a 
member of the Territorial Senate. He 
was also one of the first two senators 
from the State of Oklahoma, being 
elected in 1907, and he was reelected in 
1909 for the full term. As one of the 
leading statesmen of Oklahoma he has 
taken a prominent part in shaping the 
institutions of the state. He is also a 
pleasing and effective speaker. 
Gor’gons, in Greek myths three huge 
sisters with snaky hair, teeth like swine, 
and claws of brass; and wearing golden 
wings on their scale-covered bodies. 
All who gazed on them were turned to 


stone. Perseus beheaded the Gorgon, 
Medusa; but her two sisters were im- 
mortal. 


Goril’/la, a fierce, untamable ape of 
the Simian Family. It is found only in 
a small part of central and western Af- 
rica, where its home is in the depths of 
the forest, although it lives chiefly upon 
the ground and is not given to climbing. 
The male gorillas are much larger than 
the females and are unusually powerful 
animals, with long arms and huge lower 
limbs. The presence of a heel is more 
pronounced in this species than in any 
other ape, and the little toe is more fee- 
ble. The canine teeth are lengthened 
into ferocious-looking tusks. The face is 
without hair and is black or at least dark 
in color, and the ears are exceedingly 
small. The brain of the gorilla is larger 
than that of any other ape, and in many 
respects this species is considered the 
nearest to man. Were it less ferocious 
so that its habits in its native haunts 
might be more closely studied, it might 
be found to be of greater intelligence 
than at present supposed. 

Gor’ky, Maxim (1868- ), the pen 
name of the Russian novelist, Alexei 
Maximovich Pyeshkov, born in Nizhni- 
Novgorod. He lost both of his parents in 
his childhood, and in his ninth year was 
put to work in a boot shop. For a num- 
ber of years he engaged in various call- 
ings, but finally became secretary to a 
barrister in his native town, and soon 


GOSHAWK 


turned to literature. His scenes are gen- 
erally tragic; his favorite character is a 
man in. open rebellion against society; 
the atmosphere of his books is pessimis- 
tic. He wrote Foma Gordeyev, The 


‘Peasant, Makar Chudra, Konovalov and 


a play, ‘At the Lowest Depths. 

Gorman, Arthur Pue (1839- -1906), a an 
American senator, born in Howard 
County, Md., where he secured his edu- 
cation. From 1852 to 1866 he was a 
page in the United States Senate. He 
was also postmaster of the Senate. 
After serving for some time as collector 
of inland revenue for the Fifth District 
of Maryland, he was sent to the Legis- 
lature, where he served from 1871 to 
1881, a part of this time being speaker of 
the House. He was elected to the United 
States Senate in 1881, 1886, 1892 and 
1903. He assumed an important part in 
the tariff legislation of 1894 and during 
the latter years of his service was a 
leader of the conservative Democrats. 

Gorse, a low shrub of the Pulse, or 
Pea, Family, growing in great profusion 
on barren, sandy lands of the Old World 
and found on sterile soil of eastern 
United States. It is a branching, some- 
what thorny shrub, rarely growing to a 
height of five feet. The leaves are few 
and small, generally being composed of 
three rather long-oval leaflets. The flow- 
ers grow in long, drooping clusters and 
are bright yellow in color. Like the 
flowers of most members of this family, 
these are irregular in shape but are often 
very beautiful. The fruit is a flat pod. 


In the Old World, gorse is used for — 


fuel and for fodder for cattle; ,here it 
serves mainly to cover otherwise barren 
tracts. Gorse is also frequently known 
as whin and furze. 

Goshawk, Gos’ hok", a bird of the 
Hawk and Eagle Family. The Amer- 
ican goshawk is about 24 inches in length 
and may be recognized by the black patch 
on top of the head, a white line over 
the eye, the bluish-gray wings, tail and 
upper parts, and the white, gray-streaked 
and barred under parts. The American 
eoshawk closely resembles its relative, the 
European goshawk, which was so much 


1196 


j 


GOSHEN 


used for catching hares when falconing 
was in fashion in the Middle Ages. It 
is a bird of great speed when flying and 
is usually bold in hunting, qualities 
which made it of great value as a falcon. 
It is said to prey, to some extent, on 
poultry. The nest is placed usually in 
tall evergreens. Two to five bluish-white 
eggs are laid. This goshawk ranges 
from the northern part of the United 
States to northern British America. See 
FALCONRY. 

Go’shen, Ind., a city and county seat 
of Elkhart Co., 25 m. s.e. of South Bend 
and 112 m. e. of Chicago, on the Elkhart 
River and on the Lake Shore & Michi- 
gan Southern, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, 
Chicago & St. Louis and other railroads. 
The city has important agricultural in- 
terests, and hay, grain and live stock are 
' largely shipped to other markets. The 
chief industrial establishments include 
machine shops, flour mills, iron foun- 
dries, woolen mills, furniture and veneer- 
ing factories and manufactories of rub- 
ber goods, mittens, shirts, underclothing 
and farm implements. There is a fine 
public library and high school building. 
Population in 1920, 9,525. 

Gosnold, Gos nuld, Bartholomew 
( -1607), an English voyager to 
America. In 1602 he commanded an ex- 
pedition which had been fitted out, partly 
at least, by the Earl of Southampton, 
and which coasted the shore of New 
‘Hampshire and Massachusetts. He built 
a hut on one of the islands off southern 
Massachusetts, loaded his vessel with 
sassafras and returned to England. Ral- 
eigh confiscated the profits of the expe- 
dition by virtue of his patent. However, 
Gosnold was instrumental in organizing 
the London Company, and returned to 
America with its first expedition in 1607. 
He died of fever shortly after reaching 
Virginia. 

Gospels, The, the name by which 
the first four books of the New Testa- 
ment are known. The word means good 
news, referring to the joyful nature of 
the message of salvation from sin and 
its consequences, brought by Jesus to 
mankind. The first three, Matthew, 


GOSPELS, THE 


Mark and Luke, are called the Synoptic 
Gospels because they follow the same tra- 
dition of the life of Jesus,—‘view it 
together,” which the word.means. The 
Gospel by John differs from the other 
three in its general treatment. 

These four Gospels contain the his- 
tory of Jesus and the record of his teach- 
ing, and are now the nearest approach 
to the original records covering this 
ground. They constitute, therefore, the 
primary sources of Christianity and are, 
consequently, the most vitally important 
of all the books of the Bible. They were 
written by the men whose names they 
bear, two of whom, Matthew and John, 
were members of the apostolic band; 
while Luke knew Jesus personally and 
Mark was intimately connected with the 
circle of early disciples. The Gospels are 
therefore well authenticated. 

The Gospel of Matthew was written 
more particularly for Jewish readers and 
emphasizes the fact that Jesus as the 
Messiah fulfills the Old Testament 
prophecy concerning him. Another no- 
ticeable feature is the grouping of the 
teachings of Jesus, as in the case of the 
Sermon on the Mount and the parables. 
The book is supposed to be based upon 
an earlier work by Matthew known as 
the Sayings of Jesus. 

The Gospel of Mark is probably the 
earliest of the four in point of time. It 
is also the shortest and most concise, the 
story moving forward with much pic- 
turesque vigor of style. Jesus is pre- 


“sented as the man of power who brings 


things to pass. There is an early state- 
ment to the effect that Mark wrote the 
Gospel as it was given him by Peter. 
The Gospel of Luke is also directed 
more particularly to Gentile readers. It 
is more deliberate and extended than the 
Gospel of Mark. Luke says in his pref- 
ace that he was not only himself familiar 
with the course of events, but that he had 
also carefully examined what others had 
written on the subject. He probably had 
before him Mark’s Gospel and the ear- 
lier edition of Sayings written by Mat- 
thew, as well as other records now lost. 
These three, the Synoptic Gospels, pre- 


1197 — 


GOTEBORG 


sent the phases of Jesus’ teaching that 
group themselves about the conception of 
the Kingdom of God, which is of central 
‘importance. The Gospel of John, on the 
other hand, is presented under the aspect 
of eternal life. He thinks of Jesus as 
the one who brings the eternal life of God 
to men and who exemplifies that life in 
human form on earth. It is the last of 
the four Gospels, probably written when 
John was an old man, and from the van- 
tage point of his long and varied Chris- 
tian experience. 

Goteborg, Yu"te bor'y, Gottenburg or 
Gothenburg, Got’ en burg, a city of 
Sweden situated upon an arm of the 
Cattegat and having the most shipping 
of any Swedish port. Having a fine har- 
bor almost entirely free from _ ice 
throughout. the winter, it is next to 
Stockholm the most important city of 
Sweden. The Old Town in the center 
of the city has yet the remains of its once 
necessary fort, while the outer New 
Town is modern and offers great con- 
trast to the section which it surrounds. 
Recently new fortifications overlooking 
the bay have been commenced. The city 
has many intersecting canals, interesting 
cathedrals and fine botanical gardens. 
The chief industries are shipbuilding, 
weaving, dyeing, spinning and the manu- 
facture of upholstery, curtains, paper, 


cigars, shoes and sugar. Population, 
167,813. 
Goths, an ancient Teutonic tribe 


that lived near the Black Sea, north of 
the Danube, when they first appear in 
history. They were driven by the Huns 
to press into the Roman Empire about 
250 A. D. and had built up a vast king- 
dom in Europe by the fourth century. 
About 369 they had divided into the Os- 
trogoths, or eastern Goths, and Visi- 
goths, or western Goths. Alaric, King 
of the Visigoths, devastated the Pel- 
oponnesus in 396 and sacked Rome in 
410. He died the same year, and the 
Visigoths settled in the south of Gaul 
and in Spain. Roderick, their last king, 
was slain in battle with the Moors in 711. 
' Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, 
invaded Italy in 489 and overcame the 


GOUJON 


Teutonic chief, Odoacer, in 493. He es- 
tablished a new Ostrogothic kingdom in 
Italy, but a short time after his death, 
in 526, the Goths were driven out of 
the country by Justinian; they eventually 
disappeared from history. 

Goucher College, at Baltimore, Md. 
founded in 1885 as the Woman’s Col- 
lege of Baltimore, is one of the six col- 
leges for women placed in Class I by the 
United States Bureau of Education. Its 
standards in both entrance and scholastic 
requirements are of the highest. Its 
courses lead to the degree of Bachelor of 
Arts. There are 885 students enrolled 
for the year 1921-22. The faculty num- 
bers 84. Its library contains 35,000 vol- 
umes. Goucher had a productive en- 
dowment fund of over $1,237,000. Its 
present plant includes twenty buildings 
and is valued at $1,594,127.23. The» 
College has recently purchased a campus 
of 421 acres of Towson, a suburb of 
Baltimore, just six miles north. of the 
present site, near enough to the city to 
keep the advantages it has enjoyed as 
a city college but far enough out to 
escape the disadvantage. A campaign 
for $6,000,000 has been inaugurated to 
move the College to its new campus. 

Gough, Gof, John Bartholomew 
(1817-1886), popular temperance lec- 
turer, born in Kent, England, died in 
Philadelphia, Pa. He came from Eng- 
land to this country when about 12 years 
of age, worked on a farm in Oneida 
County, N. Y., and later worked in a 
bookbindery in New York City. Here 
he formed the liquor habit, and suffered 
so keenly from it, both physically and 
mentally, that the memory of this period 
fired his eloquence in later years when, 
having overcome the habit, he took the 
lecture platform in the interests of ter: 
perance. His writings are full of popw 
lar interest. 

Goujon, Goo” zhon’, Jean (about 1520- 
about 1566), a French sculptor connected 
with the court of Henry II. He exe- 
cuted many of the carvings and reliefs of 
the Louvre and is also remembered for 
his illustrations of some of the books of 
his time. His best-known works include 


1198 


GOULD 


the marble columns supporting the organ 
of the Church of St. Maclou at Rouen; 
the Victory, over the chimney piece of the 
Salle des Gardes de Ecouen; the bust of 
Diana de Poictiers at Versailles; the 
Fountain of Diana, now at the Louvre; 
and the bas-reliefs and carvings of the 
Fontaine des Innocents. Goujon disap- 
peared from court in 1566 and is believed 
to have been dismissed in company with 
other reformers; that he died during the 
massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day, in 
1572, is no longer believed. 

Gould, Helen Miller. See SHEPARD, 
HELEN GOULD. 

Gould, Jay (1836-1892), an American 
capitalist, born in Roxbury, N. Y. Early 
a bookkeeper and a surveyor, he became 
interested in a lumber and tanning busi- 
ness in 1856, later purchased railroad 
stocks, which he disposed of profitably, 
and in 1859 removed to New York City, 
there becoming a broker and dealing at 
first in Erie Railroad bonds. From 1868 
to 1872 he was president of that com- 
pany. While president of the Erie 
Company Gould became heavily inter- 
ested in other roads and in telegraph 
companies, and upon his retirement from 
the Erie Company he applied his atten- 
tion to the Pacific railroads, to the New 
York elevated railroads and to the West- 
ern Union Telegraph Company, in the 
founding of which he was a prime 
mover. He was responsible for the 
“Gould System” of roads. He left a 
fortune of about $70,000,000. 

Gounod, Goo’no’, Charles. Francois 
(1818-1893), a French composer, born in 
Paris, a son of the painter F. L. Gounod. 
He studied under Reicha, Halévy and Le- 
sueur at the Paris Conservatory, and in 
1839 won the Grand Prix de Rome. In 
Rome he studied sacred music, and in 
this form of composition rose to his 
ereatest height. He wrote some delight- 
ful and vivacious comic operas and de- 
veloped the lyric drama beyond the point 
previously reached, and introduced a new 
note in the music of romance. Many of 
his inventions are embodied in Faust, 
which, with its charming harmonies, was 
a familiar type of French opera for many 


~ in making dishes. 


GOUT 


years following its production. Other 
well-known works of his are the operas 
Romeo and Juliet, Mireille and Philémon 
et Baucis; the oratorios, The Redemp- 
tion and Death and Life; and the masses, 
Messe de Sainte Cécile and Messe du 
Sacré Ceur and the famous Ave Maria. 

Gourd, a family of climbing vines 
with large leaves having pointed lobes; 
many members of the family are the 
source of familiar fruits and vegetables, 
as the melon, cucumber, squash and com- 
mon gourd. The fruits of the last-named 
vine are hard, thin-shelled berries, which 
take peculiar shape in different varieties 
of the plant. When ripe, they are yellow 
in color, and their queer shapes have led 
to their being put to various uses, as 
for dippers, bottles, ladles and dishes of 
all sorts. When the fruit is thoroughly 
dried, the enclosed seeds become loose 
within the shell, and a home-grown rat- 
tle is thus easily made. The gourds 
have received their names from the shape 
of the fruit and are known as bottle 
gourds, dipper gourds, etc. The cala- 
bash tree of Africa is sometimes called 
the gourd because its fruit is also of use 
See CALABASH TREE. 

Gout, a disease characterized«by in- 
tense pain in the foot or knee joints. 
The causes of the disease are not defi- 
nitely known, but its prevalence among 
the rich has led to the conclusion that a 
contributory cause may be the indul- 
gences and luxuries enjoyed by most 
members of that class, such as idleness, 
highly seasoned and nitrogenous foods, 
certain wines and liquors. The local af- 
fection is due immediately to the deposi- 
tion of uric acid in the joints. Gout is 
a disease which attacks only adults, oc- 
curring after the age of 35, if hereditary, 
as is frequently the case, or earlier, if 
acquired. At the termination of a fit 
of gout, there may be a complete restora- 
tion to health and greater bodily vigor 
than before. Although gout is most com- 
mon in the foot, it may affect the carti- 
laginous structure of other parts of the 
body, as the articular cartilage of the 
eyelid, larynx and ears, and ligaments 
of the joints. 


1199 


GOVERNMENT 


Government, the directing or man- 
aging such affairs as concern all people 
alike, or the organization through which 
these affairs are managed. Specifically 
the term is most commonly used as a 
condensed expression for political gov- 
ernment, or the authoritative regulation 
of the affairs of a political community 
or state. 

The first form of social organization 
resulting in a form of government was 
one through which all races of people 
passed, the tribal state of society. There 
can be no exceptions to this rule. A fully 
organized tribe, however, was a compli- 
cated organization. The divisions of a 
tribe were the phratry and the gens. 
Above the tribes was in some instances 
the confederacy of tribes. The shadowy 
empires of ancient history,—Assyrian, 
Babylonian, and Egyptian, etc.—were 
not empires in our sense of the word. 
They were instances of one warlike tribe, 
possibly powerful confederacies, reduc- 
ing to a subject state other tribes. Ina 
tribal state the organization for govern- 
ment rested on personal relations. 

A§& civilization developed and the tribes 
settled in a well defined section of coun- 
try, this purely personal relation was not 
sufficient and the historic people of Eu- 
rope had to feel their way to political 
society in which the organization for 
government is based on territory. This 
seems to us a perfectly natural step to 
take but it required many years of ex- 
periment and the services of eminent 
statesmen to effect the change in Greece 
and Rome; then in the early centuries of 
our era, one after the other, the various 
people of Europe effected the same 
change. 

At present the advanced nations of the 
world are, and have been for centuries, 
organized for government purposes on 
territorial units. Under that form of 
government great advance has been made 
in science and in all the essentials of our 
present civilization. But all thoughtful 
students know that there are certain 
tendencies at present that seem to indi- 
cate still another form of social organi- 
zation for government purposes. State 


GOVERNMENT 


Socialism would be such a change; one 
possible form would be the Soviet sys- 
tem of government (see Soviet). It will 
be noticed that such a change is away 
from territorial units, and a partial re- 
turn to personal relations, a government 
of different groups, for different groups, 
by different groups. % 

In a tribal state tribal officers, chiefs 
of all kinds, were elected. The inevitable 
tendency was for such offices to pass by 
inheritance. This tendency became more 
pronounced when political society super- 
vened and the result was the separation 
of the people into classes, this was the 
condition in which all European people 
were placed before many centuries had 
passed and the troubled unrest in Europe 
of recent centuries, attended often with 
bloody scenes, was due to the efforts of 
the masses of the people to recover a 
fuller measure of personal liberty en- 
joyed in primitive times. We can trace 
the effects of this series of revolu- 
tionary movements in the history of 
every European nation. 

The forms of political government are 
varied. When the sovereign authority is 
vested in a single person that person is 
properly a monarch; when this person 
rules alone with no restriction on his au- 
thority he is an absolute monarch. There 
is now no example of an absolute mon- 
arch in Europe. When there are restric- 
tions on his authority his rule is said to 
be that of a limited or constitutional 
monarch. There are now only a few 
constitutional monarchies in Europe. A 
king is simply the monarch of a country 
that is designated as a kingdom. An Em- 
pire is a monarchy that possesses a large 
area and includes a number of states un- 
der its rule. The only country answer- 
ing to this description now is Great 
Britain. | 

Notice the cycle of evolution in polit- 
ical society; from absolute monarchy, 
through limited monarchy to democratic 
republics,—a form of government which 
now prevails in 75 per cent of European 
territory. 

Democracy. According to Lincoln’s 
definition democracy is a government of 


1200 


aca 


GOVERNMENT 


the people, by the people, for the people, 
and is the form in which the people 
either directly, or through their repre- 
sentatives, are supreme. Ever. since the 
rise of popular education in the last cen- 
tury and its vast development thereafter, 
the advance of democratic opinion and 
the spread of democratic institutions 
have been most significant. The funda- 
mental basis of democracy is the recog- 
nition of the rights of man as man. Its 
central principle is the equality of all 
men before the law, without regard to 
birth, property or social rank, and it may 
be likened to a state of society absolutely 
without class distinctions made by laws 
or customs. The town meeting still in 
existence in the New England States is 
the only representative of true democ- 
racy in America. In these states the 
voters of each town assemble once a year 
to choose town officers and transact any 
other business pertaining to the town’s 
interest. 

REPUBLIC, a form of political organ- 
ization in which the principal agents of 
government are chosen by qualified elec- 
tors. Such electors may comprise the 
whole adult population of the state, or 
all qualified male citizens, or a small 
group of persons exercising a constitu- 
tional or hereditary power of election. 
In the earlier republics of Greece and 
Rome the supreme power was vested in 
the whole body of the citizens who met 
in common assembly to enact their laws. 
In all modern republics the representa- 
tive system prevails, the right of suffrage 
being liberally granted, but the duties of 
the administration are confined to a 
chosen few. In the Western Hemi- 
sphere the republican form of govern- 
ment prevails in all independent states. 

The United States is a Federal re- 
public consisting of a number of separate 
states, united by a constitution, under a 
central government, with power to en- 
act laws binding on all the citizens. Up 
to the, time of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence the title employed had been 
United Colonies; after that it was the 
United States of America. See UNITED 
STATES, subhead Government. 


GOVERNOR 


State Government. The Constitution 
of the United States provides that all 
powers not delegated to the United States 
nor prohibited by it to the states are 
reserved to the states respectively or to 
the people. Among the powers prohib- 
ited are the conclusion of treaties, alli- 
ances, or confederations, the coining of 
money, etc. A close study will reveal 
the fact that the relation of the citizen 
to the state government is far more close 
than to the Federal Government. The 
fundamental law of each state is embod- 
ied in a constitution drawn up by a con- 
stituent convention and ratified by the 
electorate at the polls. The position of 
the heads of the state executive depart- 
ments is in no sense similar to that of the 
president’s cabinet. The governor has 
little direction over them and their re- 
sponsibility is to their constituencies. 

Local Government. In the United 
States there are three general types of 
local government. They are the town 
system in New England, the county sys- 
tem in the South and the mixed system 
in New York, Pennsylvania and New 
Jersey, and a number of the North Cen- 
tral States. In the main, however, the 
laws that touch most closely our daily 
life are. left to the states, and of late 
there is a movement in some of them 
towards direct legislation under the initi- 
ative and referendum. See INITIATIVE, 
REFERENDUM AND RECALL. 

Governor, in mechanics a device for 
controlling the running speed of a steam 
engine, gas engine, water motor, etc., or 
keeping the speed of a machine constant 
within practical limits. In its applica- 
tion to a steam engine, the object of the 
governor is to act, so that the supply 
of steam to the cylinder is proportional 
to the load. The ball governor, or that 
commonly used on steam engines, de- 
pends on balancing the centrifugal force 
of a revolving mass either against grav- 
ity or against the force of a spring. 

The original governor, as designed by 
Watt, consists of two balls fastened to 
two inclined arms, which are joined to 
an upright spindle so that the balls can 
move in a vertical plane.’ The spindle 


1201 


GOVERNOR’S ISLAND 


is geared so as to revolve with a speed 
proportional to the engine, and as the 
speed of the spindle increases, the balls 
fly out and rise. For a definite. speed 
the balls have a definite position, and be- 
low this speed they fall, beyond it they 
rise. Attached to the sleeve, which is 
actuated up and down by the balls, are 
suitable levers and links operating the 
steam-supply valve. The modern high- 
speed steam engine for close regulation 
employs a governor, consisting of a heavy 
mass on a lever, attached to a spoke in- 
side the flywheel and held toward the 
center by a spring. As the speed in- 
creases, the spring is stretched and the 
mass flies out, giving a movement to the 
eccentric across the shaft, which op- 
erates the valve to the steam supply of 


the engine. See STEAM ENGINE; GAS 
ENGINE; WATER TURBINE; PHONO- 
GRAPH. 


Governor’s Island, an island of New 
York Harbor, lying two-thirds of a mile 
south of the mainland and separated 
from the Borough of Brooklyn by But- 
termilk Channel. It is a military and 
naval station and is fortified by South 
Battery, Castle William and Ft. Colum- 
bus. 

Gow’er, John (about 1325-1408), an 
English poet, contemporary and friend 
of Chaucer. His chief work, the Con- 
fessio Amantis (The Lover's .Confes- 
sion), a collection of stories, has long 
been recognized as a classic of the Eng- 
lish language. Gower possessed no orig- 
inality, but took stories from many 
sources aiming to present moral lessons, 
and, though for the modern reader he is 
tiresome, his work has great philological 
interest. Other writings are Speculum 
Meditantis (in French), Vox Clamantis 
(in Latin) anda collection of ballads in 
French verse. 

Goya Y Lucientes, Go’ yah e Loo” the- 
en’ tase, Francisco (1746-1828), the 
leading Spanish painter of the 18th cen- 
tury. He was born near Saragossa, and 
went to that city to study, later to Ma- 
drid and to Rome. His art occupied it- 
self chiefly with the lower classes, and 
his representations of vagabond life are 


GRACCHUS 


among his greatest successes. In por- 
traiture he was equally preeminent, and 
painted four sovereigns of Spain— 
Charles III, Charles IV, Ferdinand VII 
and King Joseph. Among the other 
branches with which he occupied himself 
were tapestry designing, engraving and 
etching; and in all his technical quali- 
ties are of a high order. His works are 
among the prizes of European galleries. 

Gracchus, Grak'’ us, Caius Sempro- 
nius (about 159-121 B. C.), the younger 
brother of Tiberius Gracchus, was one 
of the leading orators of his day. He 
won the favor of the people by a corn 
law by which the poor could get grain 
at one-half the market price, and thus 
began an evil system of legislative brib- 
ery. He reestablished the land commis- 
sion, founded Roman colonies in Italy 
and sent Roman colonists outside of 
Italy, who were to remain Roman citi- 
zens. However, the people refused to 
support him when he proposed to extend 
the Roman citizenship to all the Latins 
and the Latin rights to all Italy. The 
Senate took advantage of this defection 
and brought about the defeat of Grac- 
chus when he attempted to secure a third 
election as tribune. No longer protected 
by the sanctity which that office con- 
ferred, he was killed as his brother had 
been, in a street riot, the next year. 

Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius 
(about 163-133 B. C.), the elder of the 
two reformers. His father was a patri- 
cian and his mother was the daughter of 
the older Africanus. He early made a 
good war record and was honest and 
energetic. In his travels through Italy 
he was touched by the economic and 
moral decay he found, and devoted his 
life to the rebuilding -of the yeoman 
class. 

His reforms touched the very heart of 
the trouble. In 133 he became tribune 
and tried to bring about a distribution 
of the public lands of Italy. Much of 
this land had been seized and was ille- 
gally held by the rich. These large hold-_ 
ings were to be divided into smaller ones, 
given to landless men and held in per- 
petual lease without the right to sell. A 


1202 


GRACES 


small rent was to be paid to the State. 
Although Gracchus was. opposed by the 
Senate and the rich, his law was at last 
passed and a commission appointed for 
the distribution of the land. To com- 
plete his work he asked for a reelection, 
but the nobles united against him and he 
was killed in a riot on election day. 

Graces, or Charites, in classic myths 
three daughters of Jupiter: Euphrosyne 
(Mirth), Aglaia (Splendor) and Thalia 
(Blooming One), who presided over all 
‘good, beauty, cheer and gayety. They 
lived with the Muses near Olympus, 
seemed especially devoted to Venus and 
were under the authority of Juno. Great 
worship was accorded them at Orcho- 
menus, in Boeotia; and at Athens, Sparta 
and Crete, their annual festival being 
called Charitesia. They were invoked 
in baths and toasted at banquets. 

Grackle, or Crow Blackbird, a name 
given several birds of the Blackbird Fam- 
ily. two of which are common in the 
Northern States in summer. 

PuRPLE GRACKLE. This bird is com- 
mon in the eastern part of the United 
States. It is a little larger than the 
robin, being from 11 to 13% inches long. 
It is black all over with metallic tints of 
steel-blue and purple. The female re- 
sembles the male but is not so brightly 
colored. The song is a collection of 
wheezy, rasping cries which sound not 
unlike the creaking of a rusty hinge. 
The nest is a large, bulky affair of twigs 
built on any kind of a support, from a 
low lilac bush to an evergreen tree 50 or 
more feet above the ground. The birds 
nest singly or in colonies, and three to 
seven brown-spotted eggs are laid. 

BRONZE GRACKLE. This bird resem- 
bles the purple grackle very closely in 
size and in habits but its color is nearer 
bronze than black, as indicated from the 
name. 

Gra’dy, Henry Woodfen (1851- 
1889), an American editor and author, 
born in Athens, Ga., and educated at the 
universities of Georgia and of Virginia. 
He entered journalism shortlv after the 
Civil War and as editor and correspond- 
ent of various publications attracted wide 


GRAFTING 


notice, chiefly for articles relating to the 
rehabilitation of the South. Because of 
an able article on the possibilities of 
Georgia, which appeared in the Atlanta 
Constitution, he was made correspondent 
for the New York Herald. Later he be- 
came interested in the Atlanta Herald 
and in 1882, with $20,000 loaned him by 
Cyrus W. Field, he purchased a quarter 
interest in the Atlanta Constitution, of 
which he became managing editor. He 
was widely famed as an orator, especially 
on the subject of “The New South.” 
The Grady Memorial Hospital of Atlanta 
testifies to Southern appreciation of Mr. 
Grady’s devotion to the South. 

Graft, in politics and business a 
slang word tsed to denote money or other 
valuable consideration above the legal 
fee or stated remuneration for services 
rendered. Grafting is considered dis- 
honest, because the one accepting the 
bribe is expected to make some adequate 
return to those who thus force him. The 
worst forms of grafting are those con- 
nected with elections and those used to 
secure the passage of bills favoring cer- 
tain methods by state Legislatures. Asa 
check upon the former, some states have 
laws compelling candidates for office to 
publish sworn statements of all election 
expenses and of the sources and amounts 
of all campaign funds received. 

Grafting, the process of inserting a 
portion of one plant into another with the 
object in view of having the new plant 
grow upon the foster-parent root. Its 
advantages are so numerous and the 
seeming wonders that have been accom- 
plished by it are so many that grafting 
has become a matter of common knowl- 
edge to the nurseryman, who uses it es- 
pecially in the production of choice fruits. 
There are four chief purposes of graft- 
ing. 1. For some reason many plants 
are not readily reproduced; perhaps they 
produce no seed or the seeds which they 
do produce are not easily germinated; 
other plants bear seeds which do not 
“come true,” that is, the plants grown 
from the seed differ from the parent and 
from each other. If plants of this sort 
cannot be propagated by cuttings or lay- 


1203 


‘GRAFTING 


7 INAKCHING 


METHODS 


i) 


——\ 
NS 
(FE 


EAA 


EG BUDDING :(A)INSERTING BUD; (8) TYING; 
() CUTTING OFF THE TOP 


OF GRAFTING 
1204 


ie 
a 


GRAFTING 


ings, grafting is the only means left to 
reproduce the plant. 2. Grafting in- 
creases the speed and the ease with which 
the. plant may be multiplied, since the 
new growth is borne upon old roots, and 
neither time nor food need go toward 
root production. 3. A new variety of 
plant may be developed having attributes 
of the two plants which have been united 
by grafting. 4. Plants may by this 
means be adapted to adverse conditions 
of soil and climate. 

The process of grafting is not at all 
difficult and may be done by a boy with 
his jackknife, if he learns a few of the 
necessary steps. The plant upon which 
the new cutting is made to grow is called 
the stock; the plant from which the cut- 
ting has been taken is called the cion, or 
scion; the newly-grown plant is the 
eraft.: The process by which the two 
are united is variously known as graft- 
age or grafting. The limits of grafting 
may be learned only by direct experi- 
ment. It is generally conceded that mem- 
bers of the same species are most easily 
grafted with success, while more dis- 
tantly related plants of the same genus 
are more apt to be failures. This, how- 
ever, is not wholly true, since members 
of widely differing genera have been suc- 
cessfully propagated in this manner. A 
stone fruit, however, is not successfully 
grown upon a tree of seed-bearing fruit. 
Experiment and study are by far the best 
means of determining the possibilities of 
grafting, which generally exceed the lim- 
its that would be set by botanical classi- 
fication. ° 

Grafting is done at different times ac- 
cording to the locality, the plants, the 
climate and the object to be accomplished. 
Under ordinary conditions cuttings are 
made in the autumn and kept in a cool 
but not a cold place, until the following 
spring, when they are placed upon the 
stock. 

METHODS OF GRAFTING. There are as 
many methods of grafting as there. are 
ways of whittling a stick, as shown in the 
illustration ; one thing alone is necessary, 
that the cambium, or growing layer, of 


the cion is joined to the cambium of the 


GRAFTING 


stock. This layer is the living tissue 
through which the sap rises, and upon 
its continued growth depends the success 
or failure of the operation. The meth- 
ods of grafting are ordinarily grouped 
under one of three heads, known re- 
spectively as bud grafting, or budding, 
cion grafting, or merely grafting, and 
inarching. 

Bud Grafting. The first of these, bud- 
ding, consists in inserting a bud of the 
cion beneath the bark of the stock. A 
healthy bud of the cion is cut by placing 
the thumb at the base of the bud and 
cutting a rounding section which, be- 
neath the bud, includes a bit of the wood 
also; the wood is, however, often re- 
moved when the grafting takes place. 
The stock is prepared for the insertion 
of the bud by cutting the bark in T-shape 
and loosening the flaps. Beneath these 
the bud is placed, and the entire limb is 
bound with yarn, rafha, or some slightly 
elastic twine which will not cut the bark 
and which will allow it to expand-as it 
grows. No other attention is needed af- 
ter seeing that the bark is tightly bound 
in place. 

Cion Grafting. This is done in so 
many different ways that many special 
names have been applied. The methods 
are called root, crown, stem, top and 
twig grafting, according to the place 
where the grafting is done, or they may 
be named from the manner of grafting, 
as cleft, bark, twig, veneer, herbaceous 
and whip grafting. In cleft grafting the 
cion is taken from last year’s shoots 
which have at least three buds. These 
shoots are left dormant during the win- 
ter and are made use of in the spring. 
The bark of the stock is split and the 
twig inserted to such depth that the 
lower bud is covered with the wax that 
covers the wound. However, the lower 
bud, being the nearest the source of sup- 
ply, is the most apt to grow and pushes 
its way through the surrounding wax. 
Cleft grafting is oftenest used where the 
top of a tree is to be changed in form or 
in variety. Three or four years are nec- 
essary for changing a tree to a new 
variety. Bark grafting is made use of 


1205 


GRAFTING 


when large limbs are used on the stock. 
Here only the bark is split and small 
branches from the cion are inserted. 
Whip grafting is used when branches 
of the cion are the same size as those of 
the stock. The cut is made in a variety 
of ways in order to hold the two branches 
firmly together. Veneer grafting is often 
done by nature. It consists in the rub- 
bing together of two branches until the 
cambium layers are united. It is used 
by nurserymen chiefly to produce odd- 
shaped plants or conventional designs. 
Herbaceous grafting is similar and is 
used in greenhouses in uniting plants 
like geraniums and other house plants. 
It can be done only in close, moist rooms. 
In all methods of cion grafting, the 
wound made is firmly covered with graft- 
ing wax. This may be made by melting 
together one pound of rendered tallow 
with two parts of beeswax to four parts 
of resin. As soon as the ingredients are 
fully melted and mixed, pour the mixture 
into a pail or tub, where it will immedi- 
ately solidify. It should then be pulled 
until it becomes light-colored and forms 
a grain. It may be kept indefinitely and 
will soften with the warmth of the hands. 
The hands should be greased before han- 
dling it in order to keep it from sticking. 

INARCHING. This is the most inter- 
esting means of grafting, and by it seem- 
ing marvels have been accomplished. It 
has been of especial aid in the scientific 
development of new fruits, since it hur- 
ries the fruiting time of slowly develop- 
ing plants, and thus great length of time 
is not spent upon experiments which in 
the end prove to be worthless. The 
process of inarching is here given. The 
seedling is grown for three or four 
weeks until it has a slender stem and 
some half-dozen weak little leaves. If 
left to itself, many years would be neces- 
sary to bring it to maturity so that it 
could produce flowers and fruit. The 
seedling with the ball of earth about its 
roots is taken up and transferred to a 
nurse tree. The outer bark of both nurse 
tree and nursling are scraped off and 
the two wounds are bound together with 
broad, soft bands of cloth; the dirt, too, 


GRAFTING 


is closely bound to the yet uninjured 
roots of the seedling, and the whole is 
left to itself to finish the process. After 
a few weeks the seedling begins to feed 
upon the nurse plant; then the soil may 
be removed, the roots are carefully 
trimmed off and the two are one plant. 
A little later the top of the nurse plant is 
also removed and the strong vigorous 
roots, with the wealth of food that they 
take up, send all their nourishment to the 
youthful foster branch. Thus the new 
plant fruits long before its time and 
bears as abundant and as strong fruit 
as though it had grown to maturity by 
natural means. 

The benefits derived from this are 
enormous, although they are as yet only 
partially developed. A good example is 
that of the finger lime, a tree of the 
Citrus Family, which ordinarily requires 
eight years to reach maturity. Seeds 
were sent to the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and were there duly 
planted in order to discover if the fruit 
were available for this country. The 
young seedlings that developed were in- 
arched upon a vigorous lemon tree, and 
in two years finger limes were produced 
that were found to be valuable for 
growth in the Southern States. Other 
fruits which have been studied through 
inarching are the citrange, produced by 
crossing the citron and orange and then 
growing the resulting seedling upon a 
vigorous orange root, and the tangelo, a 
cross between the tangerine and the 
pomelo, or grapefruit. Although the 
crossing of the last two named produced 
fertile seed, science could not wait for 
the necessary years to elapse in order to 
learn whether the fruit produced had the 
juiciness of the grapefruit and the sweet- 
ness of the tangerine, as well as its easily 
removed skin. By inarching, the fruit 
was produced in two years and proved to 
be all that was expected of it. 

One other way in which inarching has 
proved invaluable has been in the prop- 
agatinge of the lemon upon the hardy 
mock orange of the North. The lemon 
has leaves which retain their sap 
throughout the winter, and in cold cli- 


1206 


GRAFTON 


mates the sap freezes, thus killing the 
plant. The lemon inarched upon the 
mock orange, however, produces leaves 
which fall during the winter, while the 
sap sinks to the roots until the cold 
weather is over. The fruit borne in this 
manner has the qualities of the lemon 
and the added value of being produced 
upon a Northern tree. The wonders ac- 
complished by this treatment of plants 
are probably only a foretaste of what may 
be expected. The years of waiting that 
have been necessary for the scientist and 
the almost certain chance that deéath 
would come before the experiment was 
completed, are obstacles no longer. The 
experiments have been conducted by the 
United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, and pamphlets concerning this and 
other grafting work carried on in the 
department may be had upon application 
to the secretary of the department at 
Washington, D. C.. See Cross-FERtI- 
LIZATION. 

Grafton, W. Va., a city and the 
county seat of Taylor Co., 99 m. s.e. of 
Wheeling, on the Tygart’s Valley River 
and on the Baltimore & Ohio, four divi- 
sions of which terminate here. Coal 
and natural gas are among the city’s 
resources. There are railroad shops, 
machine shops, flour mills, cigar fac- 
tories, planing mills, factories for the 
manufacture of window glass and pressed 
glassware, gristmills, wholesale grocery 
and wholesale drug establishments. Near 
the city is a small national cemetery; and 
at Pruntytown, four miles distant, is lo- 
cated the state reform school. Settled 
in 1852, Grafton was incorporated in 
1856, and in 1899 was chartered as a 
city. Population in 1920, 8,517. 

Graham, Sir Hugh (1848- ave! 
Canadian journalist, born and educated 
in the Province of Quebec. In 1869 he 
founded the Montreal Daily and Weekly 
Star, to which he has given the best ef- 
forts of his life, and which, without al- 
iegiance to any political party, he has 
made one of the most influential papers 
of Canada. Sir Graham has been active 
in the cause of municipal and _ political 
reform. In 1908 he was knighted by 


GRAIN DRILL 


King Edward in recognition of his serv- 
ices in philanthropic enterprises. 

Grail, The Holy, the legendary cup 
from which Christ drank at the Last 
Supper. Numerous legends center about 
this cup, which has been the theme of 
many a song and story. The incidents 
usually given are these. It was brought 
to England by Joseph of Arimathea, and 
handed down from generation to genera- 
tion until, owing to the sin of one of its 
keepers, it was taken back to heaven. 
According to some accounts the Grail 
was visible only to the pure, but another 
version was that it struck blind any im- 
pure person who looked upon it. It was 
the favorite aim of the knights of King 
Arthur to find the sacred cup and be- 
come its guardian. One version of the 
legend represents three of Arthur’s 
knights, Galahad, Perceval and Bors, as 
having seen the Grail. To the French 
romancers of the 12th century the legend 
of the Grail was a fascinating theme, and 
in the 15th century it was interwoven in 
the Morte D’Arthur of Sir Thomas 
Malory. The greatest medieval work on 
the subject was the Parzival of the Ger- 
man poet Wolfram von Eschenbach. 
For 250 years following, the Grail story 
figured largely in Arthurian literature, 
and experienced a revival in the 19th - 
century. The best known of the modern 
treatments of the legend are Tennyson’s 
Holy Grail, which is one of the Jdylls of 
the King, and Wagner’s musical drama, 
Parsifal (See ParsirFaL). Lowell has 
made use of the Grail story in his Vision 
of Sir Launfal. 

Grain Drill, a machine for sowing 
seed by drilling a number of furrows at 
once. It consists of a narrow box form- 
ing a hopper about seven feet long, hav- 
ing a number of circular openings in -its 
bottom, placed crosswise on the machine. 
The openings are spaced about four 
inches apart to correspond to the distance 
between furrows, and connected with 
openings are rubber tubes extending 
within two inches of the ground. In 
front of each tube is a sort of cast-iron 
plow, called a lister, with a flange at its 
rear to guide the rubber tube. Some- 


1207 


GRAIN ELEVATOR 


times there is a small wheel following 
the lister for the purpose of covering 
the seed as it falls into the furrow. In 
the hopper is a revolving brush, so geared 
to the wheel supporting the machine that 
any desired quantity of seed may be 
gauged and distributed through the tubes 
into the furrows. This machine is usu- 
ally drawn by two horses, and it will 
seed from eight to ten acres per day. It 
is used quite generally for sowing wheat, 
oats, rice and other grains. See SEEDER; 
Corn PLANTER. 

Grain Elevator, a building specially 
designed and constructed for storing, 
handling and cleaning grain preparatory 
to its shipment. These buildings are al- 
ways located with reference to good 
transportation facilities. An elevator 
usually consists of a number of large 
bins in which grain may be stored, sur- 
mounted by a structure called a cupola, 
in which the grain-handling machinery 
is located. The various spouts for load- 
ing and unloading the grain have their 
common center in this cupola, from which 
they extend to all parts of the elevator. 
Cleaning and sometimes grinding ma- 
chines, together with the motive power, 
whether of a steam or gasoline engine, are 
located on the ground floor of the build- 
ing in order to be convenient to fuel. 

The improved form of elevator con- 
sists of one or more large cylindrical 
tanks constructed of concrete on a cement 
or brick foundation, so as to be fireproof, 
and surmounted with a cupola of steel 
framework covered with iron roofing. 
Grain is unloaded from cars by having a 
large shovel operated by means of a rope 
and a windlass, which pulls the shovel 
along the bottom of the car and empties 
it into a hopper below the tracks. Here, 
elevator buckets riveted to endless belts 
or chains scoop up the grain and carry 
it to the cupola, where it is distributed 
through a spout to the desired bin ‘in 
a story below. An upright shaft with 
a pointer shows to what bin a spout is 
directed. 

For unloading ships or barges a suc- 
tion fan is sometimes used, or a leg car- 
rying a movable box or boot, in which 


GRANADA 


there is an endless belt passing over a 
pulley at each end and provided with 
metal elevator buckets. This leg is ar- 
ranged to swing down into the hold of 
the barge or ship and scoop up the grain. 
For loading cars or vessels the grain is 
first elevated to the top of the building 
and by gravity spouted to the car or ves- 
sel desired. By a special device the grain 
can be weighed as it is loaded. A large 
elevator will hold 1,000,000 bushels of 
grain and is capable of handling nearly 
half that much per day. Those of the 
largest capacity are located in Chicago, 
Superior, Wis., Minneapolis, Minn., and 
at different ports on the Great Lakes. 
Gram. See MEtric SysTEM. 
Grammar, that branch of the science 
of language which treats of the forms 
of speech in languages and the relation- 
ship of these forms. It may be divided 
into didactic, historical and comparative 
grammar. Didactic grammar establishes 
rules of good usage in a given period; 
the grammars in general school use be- 
long to this type. Historical grammar 
treats of language from the point of 
view of historical development, present- 
ing facts only and laying down no rules 
of correct usage. Comparative grammar 
is also more or less historical in method 


and compares the forms of different lan-_ 


guages grouped together for this pur- 
pose. Divisions of didactic grammar are 
orthography, or the proper spelling of 
words; etymology, or a treating of the 
parts of speech with their inflections; 
syntax, or the relation of words in sen- 
tences ; 
versification. 

Gramophone, Gram’ o fone. See PHo- 
NOGRAPH. 

Gram’pus, a member of the Dolphin 
Family found in the Northern seas of 
America. It is distinguished from other 
members of the family by having teeth 
only in the lower jaw. The grampus is 
not as common as the dolphin, porpoise 
and narwhal, but is more disliked because 
of its voracity in destroying fishes and 
even small whales. See DoLpHin. 

Granada, Gra nah'da, a _ Spanish 
province, about the size of Connecticut 


1208 


and prosody, or the laws of — 


GRAN ADA 


and once a part of the ancient Moorish 
Kingdom of Granada. It lies in Anda- 
lusia in the southern part of Spain and 
has about 50 m. of seacoast on the Med- 
iterranean. Within it lies Mulhacén 
(11,420 ft.) of the Sierra Nevada range, 
the highest peak of the Iberian Penin- 
sula. The soil in this part of Spain is 
fertile and the province produces an 
abundance of good wheat, maize, barley, 
- wine, oil, flax, cotton, silk, fruit of nearly 
every kind and, since the loss of the 
Philippines by Spain, both beet and cane 
sugar. There are valuable mineral de- 
posits and the iron mines are especially 
well developed; tanneries and foundries 
also are numerous. The great highways, 
which were built in the time of Moorish 
domination, are still in good condition, 
but other roads are few and poorly kept. 
The Kingdom of Granada was de- 
stroyed by the invasion of Ferdinand and 
Isabella, begun in 1481, and by the treaty 
of surrender ten years later Moorish 
power in Spain was forever broken. The 
chief towns of the province are Granada, 
the capital and a city of historic impor- 
tance; Baza, Guadix, Loja, Montefrio 
and Motril. Population, 503,900. 
Granada, a city of Spain, the cap- 
ital of the Province of Granada, situated 
about 225 m. s. of Madrid. It is at the 
base of the Sierra Nevada range, 2200 
ft. above the sea, and the mountainous 
background, generally covered with 
snow, gives a very picturesque appear- 
ance, while the clear blue sky and the 
terraced hills, covered with vegetation, 
add further to its beauty. The towers 
of the Alhambra surmount the whole 
with impressive grandeur. The streets 
are mostly crooked and narrow, and the 
buildings, chiefly of Oriental architec- 
ture, are inferior in structure to those of 
other Spanish towns. Prominent build- 
ings are the Alhambra (See ALHAMBRA, 
THE), a summer palace of the Moorish 
princes, the Church of San Jeronimo, the 
Cathedral and the university (founded 
in 1531). The manufactures of the city 
include paper, leather, textiles, liquors, 
starch, chocolate and macaroni. The 
commerce consists principally of the 


GRAND ARMY 


transportation of the agricultural prod- 
ucts of the fertile Vega of Granada. 

Granada was mentioned in accounts by 
early Arabian authors. During the 
eighth century it was occupied by the 
Saracens, and after the 13th century, 
when it became the capital of the king- 
dom, it developed into a city of great 
splendor and power. In 1492 it was 
forced to surrender to the Christian sov- 
ereigns, and the Moors were finally ex- 
pelled in 1609. Population in 1900, 
795,900. 

Grand Army of the Republic, an or- 
ganization of the veterans of the Civil 
War, founded in Decatur, Ill., Apr. 6, 
1866, largely through the initiative of 
Dr. B. F. Stephenson and Chaplain W. J. 
Rutledge of the Fourteenth Illinois In- 
fantry. Membership is open to any of- 
ficer, soldier or sailor of the United 
States army, navy or marine corps who 
served between Apr. 12, 1861, and Apr. 
9, 1865, and was honorably discharged, 
and also to members of state regiments 
who were called into active service and 
were subject to orders of the United 
States officers. The purposes of the or- 
ganization are patriotic, fraternal and 
philanthropic. The official badge is a 
small strap and ribbon showing the 
American flag, from which is hung the 
star of the membership badge. This 
star shows a medallion on which are a 
soldier and sailor in relief, clasping hands 
in front of a figure representing Liberty. 
The medallion is also wrought into a 
button, which is worn on the lapel of 
the coat. 

The Grand Army is organized into 
local posts and departments represent- 
ing the states. These departments com- 
bine to form the national organization. 
The state and national departments hold 
annual encampments. Local posts usu- 
ally hold monthly meetings. The organ- 
ization has done much to relieve widows 
and orphans of deceased members. It 
was through its influence that Memorial 
Day was instituted. It has also been in- 
fluential in establishing soldiers’ homes 
and in securing an increase in pensions 
to veterans of the Civil War. Owing to 


42 1209 


GRAND FORKS 


the death of the members from old age, 
the ranks of the order are being rapidly 
depleted. In 1918 the membership was 
120,916. In 1911 it was 203,410. See 
WoMEN’s RELIEF Corps. 

Grand Forks,N. D., the second largest 
city in the state and the county seat of 
Grand Forks Co., located at the junction 
of the Red River and the Red Lake 
River, and on the N. P. and the G. N. 
railroads. Situated in the great wheat 
district of the Red River Valley, it is an 
important market for this staple and for 
flour, and is also an important distri- 
buting point for farm implements, ma- 
chinery and automobiles, and has large 
jobbing interests. Railway car shops and 
manufactories of tiles, brick, candy, 
crackers, packing, creamery and publish- 
ing products are among the industrial 
establishments. The University of 
North Dakota, a coeducational institu- 
tion opened in 1884, and Wesley College 
(Methodist Episcopal), affiliated with it, 
are located in Grand Forks. Acker’s 
Business College and St. Bernard’s 
Ursuline Academy (Catholic) are other 
leading institutions. The Federal Build- 
ing). YevdVi. + CA Buildingeand~ the 
public library are other important fea- 
tures. For its lighting, paving and park 
systems Grand Forks is scarcely excelled 
by any city of its size in the country. 
Grand Forks was settled in 1871 and two 
years later was incorporated. A city 
charter was granted in 1881. Popula- 
tion in 1920, 14,010. 

Grand Island, Neb., a city and the 
county seat of Hall Co., 154 m. w. and s. 
of Omaha,on the C:,/B; i @eithe VJ. P., 
the St. J..& G. I. and other railroads. 
The city has a large wholesale trade in 
groceries and fruits and a large num- 
ber of retail establishments. The live- 
stock trade is extensive, the horse and 
mule market is second only to St. Louis. 
There is here a large beet-sugar factory, 
wire-fence factories, a flour mill, canning 
factories and railroad shops. The city is 
the seat of Grand Island College (Bap- 
tist) and of the Nebraska Soldiers’ and 
Sailors’ Home, Grand Island General 
Hospital, St. Francis Hospital, a public 


GRAND RAPIDS 


library and Grand Island Business and 
Normal College are other important in- 
stitutions. The place was platted in 1866 
and chartered as a city seven years later. 
Population in 1920, 13,947. 

Grand Junction, Colo., a city and the 
county seat of Mesa Co., at the junction 
of the Grand and Gunnison rivers and on 
the D. & R. G.,, and the D. & R. G. W. 
railroads. It is surrounded by an agri- 
cultural region, watered chiefly by irre- - 
gation, in which fruit growing, dairying 
and general farming are the most im- 
portant industries. Grand Junction is 
one of the most important towns in west- 
ern Colorado. It has extensive coal inter- 
ests, brick and lumber yards, machine 
shops, flour mills, planing mills, canning, 
candy and beet-sugar factories. The 
State Home for Mental Defectives is 
here. North of the city are the largest 
shale oil beds in the world and south 
are extensive operations in carnotite 
ores which are the richest radium pro- 
ducing. Population in 1920, U. S. Cen- 
sus, 8,665. 

Grand Jury. See Jury. 

Grand Rapids, Mich., a city and 
county seat of Kent Co., 60 m. n.w. of 
Lansing and 145 m. n.w.of Detroit, on 
the Grand River, about 30 m. from Lake 
Michigan, and on the Grand Rapids & 
Indiana, the Pere Marquette, the Michi- 
gan Central, the New York Central, the 
Grand Trunk and other railroads. A 
number of electric interurban lines oper- 
ate in connection with the Trans-Lake 
Michigan boat lines to Chicago and 
other important ports on the west shore 
of the lake. The Lake Michigan resorts | 
at Saugatuck, Holland, Grand Haven 
and Muskegon are seasily reached by the 
Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & Muske- 
gon and the Michigan Railway lines. 
Grand Rapids is situated in the west 
Michigan fruit belt and the city is the 
center of a great and profitable market- 
gradening region. 

ParKS AND BouLeEvarps. The city 
covers an area of over 18 sq. m. and has 
a site of great natural beauty. East 
Grand Rapids, Burton Heights, Wyo- 
ming, North Park and Walker are at- 


1210 


\ 


GRAND RAPIDS 


tractive suburbs. There are many miles 
of well-lighted, paved and shaded streets 
and handsome residence districts sur- 
rounded by wide lawns and gardens. 
The park system comprises over 459 
acres, and includes John Ball Park of 
100 acres, Campau, Highland, Fulton 
and a number of smaller parks. Reed’s 
Lake and North Park are near-by re- 
sorts. 

PusLic Buitpines. Among the note- 
worthy buildings are the courthouse, Fed- 
eral Building, Kent Scientific Museum, 
Association of Commerce, Michigan 
Trust, Ashton, Keeler and Murray build- 
ings, Union Station, city hall, Elks’ Tem- 
ple, Manufacturers’ Building, the Penin- 
sular, Ladies’ Literary, Woman’s Kent 
County and St. Cecilia clubhouses, Ma- 
sonic Temple, Y. M. C. A. Building, 
Ryerson Library, a number of banks, 
Fyuuan ‘lemple, Masonic Temple, Y. W. 
C. A. There are about 120 churches, 
which include St. Mark’s Episcopal and 
St. Andrew’s (Catholic) cathedrals. The 
city is also the seat of a Catholic see and 
of an Episcopal bishopric. 

Institutions. The educational insti- 
tutions include the Holland Theological 
Seminary, one of the leading educational 


institutions of the Holland Reformed 


Church in America, 5 high schools pub- 
lic and parochial schools, Ryerson Li- 
brary, the gift of Martin A. Ryerson of 
Chicago, to the city of his birth, and a 
large number of private schools. The 
benevolent and charitable institutions in- 
clude the Butterworth, St. John’s, St. 
Mary’s and the city hospitals, Kendall 
Home for Nurses, Tuberculosis Sani- 
tarium, Aldrich Memorial Deaconess’ 
Home, Blodgett Home for Children, St. 
John’s Orphan Asylum, Emerson Home 
for the Aged, Woman’s Home and Hos- 
pital and the Blodgett Memorial Hospital. 
The Michigan Soldiers’ Home, main- 
tained by the state, is located about one 
mile north of the city. | 
Inpustries. The extensive manufac- 
turing industries of Grand Rapids are 
facilitated by the excellent water power 
furnished by the Grand River, which at 
this point falls about 18 ft., forming the 


. to 1500 ft. in height. 


GRANITE 


rapids from which the city derives its 
name. The city is noted for its manu- 
facture of furniture, being the leading 
city in the world in this industry, and a 
number of the largest buildings in the 
city are used exclusively for furniture- 
exhibition purposes. There are also tan- 
neries, flour and feed mills, a woodwork- 
ing tool factory, a paper mill, cooper- 


ages, shoe factories, foundries and 
machine shops, agricultural-implement 
works and manufactories of carpet 


sweepers, brass and bronze goods, con- 
fectionery, hosiery and knit goods, iron 
castings, leather, typewriters, veneers, fly 
paper, adding machines, show cases, 
leaded glass, band instruments, cement 
machines, brick and tile, embalming sup- 
plies, paper boxes, locomotive head- 
lights, sectional bookcases, heaters, tur- 
bines and other diversified products. 
The city is a great horticultural and mar- 
ket-gardening center and an important 
farm-produce and fruit market. Gypsum 

quarries are also found in the vicinity. _ 

History. The first settlement was 
made by Louis Campau in 1828, who es- 
tablished a trading station here with the 
Ottawa Indians and made the first entry 
of the land after the government survey. 
The first family to settle here was that 
of Joel Guild, who arrived in June, 1833, 
coming from Ionia. Grand Rapids was 
incorporated as a village in 1838 and 
granted a city charter in 1850. A re- 
vised charter was given in 1857. Popu- 
lation in 1920, 137,634. 

Grand River, a river of Colorado, 
rising in Grand Lake in the central part 
of the state and flowing southwest to 
unite with Green River in southwestern 
Utah. It is about 350 m. in length, and 
in one part of its course flows through 
a deep canyon with walls from 1000 ft. 
Its principal con- 
fluents are the Gunnison, Rio Dolores 
and Hudson’s Wash. 

\Grangers. See PATRONS OF 
BANDRY. 

Granite, Gran’ it, a crystalline rock 
composed chiefly of quartz, feldspar and 
mica. Granite is one of the oldest rocks 
in the earth, and granite hills can usually 


Hus- 


1211 


GRANITE 


be recognized at a distance by their 
rounded appearance. In color granite 
varies from light gray to almost black 
and from light pink to a dark red, the 
color depending largely upon the color 
of the feldspar. It varies widely in tex- 
ture, from coarse to fine-grained. It is 
very hard, possesses great. strength, takes 
a high polish and withstands the action 
of the weather to a remarkable degree. 
These qualities make granite one of the 
most valuable stones. It is used exten- 
sively for abutments and piers of 
bridges, the walls of large buildings, for 
monuments and headstones and for nu- 
merous other purposes. 

The granite industry in the United 
States ranks second in value among the 
building stone industries. The most ex- 
tensive quarries are in. Maine, New 
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts and 
Minnesota. The rock is cut from the 
ledge in large blocks, and these are cut 
into various sizes, which are shaped and 
polished by machinery. All engraving 
upon granite is also done by machine 
tools. Syenite is a variety of granite in 
which the mica is usually replaced by 
hornblende, though in some varieties the 
quartz is replaced by hornblende. See 
GNEISS; SYENITE. ) 

Granite City, Ill., a city of Madison 
Co., near the Mississippi River, 8 m. n. 
of: St; Louis; Mo.;’on thesGn2GeC.& St. 
Tithe C.'eAl, thei:G@y Raat. 1) the 
Wabash, the St. Louis Merchants’ Bridge 
Terminal and other railroads. It has iron 
and steel foundries, lead and enamel 
works and granite factories. Corn and 
fruit products, coke, asphalt and paving 
industries. Granite was settled in 1892. 
Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 14,757. 

Grant, Frederick Dent (1850-1912), 
an American soldier born at St. Louis, 
Mo., son of Gen. U. S. Grant. He stud- 
ied at West Point, graduating in 1871. 
After serving for some time in the 
United States army and being advanced 
to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he re- 
signed in 1881, went to Austria as United 
States minister and was later commis- 
sioner of police in New York City. He 
served as brigadier-general of volunteers 


GRANT 

in the Spanish-American War, being in 
command at Porto Rico, and was trans- 
ferred to the Philippines, where he again 
proved his efficiency. He was made a 
brigadier-general in the regular army in 
1898, and has been commander of the 
departments of Texas, the Lakes and.the 
Fast. 

Grant, Robert (1852- ), an Amer- 
ican novelist and essayist, born in Bos- 
ton. He graduated at Harvard in 1873, 
in 1876 received his Ph.D. and three 
years later completed a law course. In 
1893 he became judge of the Probate 
Court and of the Court of Insolvency, 
for Suffolk County, Mass. He has writ- 
ten pleasing essays on social topics and 
a number of novels. Unleavened Bread, 
a powerful and popular novel, represents 
his best fiction. Other works are The 
Carletons, An Average Man, The Knave 
of Hearts, The Undercurrent, The Law- 
breakers, The Chippendales, Convictions 
of a Grandfather and The Art of Living. 

Grant, Ulysses Simpson (1822-1885), 
a celebrated American general and eight- 
eenth president of the United States. He 
was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, of 
Scotch ancestry, descended from Mat- 
thew Grant, who came to Dorchester, 
Mass., in 1630. His great-grandfather 
fought in the French and Indian War, as 
did his grandfather in the Revolutionary 
War. 

Earty Lire. The oldest of six chil- 
dren, the boyhood of Ulysses was spent 
in helping his father on the farm in sum- 
mer and attending the village school in 
winter. At the age of 17 he was ap- 
pointed to the West Point Military Acad- 
emy, where he made a creditable record 
and graduated in 1843. He was then 
commissioned as brevet second lieutenant 
and -was stationed at Jefferson Barracks 


near St. Louis, Mo., going on in 1845 to_ 


Corpus Christi to join the army for the 
defense of Texas under Gen. Zachary 
Taylor. He served throughout the Mex- 
ican War, taking part in every important 
battle except Buena Vista, and was bre- 
vetted captain for gallant conduct. In 
1848 he married Miss Julia Dent, sister 
of one of his classmates, During the 


1212 


——— 


GRANT 


next five years he was stationed at vari- 
ous posts, including Detroit and Sack- 
ett’s Harbor, and in 1852 went with his 
regiment to California from New York 
via the Isthmus of Panama. In 1854 
he resigned his commission, after having 
attained the full rank of captain, and for 
the next six years engaged in farming 
and the real estate business near St. 
Louis. He then removed to Galena, IIl., 
and became a clerk in his father’s hard- 
ware and leather store. 

Civit War PeEriop, When the Civil 
War broke out in 1861, it found him 
ready for service. He immediately re- 
cruited and drilled a company of volun- 
teers which he marched to Springfield, 
where he became engaged in the adju- 
tant-general’s department as mustering 
officer. Receiving no reply to his letter 
offering his services to the National Gov- 
ernment, he accepted appointment as 
colonel of the 21st Illinois Volunteer In- 
fantry, becoming brigadier-general of 
volunteers in 1861. He seized Paducah 
-at the mouth of the Tennessee River and 
Smithland at the mouth of the Cumber- 
land; checked the advance of the Con- 
federates at Fredericktown and Belmont; 
captured Ft. Henry (Feb. 6, 1862) and 
Ft. Donelson (Feb. 16), at the latter 
winning great popularity and the name 
“Unconditional Surrender Grant,’ and 
appointment as major-general of volun- 
teers; was victorious in the two days’ 
Battle of Shiloh (Apr. 6 and 7); and 
was second in command at the occupa- 
tion of Corinth. 

A few months later Grant was put in 
command of the Department of the Ten- 
nessee, which was enlarged to include 
part of Mississippi. After defeating the 
Confederates at Iuka he turned his at- 
tention to the reduction of Vicksburg. 
Failing to take the city by assault from 
the north, he ran his gunboats and trans- 
ports down past the batteries, transported 
his army to the east bank of the river, 
cut loose from his base of supplies, 
marched rapidly against Johnston whom 
he defeated at Jackson, and drove the 
army of Pemberton into Vicksburg. 
After a siege of several weeks the city 


GRANT 


‘surrendered on July 4, 1863, with over 


30,000 Confederate soldiers. The Mis- 
sissippi was thus opened throughout its 
entire length, and the Confederacy was 
cut in two. Grant was made major-gen- 
eral in the regular army and placed in 
command of the military Division of the 
Tennessee. 

In October he was made commander 
of the Division of the Mississippi, em- 
bracing the departments and armies of 
the Tennessee, the Cumberland and the 
Ohio. He at once proceeded to Chatta- 
nooga and took personal command of the 
Federal army there, which was besieged 
by the Confederates under Bragg, occu- 
pying strongly fortified positions on the 
heights about the city. Important out- 
posts were carried on the 23rd, on the 
24th the Federal army stormed Lookout 
Mountain, and on the 25th they carried 
Missionary Ridge in a _ remarkable 
charge. The Confederate army was 
completely routed and driven out of Ten- 
nessee. The grade of lieutenant-general 
was revived, and Grant was appointed to 
this position and made commander-in- 
chief of all the Federal armies, in March, 
1864. 

He now made his headquarters with 
the Army of the Potomac, and planned 
the simultaneous movement on the part 
of all the national armies which led to 
the overthrow of the Confederacy. 
Grant personally directed the operations 
against Lee in Virginia. In the series of 
terrific battles of the Wilderness, Spott- 
sylvania, North Anna and Cold Harbor, 
fought with varying fortunes and great 
loss of ‘life from May 5 to June 3, 1864, 
the enemy was gradually driven back 
towards Richmond, and Grant sent his 
famous dispatch to Washington: “I pro- 
pose to fight it out on this line if it takes 
all summer.” But it took longer than 
that. For a year Grant and his generals 
were engaged in almost constant fight- 
ing about Richmond; Sherman made his 
brilliant “march to the sea” and brought 
his forces up from the South; while 
Sheridan’s cavalry drove Early out of 
Maryland and the Shenandoah Valley. 
Petersburg and Richmond became un- 


1213 


GRANT 


tenable and were evacuated on the night 
of Apr. 2, 1865, and were occupied by 
Grant’s forces the next morning. The 
retreating Confederates were pursued as 
far as Appomattox Courthouse, where 
Lee met Grant and surrendered his entire 
army. The surrender of Johnston to 
Sherman followed, and the war was prac- 
tically over. Grant now made his head- 
quarters in Washington, where he reor- 
ganized the army on a peace footing and 
bore an honorable part in measures for 
reconstruction. In 1866 Congress cre- 
ated the rank of general of the army and 
appointed him to that position. 

PRESIDENT. Two years later Grant 
was nominated by the Republican Party 
for the presidency of the United States 
and was elected by a large majority. He 
was reelected for a second term in 1872. 
During his administrations the Alabama 
Claims were adjusted with England, the 
national debt was reduced, the Pacific 
railroads were completed, the Fifteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution was rati- 
fied and the disastrous financial panic of 
1873 occurred. Serious financial scan- 
dals were uncovered among government 
officials, but in these Grant was in no 
way implicated unless in too zealously 
standing by friends who were guilty. 

Later YeEaARS. After completing his 
second term of office Grant made a tour 
around the world and was everywhere 
accorded extraordinary honors as a sol- 
dier and the foremost citizen of the 
United States. He later became con- 
nected with a banking firm which failed 
and invoivea him heavily in debt. Every 
mark of sympathy and confidence was 
given him, and Congress placed him on 
the retired list of the army as general, 
with full pay, a position he had resigned 
to become president. In the endeavor 
to repair his fortunes he undertook the 
writing of his Memoirs, a remarkably 
modest and impartial review of the Civil 
War. He was engaged upon this pub- 
lication up to the very time of his death, 
which occurred from cancer on July 23, 
1885. His remains were interred in a 
magnificent tomb in New York City over- 
looking the Hudson River. 


GRAPE 


EsTIMATE OF CHARACTER. General 
Grant was a plain and unassuming man, 
possessed of strong common sense, great 
self-reliance and invincible purpose. His 
reputation will rest upon his moral cour- 
age and military achievements. The his- 
tory of progress in the Civil War is.the 
story of Grant, as, unelated by victory 
and undaunted-by defeat, he moved with 
the skill of a great commander from 
west to east, until his task was completed 
and the Union was saved. 

Grape, a familiar fruit produced 
upon a woody, twining vine of the Vine 
Family. The plant is one of the oldest 
of domesticated fruit-bearers and has 
long been grown in the Old World for 
the production of wine and raisins. 
Grapes are grown in the most diverse 
localities, but the regions about the Med- 
iterranean Sea are probably the best for 
wine grapes, and France and Spain lead 
in their production. In the United States 
wine grapes are grown on the Pacific 
slope and chiefly in California, condi- 
tions of climate and soil being there suf- 
ficiently like those of the Old World to 
permit the fruit to thrive. 

The grapes grown throughout the 
United States are cultivated varieties of 
the vines once found wild in American 
woodlands. From them have been pro- 
duced the Concord, the Worden, the Del- 
aware, the Niagara, Moore’s Early, the 
Brighton and other varieties familiar for 
table use. The regions fitted for raising 
these for commercial purposes are chiefly 
located near the larger lakes, where the 
water moderates the climate and pre- 
vents early frasts. The soil, too, should 
be light and not too rich in nitrogen, as 
its presence tends to increase the woody 
growth of the stem rather than the juici- 
ness of the fruit. The Hudson Valley 
and the Great Lakes region are the chief 
grape-growing sections. 

Since the. grape is a rapid grower, 
severe pruning is necessary in order tu 
limit the amount of wood. This should 
be done in the early spring, and the cut- 
tings may be used for the propagation of 
new plants. Grafting is also practiced 
and proves very successful if done before 


1214 


GRAPE 


the sap rises in the spring. The vines 
must also be sprayed to prevent the 
growth of mildew, which is very disas- 
trous to both leaves and fruit, and to de- 
stroy the insects that infest them. In 
European countries grapes are grown 
upon single frames and usually upon a 
southern slope, where the ‘shadow of 
one plant will not fall upon its neighbor. 
In the United States, except in Califor- 
nia, where the vines are pruned until 


CLUSTER OF GRAPES 


they resemble bushes, they are grown 
upon trellises, and the level land is found 
to be as advantageous as slopes. 
California sends east thousands of car- 
loads of grapes annually. These are pre- 
served by prompt cooling and cold stor- 
age, a process which both the Australian 
and the United States governments have 
recently investigated and found to’ be 
eminently practical. Cleaned redwood 


GRAPHITE 


sawdust is found to be the best packing 
for the grapes. Aside from their use for 
wine and raisins, grapes are now being 
extensively used for bottled, unfermented 
grape juice, a pleasant and healthful 
drink. The grape is the state emblem of 
Oregon. See WINE; Raisins; PHyL- 
LOXERA, 

Grape’fruit”, a tropical tree, or the 
fruit of the same tree, belonging to the 
Rue Family and resembling the orange 
and lemon in its manner of growth. It 
is a native of the East Indies but has 
been brought to the West Indies and to 
California and Florida. The tree at- 
tains a height of from 20 to 30 ft. and 
has large green leaves and bladed leaf- 
stalks. The flowers are broad and white. 
The fruit is somewhat larger than the 
orange and has a paler rind, within which 
is a tough, white lining surrounding the 
pulp. This pulp is divided into sections 
much like the orange except that they are 
less regular in form. The juice is sour 
and a little bitter, but with the use of 
sugar is very pleasing and is popular for 
desserts and preserves. The grapefruit 
tree is more tender than the orange and 
is not so easily grown in the United 
States. California, Florida and the West 
Indies supply the United States market 
and are endeavoring to produce sweet, 
juicy fruits. The ordinary grapefruit of 
commerce is globular and weighs from 
4 to 14 lb. A pear-shaped variety is 
called the shaddock after a Captain Shad- 
dock, who introduced the tree into the 
West Indies. The fruit derives its name 
from the fact that it grows in clusters, 
like grapes. 

Grapeshot, a shot made by fastening 
together several balls. It usually con- 
sists of three layers of balls, with three 


‘balls in each layer, the layers being sep- 


arated by disks of iron, with two addi- 
tional disks, one above and the other 
below the layers of shot. A rod passes 
through the centers of the four disks, 
holding the whole shot together. The 
grapeshot was formerly very effective, 
but is now little used. 

Graphite, Graf’ ite, a mineral species 
consisting almost wholly of carbon, 


1215 


GRAPHOPHONE 


which crystallizes in six-sided prisms. 
Chemically it is identical with the dia- 
mond, but the physical characteristics of 
the two are widely divergent. The dia- 
mond is the hardest of minerals, color- 
iess and transparent, while graphite is 
soft, black and opaque; it is also greasy 
to the touch and oils everything with 
which it comes into contact. Some 
grades are granular in texture and have 
a highly metallic luster. Graphite occurs 
in the oldest rock formations, usually in 
masses or beds, sometimes in isolated 
scales. Although widely distributed, it 
is rarely found pure, but with an average 
of 50 per cent of other minerals. Large 
quantities are found in the Austrian Alps 
and in Ceylon, and extensive deposits of 
a fine grade are found in Canada and 
New York State. It occurs elsewhere 
in the United States and in Mexico, Si- 
beria, Italy, England, Japan and Ger- 
many. The chief commercial uses of 
graphites are for crucibles, linings of 
portable furnaces, pencils, for electro- 
plating, for protecting iron from rust and 
for reducing friction between parts of 
machinery. See PENCIL. 

Graphophone, Graf’ o fone, a machine 
for recording and reproducing sounds, 
invented by Charles S. Tainter and Chi- 
chester A. Bell. It is built on the same 
principle as the phonograph, but differs 
from that instrument in that its revolv- 
ing cylinders, which register the sound 
vibrations, are wax-covered instead of 
being made entirely of that material. 
See PHONOGRAPH. 

Grass, the name of a family of plants 
whose species are extremely useful to 
mankind. They are found all over the 
world and grow under the most varied 
conditions: on lawns and meadows, in 
swamps, woodlands and tropical forests. 

In general the grasses are herbs, but 
they may be shrubs or trees. The flow- 
ers are inconspicuous, lacking calyx and 
corolla, but hanging in graceful, com- 
pound spikes, or spikes upon spikes. The 
structure of the flowers is very complex 
and cannot be taken up in detail. It is, 
however, an interesting fact that the 
stamen of the wheat flower is the most 


GRASSE 


rapidly growing organ known. Its 
growth, which can be noted with the 
naked eye, has been known to be as rapid 
as 1.8 millimeter per second, or the rate 
of the movement of the minute hand of 
a watch. 

The leaves of the grasses are two- 
ranked; that is, each alternate leaf is 
on the opposite side of the stem from 
the one before it, the third being directly 
above the first, the fourth above the sec- 
ond, etc. The leaf stem is hollow and — 
enclosed in an open sheath. Grasses may 
be distinguished from sedges, which they 
closely resemble, by means of these dif- 
ferences in leaves and stems, the leaves 
of the sedges being three-ranked and 
the stems solid. Many of the grasses 
have creeping, underground stems which 
send up leafy shoots. The roots are 
mostly perennial. Many species of 
grasses contain a great deal of silica, 
which serves to keep the stems brittle 
and the blades sharp and cutting. 

The most common meadow grasses 
are timothy, Kentucky blue grass, rye 
grass, yellow oat grass, etc. The im- 
portant cereal grasses are wheat, rye, 
barley, oats, maize and many fodder 
plants. These grow mostly in the tem- 
perate zones and are cultivated grasses. 
Rice and sugar cane are tropical cereals, 
and the bamboo is the typical tree grass. 

Grasse, Francois Joseph Paul, Mar- 
QUIS DE GRASSE-TILLY, CoUNT DE (1723- 
1788), the French admiral in command 
of the French fleet in the siege of York- 
town. He was born at Bar in Alpes 
Maritimes and early entered the French 
navy, where he became a captain and 
later the commander of a squadron. 
With a fleet of 29 ships manned with 
3000 French sailors, he ably assisted 
Washington to force the surrender of 
Cornwallis in the last battles of the Rev- 
olutionary War. Later he sailed to the 
West Indies, where he met an English 
fleet under Rodney and was defeated in 
a desperate naval engagement. De 
Grasse was carried prisoner to England 
and charges of treason and inability were 
brought against him at home. Although 
the charges proved to be unfounded, De > 


1216 


GRASSHOPPER 


Grasse was not returned to his command ; 
after being released by the English, he 
spent his remaining years in Paris. 
Grasshopper, a name applied to a 
number of species of two different fami- 
lies in the order Orthoptera. It is not 
definitely distinguished from the term 
locust in the United States, but is per- 
haps a little broader in its usage. It 
ordinarily refers to members of the Lo- 
custid Family, which, strangely enough, 
does not include the true locusts; the 
Acridiid, or True Locust, Family is the 
other group, having members spoken of 
as grasshoppers (See Locust). This dis- 
cussion will concern itself only with 
members of the Locustid Family. 


GRASSHOPPER 


There are three well-known species, 
the sword bearer, the common meadow 
grasshopper and the lance-tailed grass- 
hopper. All may be recognized by their 
short, peaked heads, long, slender anten- 
ne reaching backward, as long as or 
longer than the body, and their delicate 
build. The meadow grasshopper is the one 
which leaps from the path before one on 
dusty midsummer days, startling one by 
its high leap and its sudden rasping call, 


or jumping from the uncut grass of the’ 


pasture, where its green color had ef- 
fectually concealed it from view. Their 
music, without which the meadow and 
_ the roadside would be silent places, is 
produced by rasping together roughened 
portions of the forewings. The stridulat- 
ing apparatus, as the roughened patches 
are called, is possessed only by the males, 
and in grasshoppers makes but a faint, 
soft sound heard by day as well as by 
night. This note has been likened to a 
prolonged z r r r, terminated by the re- 
peated syllable jip, jip, jip. 


GRAVITY, CENTER OF 


The wings of all three species are long, 
but are not often used. The long, stout 
hind legs, whose knee joints are high 
above the back, are its chief aid in loco- 
motion. The grasshopper deposits its 
eggs in the stems or leaves of grasses 
or in the pith of trees. Ordinarily grass- 
hoppers are not serious pests because 
they are kept down by the numerous 
birds which prey upon them. When they 
do overrun the countryside, artificial 
means of destroying them must be re- 
sorted to. Some of these are discussed 
under the article on locusts. 

Grav” ita’tion, the force which, act- 


ing at appreciable distances, attracts 


bodies toward each other. A small body 
and a large one exert this force toward 
each other equally, since each particle of 
one attracts each particle of the other. 
The nature of gravitation is unknown, 
but its force holds the planets in their 
orbits about the sun and causes bodies to 
fall toward the earth. Newton, who 
first studied gravitation, established the 
two facts concerning it: that at equal 
distances its force varies as the product 
of the masses of the attracting bodies ; 
and that at unequal distances its force 
varies inversely as the square of the dis- 
tance between the attracting bodies, cen- 
ter to center. For this reason, eliminat- 
ing centrifugal force, which acts most 
strongly at the equator, the same body | 
would weigh less at the equator than at 
the poles, which are nearer the center 
of the earth than the equator is. The 
constant of gravitation is the force with 
which two spherical bodies, each of unit 
mass whose centers are unit distance 
apart, attract’ each other. The force is 
0000000666 dyne for two bodies of 
one gram each, whose centers are one 
centimeter apart. The laws of gravita- 
tion of the earth, or gravity, are dis- 
cussed under the title FALLING Bopies. 

Grav’ity, Center of, a point upon 
which a body may be balanced. It is 
the point through which passes, whatever 
the position of the body, the resultant 
of the parallel forces of gravity acting 
upon all particles of the body. In regu- 
lar plane and solid figures the center of 


1217 


GRAVITY, SPECIFIC 


yravity is the same as the center of the 
figure. The center of gravity of an 
irregular plane figure may be found by 
suspending it first from one corner and 
then from another and in each case drop- 
ping a plumb line from the vertex used ; 
if lines are drawn in the position taken 
by the plumb line in its successive posi- 
tions, the center of gravity will lie at 
the intersection of these lines. If pinned 
to the wall at that point, the figures will 
remain at rest in any position. The 
center of gravity of a solid can be found 
in the same manner as that of a plane 
figure, by suspending the solid from each 
of two different points in turn and noting 
the intersection of the plumb lines from 
the two points respectively. For some 
bodies the center of gravity lies wholly 
outside the body. 

Gravity, Specific, the density of a 
substance compared with that of a fixed 
standard. For solids and liquids the 
standard is water; for gases it may be 
either water or air. The terms density 
and specific gravity should be carefully 
distinguished. The density of a sub- 
stance is its weight (more properly, its 
mass) per unit volume; the density of 
cast iron is 462.5 lb. per cubic foot, while 
the density of water is 62.5 lb. per cubic 
foot. The specific gravity of iron is the 
ratio of these two densities, ==, which 
equals 7.4. “In the metric system the 
density of iron is 7.4 grams per cubic 
centimeter, while that of water is one 
gram per cubic centimeter. In the metric 
system the numerical values of the den- 
sity and the specific gravity of a sub- 
stance are the same, since the density of 
water is one gram per cubic centimeter 
at the temperature of 4° C.; the density 
of water is slightly less at lower tempera- 
tures and decreases with rise in tempera- 
ture, being only .9586 gram per cubic 
gentinetér at. 100° Gu 

The fundamental method of determin- 
ing the specific gravity of a substance is 
to find the weight of the substance and 
the weight of an equal volume of water ; 
then divide the first weight by the second. 
When a solid is placed in a liquid, the 
solid loses in weight an amount. equal to 


1218 


GRAVITY, SPECIFIC 


the weight of the liquid displaced by the 
solid; that is, its loss in weight is the 
weight of an equal volume of the liquid. 
Because of this, to find the specific grav- 
ity of a solid heavier than water, the 
solid is weighed first in air and then in 
water, and the weight in air is divided by 
the difference between the two weights. 
If a solid is lighter than water, a sinker 
can be used. The solid and the sinker 
are weighed separately in air, the sinker 
is weighed alone in water, and then the 
sinker and the solid are weighed in water. 
If from the loss of weight of both, the 
loss of weight of the sinker is subtracted, 
the result will be the loss of weight of 
the solid alone. Then the weight of the 
solid in air divided by its loss of weight 
in water gives its specific gravity. 

The specific gravity of a liquid is usu- 
ally found by means of a “specific grav- 
ity bottle,” a light glass bottle with a 
glass stopper, so arranged that the bottle 
can be easily filled just to the top of a 
small hole in the stopper. The bottle is 
weighed first empty, then when filled with 
water. The difference in weight of the 
bottle full of the liquid and empty di- 
vided by the difference in weight of the 
bottle full of water and empty gives the 
specific gravity of the liquid. The spe- 
cific gravity of liquids is very conveni- 
ently found directly by means of a varia- 
ble immersion hydrometer. See Hy- 
DROMETER. 

In all the above work corrections 
should be made for the density of the 
water used, if it is not distilled water at 
4° C., when very accurate results are re- 
quired. 

The specific gravity of gas is found by 
weighing a light glass bulb filled with the 
gas and then exhausting the bulb with 
an air pump and weighing again; _the 
difference is the weight of this volume 
of gas. The weight of the gas divided 
by the weight of the same volume of air 
obtained in like manner gives the specific 
gravity of the gas. Since the specific 
gravity of a gas depends upon its tem- 
perature and pressure, it is necessary to 
see that the gas and the air are at the 
same temperature and pressure in carry- 


GRAY 


ing out the above determination. If 
they are not used under the same condi- 
tions, corrections must be applied ac- 
cording to the laws of gases; air at 0° C. 
and under a pressure of 76 centimeters 
of mercury is taken as a standard, its 
density then being .001293 gram per 
cubic centimeter. See Gases, LAwS OF. 

Gray, Asa (1810-1888), an eminent 
American scientist, whose works on bot- 
any are authority in the United States. 
He was a graduate of Fairfield Medical 
College, but owing to his love for botan- 
ical study gave up the practice of medi- 
cine for work in natural history. He be- 
came professor of’natural history in Har- 
vard University and was there a volumi- 
nous writer on botanical subjects. Liv- 
ing as he did, at a time when botanical 
classifications were undergoing a change 
from the artificial to the natural system, 
and when the newer portions of his 
country were being explored and settled, 
Gray found wide field for his labor in 
the study and classification of American 
flora. His investigations and their results 
are recorded in his many books and 
papers; his School and Field Botany was 
long a popular school text and his Flora 
is still widely used. 

Gray, Elisha (1835-1901), an Amer- 
ican inventor, born in Barnesville, Ohio. 
He took up "special studies in physical 
science at Oberlin, and in 1867 in- 
vented a self-adjusting telegraph relay. 
In 1872 he organized the Western Elec- 
tric Manufacturing Company, and four 
years later claimed to have invented the 
speaking telephone. After a memorable 
litigation, however, this honor was 
awarded Alexander Graham Bell. Later 
Gray perfected and patented various tel- 
egraph instruments and details of tele- 
graphic construction, including a system 
of multiplex telegraphy, a type-printing 
telegraph and in 1893 the telautograph, 
which transmits the handwriting of mes- 
sages. 

Gray, George (1840- ), ary Amer- 
ican jurist, born in New Castle, Del., and 
educated at Princeton and Harvard. Ad- 
mitted to the bar, he practiced at New 
Castle and Wilmington, being attorney- 


See TELEGRAPH ; TELAUTOGRAPH.. 


GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT 


general of Delaware and, from 1885 to 
1899, serving as a Democratic United 
States senator. Meanwhile, he was ap- 
pointed to the Anglo-American Commis- 
sion, the Spanish-American Peace Com- 
mission and the Joint High Commission 
between Canada and the United States. 
In 1900 he belonged to the Hague Arbi- 
tration Commission, and in 1902 to the 
anthracite coal strike commission. In 
1899 he became judge of the United 
States Circuit Court. 

Gray, Thomas (1716-1771), an Eng- 
lish poet, born in London. He studied 
at Eton and Cambridge, but before tak- 
ing his degree in civil law accompanied | 
Herace Walpole on a tour through 
France and Italy. He declined the honor 
of being poet laureate of England and in 


1768 became professor of modern his- 


tory in Cambridge. His fame rests 


‘chiefly on the Elegy Written in a Coun- 


try Churchyard, a marvel of simplicity 
and classical finish. His theme, the com- 
pensations of lowly life, was compara- 
tively new, and reveals his sympathy 
with the early beginnings of Romanti- 
cism. His interest in Norse mythology 
and literature likewise indicates his re- 
volt from Classicism and gave rise to the 
odes, The Fatal Sisters, The Descent of 
Odin and The Triumphs of Owen. Other 
poems were Ode on a Distant Prospect 
of Eton College, The Progress of Poesy 
and The Bard. See RoMANTICISM. 

Gray’ling, an exceedingly active fish 
of the Salmon Family, found in cool 
streams of temperate regions or colder 
Arctic zones. Its body is long and only 
slightly elevated at the back, but a high 
dorsal fin gives it the appearance of 
width. The head of the grayling is short, 
the mouth small and the eyes very prom- 
inent. The Michigan, Montana and 
Arctic graylings are all good game fishes, 
much sought by American fishermen and 
propagated at many government fish 
hatcheries. They are about 18 inches in 
length and of blue-gray color. 

Great Australian Bight, Bite, a great 
bay at the south of Australia made by a 
broad indentation of the shore and form- 
ing an arm of the Antarctic Ocean. Its 


1219 


GREAT BEAR 


shores are irregular, with smaller bays 
and numerous capes and peninsulas pro- 
jecting into its waters. The Murray and 
the Darling rivers flow into this great 
bay, but no large cities are upon its 
banks. See AUSTRALIA, subhead Coast 
Waters. 

Great Bear (Ursa Major), one of the 
constellations about the North Star. It 
contains 138 stars visible to the naked 
eye, but is- popularly known by seven 
stars and called the Big Dipper. The 
two stars of the second magnitude form- 
ing the outer end of the bowl of the Dip- 
per are very nearly in line with the North 
Star, and for this reason are called the 
pointers. In England this constellation 
is called Charles’s Wain (wagon). See 
STARS; CONSTELLATIONS. 

Great Bear Lake, a lake situated in 
northwestern North West Territories, 
Canada, 250 m. from the Rocky Moun- 
tains and just beneath the Arctic Circle 
and the constellation of Ursa Major, 
from which it derives its name. It is 
about 150 m. long and from 25 m. to 45 
m. wide, but its coast line is very irreg- 
ular. The lake receives the drainage 
from a large area and is fed by the Dease 
and other rivers; the Great Bear River 
is the outlet. The surface is frozen over 
nine months of the year. 

Great Britain, the largest island of 
Europe, comprising England, Scotland 
and Wales. The name British Isles ap- 
plies to this same territory with the ad- 
dition of Ireland, the Hebrides, the Ork- 
neys, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey 
and other groups of islands lying near. 
The official title is the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain and Ireland, while the 
British Empire refers to all of the terri- 
tory under the authority of the British 
Crown. The numerous possessions in- 
cluded in this great empire, embracing all 
climes and containing one-fourth of the 
population of the world, are listed at the 
close of this article. For detailed de- 
scriptions, see ENGLAND; SCOTLAND; 
IRELAND; WALES. 

The Island of Britain, or Great Brit- 
ain, has an irregular coast line indented 
by many bays, estuaries and firths. Its 


1220 


GREAT BRITAIN 


principal boundaries are: on,the n., the 
Atlantic Ocean; on the e., the North 
Sea and the Straits of Dover; on the s., 
the English Channel, separating England 
from «France; and on the “wast, 
George’s Channel and the Irish Sea, sep- 
arating England from Ireland, and the 
Atlantic Ocean at the extreme northwest. 
Its area is 88,729 sq. m., or slightly 
greater than the State of Utah. Its 
greatest length is 608 m. and its greatest 
width is 320 m., the latter being from 
Land’s End in the southwestern part to 
Kent in the southeastern. Its latitude is 
the same as that of North America from 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the southern 
extremity of Greenland, though its tem- 
perature generally corresponds to that of 
the United States. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. At the 
west and northwest a series of irregular 
mountain systems reach almost-to the 
coast and spread to the east in some- 
what disconnected groups. The Cam- 
brian Mountains of Wales, the Cheviots, 
forming a part of the boundary of Eng- 
land and Scotland, and the Grampians in 
Scotland are among the best known. The 
highest point of the island is Ben Nevis 
(4406 ft.), a peak of the Grampians 
near the western coast of Scotland. The 
loftiest elevation in Wales is Mt. Snow- 
don (3560 ft.), and in England, Mt. 
Scafell (3210 ft.), not far from the 
Scottish border. The central and south- 
ern part of Great Britain is a region of 
rounding hills clothed with verdure and 
intersected by many rivers; at the west 
these hills rise to the mountains; at the 
east they slope to an alluvial plain. The 


rivers, lakes and other physiographic 


features are described in greater detail 
under the titles of the separate political 
divisions. 

CLIMATE, PropucTIoNns, INDUSTRIES, 
Etc. The climate is variable but health- 
ful. The Gulf Stream, washing the 
western shores, moderates the tempera- 
ture, making the winters less rigorous 
than in European countries of the same 
latitude. The island has supported so 
large a population that agriculture has 
become highly developed. Fruits, grains 


—_—S ie 


7 


GREAT BRITAIN 


and vegetables of temperate climates are 
produced, and cattle of all kinds are ex- 
tensively raised. The native wild ani- 
mals are the fox, badger, wildcat, marten, 
rabbit, hare, otter and deer; these take 
the place of the bear, boar, wolf and 
beaver, once common but now almost 
wholly exterminated. The mineral pro- 
ductions, especially tin, iron, copper, sil- 
ver, gold and coal, are valuable; of the 
latter, England mines annually fully 153,- 
000,000 tons; Scotland, 32,800,000 tons ; 
and Wales, 32,600,000 tons. Manufac- 
turing is among the important industries 
because of the excellent water power and 
the wealth of iron and coal. Of these 
the manufacture of textiles is first in 
rank, and its exports constitute more than 
one“third of the exports of the United 
Kingdom. | 

GOVERNMENT. Politically Great Brit- 
ain is a limited monarchy whose great 
possessions are united under the name of 
British Empire, consisting of two parts: 
the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland; and India, the colonies, the 
protectorates and the dependencies. The 
constitution is not one written instru- 
ment but is a vast collection of acts, 
some unwritten, which have grown with 
the years and form the great body of 
English laws. It consists of ten kinds of 
documents: the laws of Parliament, royal 
decrees, agreements, treaties, legal de- 


cisions, the Magna Charta, granted by. 


King John in 1215, the Declaration of 
Rights of 1689, the Act of Settlement of 
1701 and the two Acts of Union, one 
with Scotland in 1707 and one with Ire- 
land in 1800. 

The central government is made up of 
three departments. The executive is a 
king whose office comes to him through 
descent. Although the king is the nom- 
inal executive, the cabinet, a commit- 
tee of ministers, is the real authority; 
the ministry, however, depends for its 


existence upon the possession of a ma- 


jority of the House of Commons. The 
first lord of the treasury is generally the 
head of the cabinet and is then known as 
the prime minister. The other members 
of the cabinet, 18 or 20 in number, are 


GREAT BRITAIN 


appointed by the Crown upon the advice 
of the prime minister, who has been 
previously chosen by the Crown from the 
majority of the House. The legislative 
department consists of a House of Lords 
and a House of Commons. Members of 
the former are peers of the realm who 
hold their places by hereditary right; by 
creation of the king; by virtue of office, 
as bishop; by election for life, as the 
Irish peers; by election during Parlia- 
ment, as Scottish peers. The full house 
is about 630. The members of the 
House of Commons are representatives 
of the counties, boroughs, and university 
constituencies. Clergymen are disquali- 
fied from holding seats, and sheriffs and 
government contractors can neither hold 
seats nor vote. The annual session of 
Parliament extends from the middle of 
February to about the middle of August 
and is summoned by writ of the sover- 
eign issued 35 days before the date of 
assembling. It is closed by prorogation, 
and all bills which have not passed dur- 
ing the session lapse. The longest Par- 
liament of recent years was the sixth of 
Victoria’s reign; it lasted for six years 
and one month. The limit of existence 
of Parliament now is five years. 

The local governments differ in the 
different large divisions. In each county 
of England and Wales a lord lieutenant 
represents the Crown. Scotland has a 
local government board whose president 
is called the secretary of Scotland. The 
county authority of Ireland is a council 
elected by popular vote. The other de- 
pendencies are of three principal kinds: 
crown colonies, wholly controlled by the 
home government, as India, «Gibraltar, 
the Straits Settlements, etc.; those pos- 
sessing responsible governments in which 
the sovereign appoints the governor and 
has the right of veto on legislation, but 
otherwise has no control on any public 
officer, represented by Canada, Austra- 
lia, South Africa and New Zealand; and © 
those possessing representative institu- 
tions in which the Crown may veto legis- 
lation and in which the home govern- 
ment controls public officers, represented 
by Malta, Ceylon, Cyprus, Jamaica, etc. 


1221 


GREAT BRITAIN 


Aside from these may be mentioned the 
protectorates, which are governed by na- 
tive agencies, and the old trading com- 
panies, whose rights were granted by 
_ charter. 
' History. After the accession of James 
I in 1603 (See ENGLAND, subhead His- 
~ tory). England and Scotland had the 
same sovereigns, but the legislatures 
were not joined until the Act of Union 
(1707) was passed during the reign of 
Queen Anne. Although the union was 
not unanimously approved, it seemed the 
only certain way of preserving peace be- 
tween the two countries. Peace at home 
and abroad became the desire of the 
Tory Party, which was then in ascend- 
ancy. In literature this age ranks as the 
age of prose writers, among whom may 
be mentioned Addison, Swift, Steele, 
Berkeley and Locke. Anne was suc- 
‘ceeded by George I (1714-1727), the 
first of the Hanover line, during whose 
reign the peculiar and efficient cabinet 
government of England began. Robert 
Walpole, whose aid had kept the coun- 
try from bankruptcy upon the bursting 
of the South Sea Bubble, was the first 
prime minister (See SouTH SEA Com- 
PANY). Through his skill and the effi- 
ciency of the ministers which he chose, 
England enjoyed great prosperity 
through the last years of the reign of 
this ruler who was himself unable to 
speak a word of English. 

George II (1727-1760) succeeded his 
father and followed his policy of nonin- 
terference and indifference in English 
affairs. Walpole, who continued prime 
minister, was unwillingly drawn into a 
war with Spain in 1739, and later, in 
1742, resigned rather than assume the 
responsibility of the War of the Aus- 
trian Succession, in which, under the 
ministry of Lord Carteret, England won 
a fruitless victory. A rising in Scotland 
under Charles Edward, the Young Pre- 
tender, was crushed at Culloden, and 
the leader was compelled to flee (See 
CuHarLes Epwarp). William Pitt, who 
had been a young statesman of oratorical 
fame in the days of Walpole, became 
head of the cabinet and, during ab- 


GREAT BRITAIN 


sences of the king, the virtual ruler of 
Great Britain; he prosecuted the war 
with France with great vigor and 
through his plans England gained impor- 
tant victories in America and India. See 
Pitt, WILLIAM ; CLIVE, ROBERT; WOLFE, 
JAMES, “¢ 

George III (1760-1820) was English 
in training, upright, conscientious ‘and 
ambitious, and he determined to regain 
the royal powers lost by his father and 
grandfather. But he was also narrow 
and bigoted. Pitt resigned in 1761 and 
was followed by the King’s favorite, 
Bute, and, later still, by North. Under 
North the dissatisfaction of the Ameri- 
can colonies reached a crisis and their 
independence from Great Britain. was 
declared and won (See REVOLUTIONARY 
WAR IN AMERICA). This forced North’s 
resignation, and his place as prime min- 
ister was taken by the younger Pitt, who 
remained in office until his death in 
1806; he maintained a constant opposi- 
tion to the French Revolution and to 
Napoleon. Nelson’s great naval victory 
over the French at Trafalgar and Well- 
ington’s defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo 
made England dominant upon the sea 
and led to favorable terms for England 
at the subsequent Congress of Vienna. 
See NeEtson, HorAtTi0; WELLINGTON, 
ARTHUR WELLESLEY. 

The French wars, an insurrection in 
Ireland and a second war with the 
United States (See War or 1812) had 
piled up an enormous national debt. 
When George IV (1820-1830) became 
king the discontent and distress led to de- 
mands for reform, which were begun 
under Canning, and under Wellington, 
who succeeded him, were still further 
carried out. The Test Act against the 
Catholics was repealed in 1828, and 
Catholics were henceforth admitted to 
municipal privileges, to corporate offices 
and even to Parliament. William IV 
(1830-1837) created the requisite num- 
ber of peers to pass the Reform Bill of 
1832, which completely reorganized the 
representation in Parliament, and in 1833 
slavery was abolished in the colonies. 

Queen Victoria (1837-1901) ruled the 


1222 


GREAT BRITAIN 


empire for nearly 64 years, making her 
reign the longest in history, with oné ex- 
ception. She greatly endeared the mon- 
archy to the people, and during her long 
reign strengthened the relations of the 
colonies to the central government. Brit- 
ish power was extended and strength- 
ened in India, the Confederation of Ca- 
nadian Provinces was formed in 1867 
and the Commonwealth of Australia in 
1900. These were among the most im- 
portant civic events of the century. The 
Crimean War occurred in 1853-6, and 
the Boer War in 1899-1902, which re- 
sulted in adding the Orange River Re- 
public of Transvaal to the British Em- 
pire. The most important measures with- 
in the United Kingdom were the repeal 
of the Corn Laws, the extension of the 
franchise. 


THE War oF 1914. Signs of a coming 
struggle were apparent before the close 
of Victoria’s long reign. When the dev- 
astating war broke out, George V, son 
and successor of Edward VII, and grand- 
son of Victoria, was on the throne. For 
years, it had been an open secret that 
Germany planned a crushing blow at 
Great Britain and it was generally held 
that the Bagdad Railway project was a 
great step in preparation for that result. 
A treaty between Great Britain and Ger- 


many in 1914 (but not signed) would . 


have prevented the World War. 

England was one of the powers gtar- 
‘anteeing the independence of Belgium 
and could not stand idly by when Ger- 
many invaded Belgium in August, 1914. 
England was not bound by treaty to come 
to the assistance of France, but every 
consideration of national honor and na- 
tional safety impelled to such a course. 

In the fierce furnace fires of the con- 
flict the old British Empire and the old 
order of life in England disappears and 
a new empire emerges. 


.The great self-governing colonies of ° 


the empire are bound together by new 
ties of loyalty and devotion to new demo- 
cratic ideals of government. Changes 
going to the warp and woof of English 


GREAT FALLS 


political life have been effected, and a 
new England will result. 
BRITISH EMPIRE 

United Kingdom, Great Britain, Ire- 
land. 

Europe, Gibraltar, Malta. 

Asia, Aden, India, Straits Settlements, 
Malay States, Hongkong, Wei-hai-wei, 
Cyprus, Perim, Sokotra, British Borneo, 
Sarawak. 

Pacific, Australian Commonwealth, 
Papua, New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga Is- 
lands, Solomon Islands, Gilbert Islands. 

Africa, Egypt and Lybian Desert, 
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Uganda, East 
Africa “Protectorate, Union of South 
Africa, Nigeria; (Gold: Coast, %Sierra 
Leone, and Gambia; Ascension, St. 
Helena, Zanzibar, Seychelles, Mauritius. 

Under Mandate Rule, Former Ger- 
man Island in the Pacific south of the 
equator, German East Africa, German/ 
Southwest Africa, and Turkish Prov-: 
inces in Mesopotamia. 

America, Canada, Newfoundland and 
Labrador, British Honduras, British 
Guiana, Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks and 
Caicos Islands, Jamaica, Windward Is- 
lands, Leeward Islands, Trinidad and 
Tobago, Falkland Islands. 

Great Falls, Mont., the second city 
of the state and the county seat of Cas- 
cade Co., situated in the north-central 
part of the State, on the Missouri River 
and on the Great Northern, the Chicago, 
Milwaukee & St. Paul and other rail- 
roads. It lies in a level valley surrounded 
by. the foothills of the Rockies, whose 
snow-capped peaks are visible to the 
west, and is ten miles above the Great 
Falls of the river, from which the city 
derives its name. : ; 

STREETS, BOULEVARDS AND PARKS. 
Great Falls has been well laid out, for 
the streets, with the exception of two 
which follow the course of the river, 
cross each other at right angles. A strip 
of lawn ten feet wide on each side of 
the walk lines all of the streets and is set 
out to trees; thus, though the region was 
originally treeless, Great Falls is a well- 
shaded city. The most of the streets are 
paved, and a broad boulevard, Valeria 


1223 


GREAT FALLS 


Way, encircling the city, furnishes an 
attractive drive and automobile speed- 
way. The extensive park system includes 
Black Eagle Park, Gibson Park and 
Whittier Park, aside from large park 
reservations to be used as the growth of 
the city demands. The city maintains a 
nursery, which keeps the parks and bou- 
levards supplied with trees and shrubs. 

Pusitic Buitpines. The well-kept 
public grounds of the city have inspired 
the people to give especial attention to 
their private grounds and homes, and 
Great Falls is thus an unusually attrac- 
tive home city. Aside from its pleasant 
residences, there are many public build- 
ings of importance, including a modern 
courthouse, the Federal Building, a Car- 
negie library, several beautiful churches 
and the Rainbow Hotel, one of the finest 
of the Middle West. 

EpucaTIONAL Institutions. The 
school system maintains grade schools 
and a high school in modern, well- 
equipped buildings. St. Ursula’s Acad- 
emy for girls is a recently-established 
higher institution. 

INDUSTRIES. Great Falls is in the midst 
of a great mining region, and its great 
copper smelter, one of the largest in the 
world and having the highest stack, is 
the center of the industrial activity of 
the city. Next to Anaconda the product 
of the Great Falls smelter is the largest 
in the state. Coal and silver mining are 
carried on in the vicinity, and the fine 
grazing lands in the valley about the city 
render it an important shipping point for 
live stock. The water power from the 
river is unsurpassed and is sufficient, it is 
estimated, to furnish power to every city 
of Montana. Power generated by Rain- 
bow Falls, with the Great Rainbow Dam, 
is used to run the city’s electric railway 
and lighting plant, as well as those of 
Butte and Cascade. This power is also 
used for other manufacturing plants, 


which, though important, are largely, 


overshadowed by the city’s one great in- 
dustry. Black Eagle Falls above Rain- 
bow Falls, and Great Falls below them, 
both furnish immense possibilities for 
water power. 


GREAT LAKES 


History. Great Falls was settled in 
1884 and owes its location to the indus- 
trial value of the situation. Its growth 
was rapid and it became a city in 1888. 
Population in 1910, 13,948; in 1920, 
U. S. Census, 24,121. ' 

Great Falls of the Yellowstone. See 
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 

Great Kanawha, Ka naw’ wah, a river 
of eastern United States. It rises in the 
Blue Ridge Mountains in North Caro- 
lina and first flows northeast through 
Virgina, then turns to the northwest and 
crosses the west-central counties of West 
Virginia. It enters the Ohio, of which 
it is an important tributary, near the city 
of Point Pleasant. Its entire length is 
about 450 m., but it is navigable for only 
a little more than 100 m., because of the 
Kanawha Falls not far from its junc- 
ture with the Gauley. The cities of 
Charleston, Montgomery and Hinton lie 
upon its banks. 

Great Lakes, the name givén to the 
five large lakes that lie in northern 
United States and form a part of the 
boundary between it and Canada. 
Through the St. Lawrence River their 
waters reach the Atlantic, and thus with 
their connecting rivers, straits and small- 
er lakes they are a part of the great St. 
Lawrence basin. Together these lakes 
have an area of 94,650 sq. m., practically 
the same as that of Oregon and greater 
than the combined areas of New York 
and Pennsylvania. They cover a greater 
area than the Island of Great Britain 
and are about one-half as large as 
France. 

Lake Superior, the largest, is also the 
farthest north. It is 390 m. long and 160 
m. wide and alone is larger than the en- 
tire State of South Carolina. By means 
of St. Mary’s River it connects with 
Lake Huron, the second of the lakes in 
size. This lake is a little smaller than 
West Virginia and has a large arm 
known as Georgian Bay. Through the 
Straits of Mackinaw the waters of Lake 
Michigan join those of Lake Huron at 
the northwest. Lake Michigan has about 
the same area as Vermont, Massachu- 
setts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. 


1224 


GREAT LAKES 


South from Lake Huron the waters flow 
through the St. Clair River, beautiful 
Lake St. Clair and the broad Detroit 
River into Lake Erie. This lake is shal- 
low and subject to sudden storms. It is 
slightly larger than Vermont. The Niag- 
ara River, with its famous falls and rap- 
ids, carries the great stream on to Lake 
Ontario, the smallest lake of the five. 
Its area is greater than that of Connect- 
icut and Rhode Island, and at its eastern 
extremity it narrows to the bed of the 
St. Lawrence. 

The great traffic in grain, lumber, iron 
ore, coal, copper, flour and other freight 
carried on by means of these lakes ren- 
ders this one of the greatest waterways 
of the world. Lighthouses mark the dan- 


— i — — a — —— 


L.Michigan L.. Huron 
—J81-FET, 581 FIT 


GREAT SALT LAKE 
of freight. See Superior, LAKE; Micu- 
IGAN, LAKE; Huron, LAKE; ERIE, 
LAKE; ONTARIO, LAKE; SAULT STE. 
MarigE CANALS; WELLAND CANAL. 
Great Northern Diver. See Loon. 
Great Salt Lake, a lake of Utah, lying 
in the northeast part of the Great Basin. 
It is now 75 m. long and from 20 to 35 
m. in breadth, but is the remains of a far 
larger lake, called by geologists Lake 
Bonneville, the surface of which was 
fully 1000 ft. above that of the present 
lake. It has an average depth of 60 ft., 
and upon its surface lie two islands, 
Fremont and Antelope, and a long pen- 
insula, called the Promontory, entering 
it from the north. The lake is crossed 
from east to west by the “Lucin Cut-off” 


ALTITUDE AND DEPTH OF THE GREAT LAKES 


gercus reefs and rocky coasts, and chan- 
nels have been widened and deepened to 
make passageway for the largest boats. 
The great locks at the “Soo,” the ship 
canal across Keweenaw Peninsula in 
northern Michigan, and the Welland Ca- 
nal around Niagara Falls are among the 
engineering feats that have rendered this 
highway complete. 

The first vessel other than a canoe to 
be sailed upon the Great Lakes was the 
Griffon, constructed by La Salle in 1679. 
Later, in 1818, the first steamer, Walk- 
m-the-Water, was launched on Lake 
Erie. The first steamer reached the Soo 
in 1827, and the first came to Chicago in 
1832. Today the great passenger and 
freight boats are as well equipped and 
as convenient as ocean-going boats, and 
carry an average of 16,000,000 passen- 
gers annually and fully 83,000,000 tons 


of the Southern Pacific Railway. The 
lake has no outlet and is fed chiefly by 
three rivers, the Bear, the Jordan and 
the Weber, all of which enter from the 
east. The water is so heavy with solid 
matter, principally salt, that a person 
bathing cannot sink, being lighter than 
the water. The amount of salt in the 
water varies as the lake rises and falls 
with the change of seasons. 

The lake is of interest because of its 
picturesque surroundings, its popularity 
as a bathing resort and its geological and 
commercial importance. Garfield and 
Saltair lie upon its southern shore and 
have excellent pavilions and bathhouses. 
Commercially, the lake is an important 
source of salt. The brine is pumped 
through long conduits to ponds, where 
it is evaporated by the sun. The salt is 
then purified. Great Salt Lake was not 


1225 


GREAT SLAVE LAKE P 


much known until the Mormon settle- 
ment was made near it in 1847. Since 
then extensive geological surveys have 
been made of the lake and its vicinity. 

Great Slave Lake, a lake situated in 
North West Territories, Canada, s.e. of 
Great Bear Lake, is about 300 m. long 
and about 50 m. wide, but the shores are 
very irregular and deeply indented with 
large bays. It is fed by the Slave, Hay, 
Yellow Knife and smaller rivers and the 
Mackenzie River forms the outlet into 
the Arctic Ocean. The shores are steep 
and rugged and the lake contains several 
islands. The water is very clear but is 
frozen over six months of the year and 
is open to navigation only from July to 
October. 

Great Wall of China, an extensive 
wall or fortification of China originally 
built to bar out the invading tribes of 
the north. Its eastern extremity was 
probably at Shanhaikwan on the Gulf of 
Liaotung, although much of the eastern 
portion has been destroyed. From here 
it extended west and southwest to Pe- 
king and along the northern boundaries 
of the Chinese provinces. Two branches 
of the wall extend south, affording double 
protection. With its windings the extent 
of the wall is 1500 m., making it the 
longest artificial structure in the world. 
It is built generally of boulders and 
earth, although in the valleys brickwork 
and hewn stone show traces of better 
masonry. At the base the wall is from 
20 to 25 ft. wide; at the summit it is 
about 12 ft.; its height-is from 20 to 30 
ft.; and every two hundred yards there 
are square towers 40 ft. in height. In 
many places in the mountains the wall is 
4000 ft. above sea level. 

The wall was begun probably about 
the third century B. C. and was repaired 
in the 15th century A. D.; a year later 
it was extended 300 m. Although much 
of the wall has been destroyed or buried, 
military posts are still maintained at 
many of the city gates. The labor ex- 
pended in building the wall was prob- 
ably much less than was formerly sup- 
posed, since little of the work was that 
of skilled masons. 


1226 


GREECE 


Grebe, or Diver, a diving bird re- 
lated to the loons and auks. They have 
heavy bodies, short legs, the toes only 
partly webbed, and short wings. Like 
the loons, the grebes are almost helpless 
on land. 

FEARED GREBE. This is one of the»best- 
known grebes of western North Amer- 
ica. It is about 14 
inches long; the back 
is blackish; the sides, 
brown; head, chest and 
neck,! b Parieaad 
breast, silvery white. 
Each side of the head 
is provided with a long 
tuft of yellow, silky 
feathers. Like some 
other grebes, the nest 
of the eared grebe is 
made of rushes, floats 
on the water and con- 
tains from four to six 
dirty-white eggs. The 
young are downy and black. This beau- 
tiful bird is being rapidly exterminated. 
Its silvery breast and brown flanks are 
highly prized by fashion’s devotees, and 
whole colonies are destroyed in the 
breeding season when the parents are 
caring for the young; for, when the 
parents are killed, the helpless offspring 
are allowed to die of starvation and ex- 
posure. 

Greece, a kingdom of Europe oc~- 
cupying the southern extremity of the 
Balkan Peninsula. It is bounded on the n. 
by Albania, Servia and Bulgaria, on 
the e. by the AXgean Sea, on the s. by 
the Mediterranean, which separates it 
from Africa, and on the w. by the Ionian 
Sea. The numerous islands that lie in 
the Ionian and A*gean seas belong to 
the Kingdom of Greece and are insep- 
arably connected with it through histor- 
ical association. The continental por- 
tion is made of two parts—Hellas, at the 
north, and Morea, formerly called Pelo- 
ponnesus, at the south; these divisions 
are almost wholly separated by the great 
gulfs of Patras and Lepanto, or Corinth, 
that deeply indent the country on the 
west, and by the broad Gulf of A¢gina, 


FOOT OF GREBE 


ATHENS. (1) Capital of modern Greece, center of Athens. The square is adorned with 
orange trees, oleanders and lofty cypress. (2) Shoe Street, Athens. (3) Ancient Greek baths. 
(4) Stadium at Athens, scene of the Pan-Athenic games in the glorious days of Ancient 
Greece. Olympic games are now held here. 


THE GLORY THAT WAS GREEGE, 


1. The Acropolis, (See Pages 182, 183, 184). 2. The Erectheum, (Pages 182, 183). 
3. Temple of Theseus, (Page 2875). 4. Theater of Dionysius, (Pages 183, 2869, 2870). 
). East Front Parthenon, (See Pages 182, 183). 


GREECE 


indenting it on the east. The narrow 
Isthmus of Corinth connecting the two is 
barely four miles across and is traversed 
by a ship canal completed in 1893. The 


area of Greece and her islands is 46,000 


*~ 


sq. m., about the same as that of Mis- 
sissippi. 


PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Greece 


is a mountainous country. The western 


portion of Hellas is traversed by the Di- 
naric Alps, isolated peaks of which form 
the Ionian Islands; the range continues 
through Morea, where it rises in many 
lofty summits. The Pindus Range en- 
ters from Turkey and, running north 
and south, divides Morea into two nearly 
equal parts. One branch of the Pindus 
forms the southern boundary of Thes- 
saly, and another, farther south, culmi- 
nates in Mt. Parnassus (8070 ft.), now 
known as Mt. Liakoura, once dedicated 
to Bacchus and to the Muses. The rocky 
character of the country has given Greece 
an extended coast line, greater in propor- 
tion to its size than that of any other 
country, and the same physical features 
appear in its isolated islands. The rivers 
are rapid mountain torrents of great 
beauty, but generally of little use for 
navigation. The climate is ordinarily 
healthful, although in the lower sections 


the summers are hot and dry and vege- . 


tation can seldom resist the drought of 
the warm months. 

Propucts, INDUSTRIES, Etc. Greece is 
a land of fruits and vines. Along the 
coast great vineyards climb the slopes 
and, wherever the elevation permits, 
groves of olives, figs, oranges, citrons 
and pomegranates are cultivated even to 
the very limits of the cities. Melons, rice, 
wheat, barley, rye and cotton also form 
important crops, but agriculture is not a 
profitable occupation, and only about 14 
per cent of the land is under cultivation. 
Currants, fruit whose name is derived 
from the word Corinth, are exported in 
large quantities, and acorns used in tan- 
ning are picked up and shipped by the 
thousands of tons annually. 

Minerals, though undoubtedly existing 
in abundance, are not extensively mined, 
yet many of the mines have been worked 


GREECE 


since earliest times. Silver, manganese, 
cadmium, iron and lead are known to 
exist and are mined to some extent. Sul- 
phur is taken from many of the volcanic 
islands and the marbles of Naxos and 
Paphos have long been famed. The man- 
ufactured articles are made chiefly for 
home consumption and consist of silks, 
cottons, woolens, pottery, sugar, soaps, 
leather and paper. Maritime commerce 
has always been one of the great indus- 
tries; Athens with Pirzus, Patras, Hy- 
dra, Nauplia, Hermoupolis and Kala- 
mata are the chief ports. 

ANCIENT GREECE. The ancient Greeks 
called their country Hellas and they 
spoke of themselves as Hellenes. In the 
beginning the more important centers of 
Greek civilization were not alone in the 
peninsula but in the islands and coasts 
of the A“gean Sea, while Greek colo- 
nies were planted on the shores of the 
Black Sea, in Sicily and in Italy and 
other parts of the Mediterranean region. 
Greece proper was favored by nature in 
respect to position, physical characteris- 
tics and climate. Its separation from the 
east by the narrow Hellespont and the 
“fégean Sea saved it from falling under 
the numbing despotism of the older 
countries, while its proximity to these 
older civilizations enabled it to profit by 
their progress. The islands scattered 
over the A°gean early led to commerce, 
and through commerce to the learning 
of the East. Moreover, nearly all of the 
people shared in the civilizing influence 
of the sea, for only two states, unpro- 
gressive and unimportant, were without 
coast line. Thus early in their history 
we find the Greeks having the progres- 
sive and venturesome cast natural to a 
nation of traders and sailors. 

Religion. The religion of the Greeks 
was based on ancestor worship, the wor- 
ship of a local deity, and upon a nature 
worship. Like the Oriental, the Greek 
believed that the world was peopled by 
spirits who interested themselves in his 
daily life and influenced it. All the 
forces of nature revealed the presence 
of these beings, from the sprouting of 
the spear of wheat to the voice of thun- 


1227 


GREECE 


der in the sky. These spirits had the de- 
sires and passions of human beings, but 
on a larger scale. They represented their 
gods under the forms of the highest hu- 
man beauty and thus escaped the debas- 
ing tendency of the animal form of wor- 
ship of the people of the East. More- 
over, they systematized or organized 
their gods into a family of whom the 
chief dwelt upon the top of cloud-capped 
Olympus. This religion was, however, 
largely for the present life. The dead 
dwelt- in a dark underground region 
called Hades, so gloomy that Achilles 
expressed the national belief when he 
said, “Rather would I live upon the earth 
as the hireling of another, with a land- 
less man who had no great livelihood, 
than bear sway among the dead that be 
departed.” 

Olympian Games. These games were 
held at Olympia, Elis, every four years 
in honor of Zeus; they constituted the 
most largely attended festival, and men 
from all parts of Hellas flocked thither. 
At first the contests consisted of foot 
and chariot. racing, wrestling and box- 
ing. The highest honor open to any 
Greek was to receive the olive wreath as 
victor at Olympia. See OLYMPIAN 
GAMES. 

Oracles. An oracle among the ancients 
was the seat of worship of some god 
where he announced his prophecies to 
those consulting him. Sometimes the 
prophecies were made known through 
priests and priestesses and sometimes 
they were intimated by signs. People 
came from near and far to consult these 
oracles in regard to matters of public 
and private interest, from the conclusion 
of a treaty to a new venture in business. 
The most famous Greek oracle was that 
of Apollo at Delphi, a town in Phocis. 
Here a priestess named Pythia, after the 
Python slain by Apollo, sat on a tripod 
and delivered the message of the god. 
To the uninitiated the utterings of the 
priestess were unintelligible, but these 
were interpreted to the inquirer by the 
priests of Apollo. In historical times the 
Delphic oracle often gave evasive an- 
swers and also seemed to be swayed by 


GREECE 


party faction. The Greeks had 22 ora- 
cles for the consultation of Apollo. Zeus 
was also considered a god of prophecy 
and he was consulted in the shade of 
Dodona in Epirus, where the divine will 
was revealed by the rustling of the oak 
leaves of the forest. These oracles, were 
consulted until the time of Theodosius 
(379-395), who closed the temples. 

Amphictyonic Council. This was a 
league of ancient Greek cities centering 
in a shrine. Among the most famous 
was the association formed to protect the 
temple at Delphi. Later smaller leagues 
arose for the protection of other temples 
in Greece. They were the earliest sug- 
gestion of a sense of unity among the 
Greek states. The name Amphictyonic 
signifies “dwellers-round-about.” 

Literature. See LiTERATURE, subhead 
Greek Literature. 

History. Mycenean Age. (? -1000 
B. C.). The beginnings of Greece are 
lost in obscurity, and the first period, 
called the Mycenzan Age, reaches from 
this obscure past to about 1000 B. C. 
We dimly see by the ruins, for they left 
no written records, the outlines of states 
on the coasts of the 7“gean, with kings, 
rich and powerful, ruling over wide ter- 
ritories and making alliances with the 
people about them. That they had com- 
mercial relations with distant nations is 
proved by the Mycenzan pottery found 
in\ Egypt, while Mycenzan soldiers are 
pictured on the walls of Egyptian tem- 
ples built in the 19th and 20th dynasties. 
In the Odyssey the extent of sea known 
by them is revealed, for this poem, 
though it was written in the age that fol- 
lowed, depicts the glory and tells the tra- 
ditions of the Mycenzan Age. 

Middle: Age (1000-500 B. C.). The 
Mycenzan period was brought to a close 


by the invading Dorians, a rude people 


who poured into Greece from the north- 
west. In the process of the next 300 
years a new political and social life was 
built up. By 700 B. C. commerce had 
again been established, city states had 
arisen with the aristocracy as the pre- 
vailing type of government, while the de- 
mocracy had already begun the struggle 


1228 


¢ 


GREECE. (1) Piraeus, principal port of Athens. (2) Marathon, where one of the world’s 
great battles was fought. (3) Lantern of Diogenes. (4) In the Acropolis, (5) Delphi, where 
the oracle proclaimed wisdom. 


GREECE. (1) Entrance to Acropolis. (2) The modern Academy at Athens. (3) Greek 
troops enjoying view of Athens. (4) Market place at Argos. (5) At Sparta. 


GREECE 


for a share of the government. During 
the next two centuries Greece came into 
contact with the East and became a more 
powerful factor in the world politics 
than she had ever been before. 

In order to understand the sudden de- 
velopment of the Greek genius after 500 
B. C. it is well to realize what had actu- 
ally been accomplished between 1000 and 
500 B. C. By this time the Greeks had 
risen in.race consciousness to the belief 
that they were one in origin and culture; 


colonies had been planted all over the 


Mediterranean coasts; nearly every city 
_ had passed through various revolutions 
leading either to democracy or aristoc- 
racy; Sparta already ruled in military 
affairs; Athens led in the democratic 
movements; while Ionia held first place 
in affairs intellectual and artistic. 

Period of State Supremacy (500-331 
B. C.). From 492 to 480 B. C. came the 
inevitable conflict with Persia, and this 
period was followed by successive at- 
tempts at empire by Athens, Sparta and 
Thebes, and closed with the subjection 
of Greece by Macedonia in 338 B. C. 
During this time came the marvelous 
flowering of the Greek genius in liter- 
ature, philosophy, science, sculpture, 
painting and architecture, while the best 
that was said and done in these lines was 
said and done at Athens. This city, ri- 
diculously small when compared with 
any large city of the present day, pro- 
duced more famous men in the age of 
Pericles (463-431) than any other coun- 
try has produced in a century, while 
these intellectual giants lived among a 
people more keenly appreciative of things 
intellectual and artistic, and of more gen- 
eral culture, than any other body of men 
who have ever lived. 

Following this period came the. Pelo- 
ponnesian War (431-404 B. C.), which 
involved the entire peninsula and re- 
sulted in the downfall of Athens and the 
rise of Sparta as a political power (See 
ATHENS, subhead Peloponnesian War). 
For 33 years after the Peloponnesian 
War, Sparta was supreme in Greece, a 
period marked by tyranny and oppres- 
sion. At length the other states of 


GREECE 


Greece, under the leadership of Thebes, 
rose against Sparta. Led by the Theban 
generals, Epaminondas and _ Pelopidas,. 
the allies won a decisive victory over the 
Spartans at Leuctra, 371 B. C. During 
the period of Theban supremacy democ- 
racy was the principal form of govern- 
ment in Greece. The leadership of 
Thebes, however, rested on the genius 
of her great statesman and general, Epa- 
minondas, and it ended with his death, 
which occurred at the Battle of Manti- 
nea, 362 B. C. There was no state left 
in Greece to assume the leadership, and 
she soon sank to a position of depend- 
ence. See THEBES; SPARTA; ALEXAN- 
DER THE GREAT. 

Period of Foreign Rule. After the 
Battle of Mantinea came a period of 
anarchy, lasting over 20 years. In 338 
B. C. Philip of Macedon became master 
of Greece, decisively overcoming Athens 
and Thebes at the Battle of Chzronea. 
Then a congress of Greek states ac- 
knowledged Macedonia as the head of 
Greece. Under Philip’s strong rule re- 
bellious outbreaks were quelled. At his 
death in 336 B. C., his son Alexander 
the Great succeeded to the throne. Al- 
exander quickly subdued those states of 
Greece that rose in rebellion, and, when 
he had firmly established his authority 
there, proceeded against Persia. By his 
conquests Greek learning and culture 
were spread over the vast Persian Em- 
pire. Following the death of Alexander 
his kingdom was divided into three 
smaller kingdoms, and Greece was left a 
vassal of Macedonia. During the next 
two centuries there was continued inter: 
nal dissension, and in 279 B. C. the 
Gauls invaded the country. In 146 B. C,, 
when Corinth was burned and captured, 
Greece and Macedonia fell under the 
power of Rome, and Greece became a 
Roman province under the name of 
Achaia. After the division of the Ro- 
man Empire into the Eastern and West- 
ern empires, in 395, Greece became a 
part of the Eastern Empire, remaining 
under its control until the capture of 
Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453. 
After the fall of Constantinople Greece 


1229 


GREECE 


became a part of the Turkish Empire. 
The country lapsed into poverty and an- 
archy under Ottoman tyranny, but the 
more independent and energetic of the 
people kept alive that spirit of independ- 
ence which was to win them freedom. 

Modern Greece. At the beginning of 
‘the 19th century the Greek people began 
a movement for a national revival, and 
in 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti headed a 
revolt and proclaimed the independence 
of Greece. From 1821 to 1828; under 
the leadership of Ypsilanti and with the 
. help of Russia, France and England, she 
fought for freedom. In 1830 a congress 
of the European powers declared Greece 
an independent nation and forced Tur- 
key to agree to this declaration. In 1832 
Otho, second son of King Louis I of 
Bavaria, was made king by the powers, 
and three years later Athens was made 
the capital of the kingdom. In 1843 a 
bloodless revolution forced the King to 
grant a constitution, but the people still 
remained dissatisfied, and in 1862 Otho 
was deposed. In 1863 the second son of 
the King of Denmark became ruler as 
George I. He was succeeded in 1913 by 
his son Constantine. 

In 1878, a boundary dispute between 
Turkey and Greece was settled in favor 
of the latter nation by a conference of 
ambassadors which met at Berlin. A 
war, disastrous for Greece, broke out be- 
tween the two countries in 1897; the 
cause this time was the cruel treatment 
of the Cretans by the Turks. As the 
result of this war Greece had to pay an 
indemnity of $18,000,000, while a slight 
change, favorable to Turkey, was made 
in the frontier. Later (1898) the pow- 
ers of Europe forced Turkey to with- 
draw from Crete, and the island was 
placed under the protection of Greece. 
The Greek Christians, the Serbs, Monte- 
negrins and Bulgarians living within 
Turkish boundaries have always been 
subject to the cruelties of their Moham- 
medan rulers and recent massacres led 
to the declaration of war against Tur- 
key in 1912, made by Montenegro and 
joined later by Greece, Bulgaria and 
Servia. See BaLKAN War, 


GREEK CHURCH 


In spite of their unsettled political af- 
fairs the Greeks have continued to be a 
poetical people, patriotic and proud of 
the historic importance of their country 
as well as of its recent advancement. 
Education, especially in literature and the 
arts, has been widespread, and the leg- 
ends and history of ancient Greece are 
unconsciously learned by the youths. 
Schools are established in all of the 
towns and cities, and formal education, 
though not at present compulsory, is 
everywhere encouraged. The University 
of Athens is the principal higher institu- 
tion. Aside from the native Greeks, 
Greece contains many Albanians, Turks 
and Europeans. Strangely, too, only 
about one-third of the Greek people live 
in Greece, the rest having emigrated tem- 
porarily to European Turkey, Bulgaria, 
the United States and other countries. 
The Greek Church, with the king as its 
head, is the established Church and in- 
cludes fully nine-tenths of the people. 

The government is a constitutional 
monarchy. The present constitution was 
adopted in 1864 and vests the legislative 
authority in a single house, called the 
Boule. Since 1911 a Council of State, 
somewhat answering the purpose of a 
second chamber of the legislative assem- 
bly, has been added as a department of 
government. Population, 4,600,000. 

Greek Church, a religious organiza- 
tion calling itself the Holy Orthodox 
Catholic and Apostolic Church, in a wide 
sense including those Christians who 
accept the Greek rite. There are three 
important branches: the Church within 
the Ottoman Empire; the Church in the 
Kingdom of Greece; and the Russo- 
Greek Church in the Russian Empire. 
These agree in receiving the first seven 
general councils of the Catholic Church ; 
and in refusing to accept the supremacy 


of the pope or any of the later councils 


of the Western Church. There is a close 
connection between the separation of the 
Greek and Roman churches and that of 
the Eastern and Western branches of 
the Roman Empire. The increasing im- 
portance of Constantinople and the ri- 
valry between Church and State contrib- 


1230 


CORFU. Top: Corfu from the sea. Bottom: The old fortress of Corfu. 


“ 


a 


GREEK CHURCH 


uted to the growing spirit of independ- 
ence on the part of the East, while the 
insertion of filioque (and from the Son) 
in the Nicene Creed and the question 
of papal supremacy were a continual 
source of discord. Doctrinal differences 
and the war of the Iconoclasts (See 
IcONOcLASTS) were additional elements 
in the movement which culminated in a 
formal division in 1054. The Greek 
Church admits the seven rites of the Ro- 
man Church—baptism, confirmation, 
communion, penance, extreme unction, 
holy orders and matrimony, though dif- 
fering somewhat in their observance. 
Baptism consists of triple immersion, 
confirmation immediately following. In 
the Lord’s Supper the Greeks admit the 
real ‘presence of Christ in the elements, 
and both adults and children receive the 
sacrament. Confession and: absolution 
by priests are recognized; honor is paid 
to relics; but the only graven image per- 
mitted is the cross. Among the fast pe- 
riods kept are Pentecost and Lent; all 
Wednesdays and Fridays are observed. 
The Virgin Mary is especially revered. 
The public service is formal and im- 
pressive, the singing being performed by 
male voices alone. Priests and deacons 
marry, but bishops may not. Monas- 
teries and convents are maintained. The 
chief difference between the Greek and 
Roman churches is the rejection, by the 
former, of the papal supremacy, and the 
refusal to permit filioque in the creed. 

In regard to government, the Turk- 
ish Church is subject to the Patriarch 
of Constantinople, who may be appointed 
and deposed at the will of the Sultan 
of Turkey. The Russian Church is un- 
der the Holy Synod at St. Petersburg ; 
the Czar of Russia is the recognized tem- 
poral head of the whole Greek Church. 
The National Church of Greece was es- 
tablished under a Holy Synod in 1833. 
Besides, there is a United Greek Church, 
which acknowledges the supremacy of 
the pope at Rome. This Church exists 
in Austria-Hungary, southern Italy, Po- 
land and parts of Russia. The total 
membership of the Greek Church is 
98,016,000. : 


GREELEY 


Greek Fire, a name applied to sev 
eral inflammable and destructive com- 
pounds used in the Middle Ages for pur- 
poses of warfare. The use of these com- 
bustibles by the Greeks for centuries 
gave them superior advantages, and they 
jealously guarded the secret of their 
composition. Greek fire appears to have 
been made principally of naphtha, sul- 
phur and niter. | 

Greek Language. See LANGuaGE, 
subhead Greek and Latin. 

Greeley, Colo., a city and the county 
seat of Weld Co., about 50 m. me. of » 
Denver, on the Cache la Poudre River 
and on the Union Pacific, the Colorado 
& Southern and other railroads. It is 
the center of one of the most productive 
of the irrigated farming districts, the 
principal crops being alfalfa, potatoes, 
sugar beets, peas, onions and cabbages. 
Some wheat is grown, and the raising 
of sheep and cattle is an important in- 
dustry. The leading industrial planits 
are lumber yards, a large beet-sugar fac- 
tory, a flour mill, an elevator and vege- 
table canning factories. Near the city 
are rich coal fields. Greeley is the seat 
of the Colorado State Teachers College 
and has a public library and municipal 
parks. The place was founded in 1870 
by a colony from New England and 
New York State, which, acting under 
the guidance of Nathan Cook Meeker, 
an agricultural journalist of New York, 
bought a large tract of land; and the 
whole colony was administered under 
laws arising from idealistic ideas of 
community life. The scheme received 
the moral support of Horace Greeley (in 
whose honor the settlement was named). 
A town was laid out in 1871. and the 
place\was chartered as a city in 1886. 
Population in 1920, U. S. Census, 13,958. 

Greeley, Horace (1811-1872), an 
American journalist and author, born 
in Amherst, N. H. After receiving a 
common school education, he entered 
upon an apprenticeship in a newspaper 
office in Vermont, and became an expert 
compositor. In 1831 he removed to New 
York City, working for some time as a 
journeyman printer, and later as a job 


1231 


GREELEY 


printer. In 1834 he undertook the estab- 
lishment of a literary weekly, the New 
Yorker, and in conducting this period- 
ical Greeley became so widely known 
and respected that he was-selected by 
the Whigs to edit their campaign paper, 
the Jeffersonian; he continued in this 
work during 1838-39. In 1840 he started 
the Log Cabin, to further the campaign 
of William H. Harrison, and in a short 
time this paper had a weekly issue of 
from 80,000 to 90,000 copies. When 
the famous campaign was over Greeley 
founded the Daily Tribune (1841), 
which he edited until his death. The 
New Yorker and Log Cabin were 
merged into the Weekly Tribune, which 
eventually had a wide circulation 
throughout the Northern and Western 
states and exerted great influence. 

In December, 1848, Greeley entered 
Congress to fill a vacancy, serving until 
the following March. He was an oppo- 
nent of slavery and especially zealous in 
opposing its extension to the territory 
acquired from Mexico. Through the 
Tribune he furthered the anti-slavery 
movement until the struggle was over, 
and was influential, as a delegate to the 
Republican National Convention of 1860, 
in securing the nomination of Lincoln. 
While he favored the vigorous prosecu- 
tion of the war, he was willing to have 
it ended by compromise, and in 1864 
went to Canada to hold a fruitless peace 
conference with the Confederate agents. 
After the war he declared for universal 
amnesty and suffrage, and joined with 
others in signing the bail bond of Jef- 
ferson Davis. 

From now on Greeley was prominent 
in the politics of his state, and in 1872 
joined the body of Liberal Republicans 
who held a convention in Cincinnati pre- 
vious to the regular convention, the lat- 
ter of which renominated Grant (See 
PoLiTicAL ParTIES IN THE UNITED 
StaTES). Greeley was nominated not 
only by the Liberal Republicans, but by 
the Democrats. The campaign was both 
bitter and strenuous, completely ex- 
hausting him, and he died shortly after 
the election, in which he was defeated. 


GREEN 


He was a man whom neither praise 


we. S 


nor blame could swerve from what he 


considered a right decision, and through- 
out his journalistic career he set an ex- 
ample of moderation, fairness and truth- 
fulness that has never been surpassed. 
His writings include Hints Toward 


‘Reforms, History of the Struggle for 


Slavery Extension or Restriction in the 
United States, The American Conflict 
and What I Know of Farming. 

Greely, Adolphus Washington 
(1844- 
plorer, born in Newburyport, Mass. At 
the outbreak of the Civil War he joined 
the volunteers, was finally brevetted ma- 
jor of volunteers and in 1868 was as- 
signed to signal service. From 1876 
to 1879 he constructed 2000 miles of 
military telegraph in the West. In 1881 
he commanded an expedition to the Arc- 


‘ 


), an American soldier and ex- © 


tic regions, to establish a series of cir- — 


cumpolar stations for scientific observa- 
tions, and penetrated to latitude 83° 24, 


the highest northerly point reached up — 


to that time. He made many valuable 
geographical discoveries, but of the 25 
men who landed at Discovery Harbor in 
August, 1881, all but six, besides Greely, 
died of starvation at their permanent 
camp at Cape Sabine, where they were 


found by Capt. Winfield S. Schley in © 


June, 1884. 
eral, Greely became chief of the signal 


service, and between 1898 and 1905 many - 


thousand miles of wire and wireless tele- 
graph were erected under his supervi- 
sion in China, Cuba, Porto Rico and 
the Philippines. The following year, in 


command of the Pacific Division, he had 


charge of the relief of San Francisco. 
He wrote Three Years of Arctic Serv- 
ice, American Weather and American 
Explorers and Travellers. 
EXPLORATIONS. 

Green, John Richard (1837-1883), an 
English historian, educated at Magda- 
len College and at Jesus College. He 


took orders in 1860, became vicar of 


St. Stephen’s, Stepney, i in 1866, and was 
made librarian at Lambeth in 1869. 
Thereafter he devoted himself to 
history and politics. A Short History 


1232 


In 1887, as brigadier-gen- ~ 


See POLAR 


GREENBACK LABOR PARTY 


of the English People was rewritten 
twice before Green published it in 1874. 
It was subsequently expanded into a 
four-volume History of the English Peo- 
ple, which in 1882 was followed by his 
scholarly The Making of England. Fol- 
lowing his death, his wife published his 
Conquest of England. 

Greenback Labor Party. See Porirt- 
ICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES, 
subhead Greenback Labor Party. 

Greenback Party. See POoriTicaL 
PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES, sub- 
head Greenback Party. 

Greenbacks. See MOoNEy, subhead 
Paper Money. | 

Green Bay, Wis., a city, port of entry 
and county seat of Brown Co., 114 m. 
n. of Milwaukee and 198 m. n. of Chi- 
cago, on the southern extremity of 
Green Bay at the mouth of the Fox 
River, and on the Chicago & North 
Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul, the Green Bay & Western and 
other railroads. There is steamboat serv- 
ice to points on Green Bay, Mackinac 
Island, Milwaukee and other ports on 
the Great Lakes. The city has 12 m. of 
water front and a fine harbor accom- 
modates considerable lake commerce. 
There is a complete electric railway sys- 
tem, and interurban lines up the Fox 
River Valley connect the city with Apple- 
ton, Neenah, Fond du Lac, Oshkosh 
and other towns and cities. Green Bay 
has an area of 13 sq. m. and is situated 
on high, level ground on both sides of 
the river, which is here spanned by a 
number of bridges. The city is an ad- 
vantageous distributing point for north- 
eastern Wisconsin and upper peninsula. 

Parks AND Boutevarps. The city 
contains a number of parks with an area 
of 32 ‘acres, Hagemeister and Union 
parks being the largest. Bay Beach is a 
noted resort and there are many sum- 
mer houses located around the bay. 
Green Bay has beautifully shaded and 
paved streets, picturesque drives and 
many elegant residences. 

Pusiic Burtpincs. Among the note- 
worthy buildings are the Federal Build- 
ing, courthouse, Masonic Temple, Na- 


GREEN BAY 


tional Fraternal League Building, Y. M. 
C. A., custom-house and Green Bay, 
Catholic Woman’s Club, city hall, a num- 
ber of banks, Elks’ Clubhouse and good 
municipal buildings. There are about 27 
churches, including a Catholic cathedral. 
The city is also the seat of a Catholic 
see, being the earliest bishopric estab- 
lished in this portion of the country. 

Instirutions. The educational insti- 
tutions include several high schools, pub- 
lic and parish schools, St. Joseph’s Acad- 
emy, academy for young ladies, the Kel- 
logg Library and a business college. 
Among the benevolent and charitable in- 
stitutions are a number of hospitals, in- 
cluding an isolation hospital, almshouse 
and an orphans’ home. The city is the 
seat of the Wisconsin State Odd Fel- 
lows’ Home. The state reformatory is 
located about five miles southwest of the 
Citys 

INDustTRIES. Green Bay is an impor-. 
tant industrial and manufacturing cen- 
ter. The industries comprise flour, saw, 
paper and sulphite mills, furniture and 
woodenware, canning, shoe, glove, con- 
fectionery biscuit factories and automo- 
bile trucks, pickle factory, farm imple- 
ments, brick and tile works, soap fac-. 
tories, woodworking machinery plants, 
and meat packing plants, boiler and ma- 
chine shops, casket works and cornice 
works. There are also lumber yards and 
railroad repair shops, dry docks and 
grain elevators. A large fish-shipping 
business is carried on and there is an 


_ extensive coal import trade. Many acres 


of Oneida Indian Reservation lands ad- 
join the city. 

History. The first visit to what is 
now Green Bay was made by Jean Nicol- 
let in 1634, and a Jesuit mission was 
later established by Allouez. The place 
was settled by the French, but fell into 
the hands of the English at the close of 
the French and Indian War. The Amer- 
icans established a fort on the opposite 
side of the river in 1816 known as Ft. 
Howard, which grew to be the center 
of a prosperous town and was annexed 
te Green Bay in 1895. Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 31,017. 


1233 


GREENE 


Greene, Nathanael (1742-1786), an 
American general of the Revolutionary 
War, born at Patowomut, R. I. In 1770 
he entered the Rhode Island Legislature, 
where he became such a belligerent ad- 
vocate of freedom that he was excom- 
municated by the Society of Friends, to 
which he had belonged. Four years later 
he enrolled as a private in the Kentish 
Guards, which he himself had organized, 
and in 1775, as brigadier-general, he 
marched to Cambridge, Mass., with an 
almost model brigade. Greene soon won 
the esteem of Washington, who often 
consulted him in times of perplexity, and 
on Aug. 9, 1776, he became major-gen- 
eral with command of the forces on Long 
Island. He distinguished himself there 
save at Ft. Washington, Nov. 16, 1776, 
when a prompt and decisive move on his 
part might have averted one of the most 
crushing blows that overtook the Ameri- 
cans during the entire struggle. Later 
Greene led divisions at Trenton, Prince- 
ton and Brandywine. His skill at Ger- 
mantown received the unqualified praise 
of Washington. Subsequently. he took 
part in the Battle of Monmouth and 
before Newport, R. I. In 1780, accom- 
panied by Morgan, he went to assume 
command of the Southern army. 
Greene’s strategy found victory even in 
defeat, and he succeeded in gaining 
Georgia and the Carolinas for the Amer- 
icans. . After: the Battle:tof “Eutaw 
Springs, Sept. 8, 1781, Congress pre- 
sented him with a British standard and 
a gold medal. With the close of the 
war he returned to Rhode Island; but 
in 1785 he moved to a valuable estate 
near Savannah, of which the State of 
Georgia had made him a present. He 
sold the land given to him by South 
Carolina to pay debts, which he had 
assumed to secure supplies for his sol- 
diers. June 12, 1786, he suffered a sun- 
stroke and a week later he died. Of 
the American Revolutionary generals, 
Greene ranked next to Washington as a 
strategist and as an example of consum- 
mate generalship. 

Greenfield, Mass., county seat of 
Franklin Co., 36 m. n. of Springfield, 


GREENLAND 


the capital of the state, and 56 m. w. of 
Fitchburg, on the Connecticut River, 2 
m. above the mouth of the Deerfield 
River, and on the Boston & Maine Rail- 
road. The chief manufactures include 
machinists’ tools, silverware, agricultural 
implements, paper boxes, woodenware, 
children’s carriages, toys, cement build- 
ing blocks and boots and shoes. Green- 
field is a popular summer resort. It 
was settled in 1686, but remained a part 
of Deerfield until 1753. Population in 
1920, Uas. Census, 15 AGe. 

Green Fly. See A’PHID. 

Green Heron. See HERON. 

Greenhouse, a structure designed to 
furnish protection to plants. It may be 
also a hothouse for the forcing of the 
growth of plants, or a conservatory for 
the care and exhibition of flowers, or an 
orchard house for the protection of fruit 
trees. Greenhouses are provided with 


glass roofs and sides to let in the sun’s — 


heat, and are generally furnished with 
some system of heating. Hothouses now 
produce a large amount of early vege- 
tables and fruits which bring high prices. 
See HorBep AND CoLD FRAME. 
Greenland, the largest island in the 
world. Baffin Bay, Davis Strait and 
Smith Sound separate it from the Con- 
tinent of North America. Its area is 
estimated at 512,000 sq. m., and the 
maximum height of its mountainous sur- 
face is about 8000 ft. above sea level. 
Petermann Peak is 11,000 ft. high. 
Characteristic features of its surface are 
deep and somber fiords between the 
high mountains, and a great number of 
glaciers. 
abundant, consisting of berries, lichens, 
mosses, shrubs, herbs, saxifrage and 
poppies. Vegetables are cultivated 
under glass. The fauna consists princi- 
pally of the Eskimo dog, musk ox, Are- 
tic fox, hare, ermine, lemming and rein- 
deer. The surrounding waters are the 
hunting grounds for the whale. The 
seal and walrus have supplied the bulk 
of the native food. Many necessaries 
are imported from Denmark. Green- 
land is supposed to have been visited by 
Eric the Red, a Norseman, in 985, and 


1234 


In summer the vegetation is 


GREEN MOUNTAINS 


a settlement made under his leadership. 
Population in 1901, 11,893. See PoLar 
EXPLORATIONS. 

Green Mountains, a range of the Ap- 
palachian system, extending from Can- 
ada through Vermont, Massachusetts, 
and Connecticut to Long Island Sound. 
In Massachusetts they are known as the 
Berkshire Hills, and in Connecticut as 
the Taconic Mountains. The Green 
Mountains are among the oldest moun- 
tain ranges in North America. They 
are low mountains with rounded sum- 
mits and forest-covered slopes. Much 
of the timber consists of spruce, fir and 
hemlock—all evergreens—and from this 
characteristic the mountains take their 
name. Mt. Mansfield, the highest peak, 
has an altitude of 4364 ft. Killington, 
Camel’s Hump, Equinox and Jay are 
other important peaks. The Green 
Mountain region is a favorite summer 
resort. 

Greensboro,’ N. C., a city and the 
county seat of Guilford Co., 81 m. n.w. 
of Raleigh, on several lines of the 
Southern Railway. The city lies in a 
section rich in mineral resources; and 
gold, copper and iron are mined. Chief 
among the farm crops of the surround- 
ing section are tobacco, cotton, fruit and 
Indian corn; and a large trade in to- 
Meco iron -and~ coal’ is: carried: “on. 
Among the industrial plants are cotton 
mills, blast furnaces for the manufac- 
ture of Bessemer steel, sawmills, foun- 
dries, flour mills, terra-cotta works, 
cigar factories, brick and tile works and 
manufactories of cotton goods, machin- 
ery, lumber, sashes, doors, blinds, flan- 
nel, carpets, spokes, handles, bent rims, 
bobbins and cotton-mill supplies. The 
city is a focus for a large insurance 
business. 

The educational institutions include 
Greensboro Female College (Methodist 
Episcopal, South), opened in 1846; a 
state normal school; Guilford College 
(coeducational), maintained by the 
Society of Friends; and three institu- 
tions for negroes—the North Carolina 
State Agricultural and Mechanical 
College, Immanuel Lutheran College 


GREENVILLE 


(Evangelical Lutheran) and Bennett 
College (Methodist Episcopal). Other 
features’ of the city” are a Carnegie 
library, an auditorium and St. Leo Hos- 
pital. About six miles northwest of the 
city is Battle-Ground Park, a 100-acre 
tract on the site of the Battle of Guil- 
ford Courthouse, fought in March,1781, 
by Lord Cornwallis and Gen. Nathanael 
Greene; and it is in honor of the latter 
that Greensboro is named. Greensboro 
was founded in 1808, organized as a 
town in 1829 and chartered as a city 
in 1870. Population in 1920, 19,861. 

Greensburg, Pa. county seat of 
Westmoreland Co., 31 m. s.e. of Pitts- 
burgh, on the Pennsylvania Railroad. 
Several private institutions for second- 
ary education are located here, among 
them Seton Hill College. The bor- 
ough has an extensive trade in coal, 
which is mined in the vicinity, and 
manufactories of glass, iron, nuts, 
bolts, lumber, brick-heating apparatus, 
etc. Population, 1920, U.S. Census, 15,033. 

Greenville, Miss., a city and the 
county seat of Washington Co., about 
137 m. s.w. of Memphis, Tenn., on the 
Mississippi River and on the Southern, 
the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley and 
other railroads. Steamboats connect it 
with other ports on the Mississippi. 
The city is the center of a productive 
cotton section and carries on a large 
trade. It has cotton mills, compresses, 
cottonseed-oil mills and saw and planing 
mills. There are beautiful streets, lawns, 
parks and playgrounds. Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 11,560. 

Greenville, S. C., a city and the 
county seat of Greenville Co., 110 m. 
n.w. of Columbia and 160 m. n.e. of At- 
lanta, Ga., on the Southern, the C. & W. 
C. and the P. & N. (electric) railroads. 
The city is situated in an undulating 
country near the outlying spurs of the 
Blue Ridge Mountains and has a delight- 
ful climate. Among the industrial plants 
are cotton mills, ironworks and foun- 
dries. Greenville is known as the textile 
center Of the south. The important ed- 
ucational institutions are Furman Uni- 
versity (Baptist) ; Greenville College for 


1235 


.GREENVILLE 


Women; a business College and an excel- 
lent system of Public Schools (in south- 
ern accredited class). Greenville was 
settled in 1784 and incorporated in 1831. 
Population in 1920, United States Cen- 
Briss wos Z/. 

Greenville, Tex., a city and the 
county seat of Hunt Co., about 54 m. 
n.e. of Dallas and 235 m. n. of Houston, 
on the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the 
St. Louis Southwestern, the Texas. Mid- 
land and other railroads. Among the 
industrial plants are cotton compresses, 
cotton-seed-oil mills, flour mills, machine 
shops, brickyards and stockyards. The 
distinguishing features are Burleson and 
Wesley colleges and many beautiful pub- 
lic parks and excellent schools. Settled 
in 1844, Greenville was incorporated a 
city in 1875. The population in 1920, 
United States Census, was 12,384. 

Green Vitriol, Vit’ riul. See Copr- 
PERAS. 

Greenwich, Grin'1j, a borough of 
London, England, in Kent, formerly a 
town, 5m. s.e. of St. Paul’s Cathedral 
and on the right bank of the River 
Thames. Objects of interest in the city 
are the Greenwich Royal Observatory, 
established in 1675 (from which point 
longitude in calculated and used by 
British astronomers and geographers, 
and also by most of the geographers of 
the world, and which establishes the 
time for all parts of the United King- 
dom), the Royal Naval College and the 
Greenwich Observatory. From the 13th 
to the 17th century it was a royal resi- 
dence, and marks the birthplace of 
Henry VIII, Queen Mary and Queen 
Elizabeth. Population about 185,000. 

Greenwich, Conn., a town and popu- 
lar summer resort of Fairfield Co., 28 m. 
n.e. of New York City, on Long Island 
Sound and on the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford Railroad. The town 
is attractively situated and is a suburban 
resort \for many New York people. 
There are many handsome residences. 
The Greenwich Academy, Rosemary 
Hall and the Brunswick School’ are lo- 
cated here. Greenwich was settled in 
1640 and was a part of the Dutch 


GREGORY VII 


Province of New York from 1642 until 
1650, when by a Dutch and English 
commission agreement it became part of 
Connecticut ; it marks the line of bound- 
ary. Population in 1920, 22,123. | 

Greenwood, James M. (1836-1914), 
an American educator, born -near 
Springfield, Ill. He studied in the pub- 
lic schools, and moved with his parents 
in 1852 to Adair County, Mo. Here he 
pursued his studies by himself while 
working on a farm. Later, he spent a 
year in Canton Seminary. From 1867- 
1874 he taught mathematics, astronomy 
and logic in the normal schoot at Kirks- 
ville, Mo. In 1874 he became superin- 
tendent of schools at Kansas City, Mo. 
He has published Principles of Educa- 
tion Practically Applied. 

Greg’ory, the name of 16 popes and 
one anti-pope. 

SAINT GREGORY (avout 540-609), 
pope from 590 until his death, was born 
at Rome and educated for a public ca- 
reer. He turned early to the Church, 
however, and became abbot of St. An- 
drew’s, where he wax »vopular in spite 
of his severity. Gregor, determined to 
undertake personally the conversion of 
Britain, but before hix ‘ask was well 
begun he was recalled to Decome pope. 
He ruled wisely and zealously and is 
known as a great organizer of mission- 
ary enterprise. 

Grecory XIII (1502-1585) was pope 
from 1572 until his death, He gave 
great aid to the Jesuits, but is remem- 
bered chiefly for his great public works 
and for his reform of the calendar (See 
CALENDAR). 

Gregory VII (about 1015-1085), the 
Great Hildebrand, one of the greatest 
ecclesiastical geniuses of history. He 
became pope in 1073. In his Paschal 
Synod (Rome, 1074), he threatened 
with excommunication all who received 
sacred ministrations from the so-called 
married clergy. Blood was shed, espe- 
cially in Germany, France and Italy, be- 
fore the clergy submitted to this de- 
cree. Gregory’s law against investi- 
tures, propagated in 1075, precipitated 
one of the greatest religious struggles 


1236 | 


Fee 
ae 


- war followed. 


GREGORY 


of all ages. It was aimed especially at 
Henry IV of Germany, who openly sold 
high Church offices to the notoriously 
immoral. But Henry was undaunted, 
even when Gregory excommunicated 
five of his advisers. Consequently 
Gregory summoned him to Rome. 

Instead of obeying, Henry undertook 
to depose Gregory at the Council of 
Worms on Jan. 24, 1076. This so in- 
censed the. Pope that he immediately 
absolvéd all Christians from allegiance 
to Henry, with the result that the Ger- 
mans proceeded to select a new king. 
Brought to terms, Henry now asked and 
obtained reconciliation with Gregory, 
but before long proceeded to act as im- 
piously as before. His subjects, thor- 
oughly aroused, hereupon elected Ru- 
dolph of Swabia as king in 1077. Civil 
Gregory again excom- 
municated Henry in 1080; but Henry 
in retaliation set Guibert of Ravenna on 
the papal throne, holding Gregory a 
prisoner, during three years, in the Cas- 
tle of St. Angelo. Saddened and worn, 
Pope Gregory died in seclusion at Sa- 
lérno. See HENry IV. 

Gregory, Lady Isabella Augusta 
Persse, a British woman of letters, one 


of the group of modern writers who 


have found their inspiration in the peo- 
ple and soil of Ireland. She was born 
(Persse) in Roxborough, County Gal- 
way, Ireland, and grew up with a ro- 
mantic love for Ireland that later found 
definite literary expression. When, in 
1893, Dr. Douglas Hyde founded the 
Gaelic League, the object of which was 
the preservation of the Irish spoken 


language and the Irish nationality, Lady 


Gregory entered into the movement with 
enthusiasm. She learned the Irish 
language, made translations of Irish 
songs and ballads, edited and made re- 
visions, and became a prominent figure 
in the production and presentation of a 
group of Irish plays. Associated with 
her were Dr. Hyde, William B. Yeats 
and John M. Synge. In her two books, 
Cuchulain of Muirthemne and Gods and 
Fighting Men, she gathered together 
and retold in the Elizabethan English 


GRESHAM’S LAW 


of her neighborhood, the great legends 
of Ireland. Among other writings are 
Poets and Dreamers, The Kiltartan 
Wonder Book and the plays—Spreading 
the News, The Rising of the Moon and 


The Workhouse Ward. See Irisu 
PLAYS: 
Grenadier, Gren’a deer’, the name 


once applied to a soldier who threw 
hand grenades, which were small metal 
or glass bullets filled with powder and 
fired by a fuse. Companies of grena- 
diers formed a part of the troops of both 
English and French armies up to the 
time of the invention and use of the 
musket. The grenadiers were usually 
soldiers above ordinary height and were 
distinguished by special uniform. 
Grenfell, Wilfred Thomason (1865- 
), a British medical missionary, 
author and lecturer, a graduate of Ox- 
ford. Shortly after completing his 
medical education at London Hospital, 
he entered the service of the Royal Na- 
tional Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen. 
Fitting out the first hospital ship for the 
North Sea fisheries, he cruised with the 
fishermen from the Bay of Biscay to 
Iceland, establishing homes for them on 
land and arranging mission vessels for 
their use at sea. In 1892 he went to 
Labrador. There he established several 
hospitals, an orphanage and a series of 
cooperative stores, and started many 
small industrial schemes for the allevia- 
tion of the poor. Dr. Grenfell has lec- 
tured extensively in the United States. 
Among his publications are Adrift on an 
Ice-pan, A Man’s Faith, The Harvest 
of the Sea, Off the Rocks, Labrador and 
Down to the Sea. 
Gresham’s Law, a term used to des- 
ignate the economic principle, first pro- 
pounded by Sir Thomas Gresham, that 


when good and bad money are both in 


use the bad will tend to drive out the 
good; because the money having the 
greater intrinsic value will be used in the 
foreign trade, where only the bullion 
value is recognized. The money of less 
intrinsic value will thus be left for do- 
mestic circulation. See Money, subhead 
Varieties. 


1237 


GRETNA GREEN 


Gret’na Green, or Graitney, Scotland, 
a village on the Solway Firth, 8 m. n. 
of Carlisle. According to an old Scot- 
tish law, the statement before witnesses 
of an unmarried couple that they were 
man and wife, constituted a legal mar- 
riage. Gretna Green became notorious 
as a wedding place of runaway couples 
from England, who availed themselves 
of this peculiar marriage law. The term 
“Gretna Green marriage” is now used 
to designate a runaway marriage. 

Grévy, Gra’ve’, Francois Paul Jules 
(1807-1891), a French statesman, born 
at Mont-sous-Vaudrey. He studied law 
in Paris, while a student participating in 
the Revolution of 1830. In 1848 he was 
elected to the Constituent Assembly, dis- 
tinguishing himself as an orator. Re- 
tiring from politics after the coup d’ 
état of Louis Napoleon, he devoted him- 
self to his profession and rose to emi- 
nence. In 1869 he again entered the 
National Assembly, and two years later 
he was there chosen president, holding 
this position until 1879, when, Marshal 
MacMahon having resigned as president 
of the republic, he was elected his suc- 
cessor. He won the election to a second 
term as president in 1885, but, hampered 
by ministerial complications, he was 
forced to resign in 1887. 

Grey, Lady Jane (about 1537-1554), 
the daughter of Henry Grey, afterward 
Duke of Suffolk, and the grandniece of 
Henry VIII. Edward VI settled on her 
the succession to the crown, :but nine 
days after the proclamation of her ac- 
cession, Mary’s claims were recognized 
and Lady Jane was sent to the Tower. 
Four months later she and her husband, 
Lord Guilford Dudley, were beheaded. 

Grey, Sir Albert Henry, Fourtu 
EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND (1851- i 
an English statesman, educated at Har- 
row and at Trinity College, Cambridge. 
When he was 26 he married Alice Hol- 
ford, sister of Lord Minto, and three 
years later entered the British House of 
Commons, where he remained for six 
years. He then succeeded Cecil Rhodes 
in representing the British South Africa 
Company. From 1904 to 1911 he was 


GRIFFIN 


governor-general and commander-in- 
chief of Canada, his term of office being 
extended for 12 months at the instance 
of Edward VII. While filling this post, 
Earl Grey closely identified himself with 
every movement calculated to advance 
Canadian interest. He was also.Jlord 
lieutenant of Northumberland and dis- 
tinguished himself in the Boer War. 
Greyhound, a tall, aristocratic dog, 
noted for its speed and its keen sight, 
two qualities which make it particularly 
valuable as a hunting dog. The coat of 
the common English greyhound is 
smooth and generally gray in color; its 
name, however, does not refer to its 
color, but to the Irish word grey, meaning 
dog. Built for speed, its entire frame— 
the body, the strong legs, the pointed 
nose and the tail—is slender and elon- 
gated. The ears are long and pointed, 
sometimes held erect and sometimes 
drooping. The sense of smell is defec- 
tive in all greyhounds, but a remarkable 
vision more than makes up for the loss. 
The general class of greyhounds in- 
cludes the deerhound, which has a 
shaggy coat and is of heavier build; the 
Irish wolfhound; the Italian greyhound ; 
and the hairless dogs of Central Amer- 
ica. Lurchers and whippets are a cross 
between greyhounds and other species. 
Grieg, Greeg, Edvard Hagerup (1843- 
1907), the most celebrated of Nor- 
wegian composers, was born at Bergen, 
He was educated at Leipsic. His great- 
est achievement was in the field of com: 
position. He wrote for violin, piano and - 
for orchestra, besides a large number of 
songs. His music has a marked national 
character, much of it being based upon 
Scandinavian legends and folk tales. 
His most famous orchestral work is the 
Peer Gynt suite, founded upon the 
drama of the same name by Ibsen. 
Griffin, Ga., a city and the county 
seat of Spaulding Co., 43 m. s. of At- 
lanta, on the Central of Georgia, the 
Southern and other railroads. The in- 
dustrial interests of the town are cen- 
tered in cotton mills, gins and bleacheries, 
machine shops, foundries and vehicle 
and a large pimento canning factory. 


{238 


GRIMM 


Griffin is an attractive resort. In the 
vicinity is the Georgia State Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station. Population 
in 1920, 8,240. 

Grimm, Jacob Ludwig Karl (1785- 
1863), and Wilhelm Karl (1786-1859), 
two German philologists, brothers, born 
in Hanau. They formulated what is 
popularly known as Grimm’s Law, one 
of the most important of phonetic laws. 
They compiled the great Dictionary of 
the German Language, and Jacob Lud- 
wig Grimm wrote a History of the Ger- 
man Language, a German Grammar, 
German Mythology and Origin of Lan- 
guage. They founded the science of 
folklore by collecting from manuscripts 
and books and by word of mouth the 
popular legends and fairy tales of their 
country; and because of the Nursery 
and Fireside Stories “Brothers Grimm” 
have become known the world over. 

Grind’stone”, a flat, circular stone 
held in a frame by a horizontal axis 
upon which it is made to revolve. It 
is cut from blocks of sandstone of vary- 
ing degrees of coarseness. The larger 
stones used in factories sometifnes weigh 
several tons, and are operated by ma- 
shinery; the smaller ones are revolved 
by hand or foot power. Artificial grind- 
stones of fine texture are made from 
emery and are used for grinding metal. 
Those made from carborundum are 
much used for grinding precious stones. 

Grippe. See INFLUEN’ZA. 

Grosbeak, Grose’ beek”, a bird of the 
Finch Family.. The rose-breasted gros- 
beak is a little smaller than a robin 
(eight inches in length). The male may 


_ be known by its black head, throat and 


back, white-spotted wings and tail, and 
particularly by the brilliant rose-colored 
spot on the breast. The female has a 
buff-colored back and breast streaked 
with brown. The grosbeak is a song- 
ster of the highest order, its notes 
somewhat resembling those of the oriole. 
Unlike most birds, it sings at night. The 
mest is very loosely constructed and is 
built in alow bush or vine and contains 
two to four brown-spotted eggs, which 
both sexes incubate. The young leave 


GROUCHY 


the nest when about 11 days old and 
begin to sing when ten weeks old. These 
birds are largely insect feeders, eating 
by preference the potato beetle, and for 
this reason they are called by the farm- 
ers of Pennsylvania “potato-bug birds.” 

Grote, George (1794-1871), an Eng- 
lish historian, born in Kent. His princi- 
pal literary work was his History of 
Greece, to which he gave the latter years 
of his life. This work is in 12 volumes, 
and is considered the most complete his- 
tory of Greece published. Grote went 


to Parliament in 1832 on the Liberal 
ticket and was twice reelected. Up to 


p ee 
it 
PO with 


ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK 


the time of his death he was president 
of University College and vice-chancel- 
lor of London University. 

Grotius, Gro’ shius, or De Groot, 
Hugo (1583-1645), a Dutch scholar 
born at Delft, Netherlands, and educated 
at the University of Leyden. He is 
noted for his great work On the Law of 
War and Peace, which gave a clear ex- 
position of the fundamental purposes of 
international law, and is still considered 
a standard authority on the subject. 

Grouchy, Groo” she’, Emmanuel, MaAr- 
QUIS DE (1766-1847), a French marshal, 
born in Paris, France. He joined the 
Royal Life Guards at the age of 14 
years, on the side of the Revolutionists. 
He served in the Prussian War in 1806; 
and the following year was in the war 
with Russia, where he distinguished 


1220 


GROUND HOG 


himself and was made a marshal of 
France. In 1815 when Blucher was de- 
feated at Ligny, Grouchy was ordered 
to push the Russian retreat. Upon 
Napoleon’s second abdication and the 
second restoration, Grouchy was ban- 
ished and lived for some time in Phila- 
delphia, Pa. Returning to his native 


land in 1821, he was again made a mar- 
shal of France. 
Ground Hog. See WoopcHUCK. 
Ground Ivy, Gill-over-the-Ground or 
Creeping Charley, a low, spreading 


GROUND IVY 


herb of the Mint Family, common in 
“waste or shaded grounds which have 
plenty of moisture. It is often found 
growing thickly in. the grass of door- 
yards, where it creeps so closely along 
the ground that it is hardly noticeable. 
The leaves are rounding, with wavy 
margins, much like those of the catnip, 
to which it is closely related. The stems 
are square and slightly hairy. The 
flowers are small, two-lipped and light 
blue in color. The stems, leaves and 
flowers all have a slightly pungent taste 


GUADALAJARA 


and odor, common to members of this 
family. Ground ivy is commonly called 
a weed, because it spreads so rapidly, 
but its delicate flowers and _ beautiful 
dark green leaves make it really an orna- 
mental herb. 

Ground Pine. See Ciup Moss... 

Ground Robin. See TOWHEE. 

Ground Squirrel, a name applied to 
a Class of Rodents of the Squirrel Fam- 
ily, whose technical name means food- 
storers. They are small, active animals 
with sharp-toed feet, lengthened cra- 
niums and large cheek pouches. Their 
homes are burrows where they store, 
during the summer and autumn, the nuts 
and dried roots which are to be their 
food during the winter. There are 
many varieties, the most common Amer- 
ican species being generally spoken of as 
the chipmunk. See CHIPMUNK. 

Grouse, a family of rough-footed, 
gallinaceous birds found generally in 
temperate or colder regions of Europe, 
Asia and North America. The family 
includes such birds as the quail, par- 
tridge, blackcock, ptarmigan, prairie hen 
and ruffed grouse. The nests are made 
on the ground, generally hidden by tall 
grass or sheltering shrubs, and contain 
from 10 to 14 greenish-tan or brown- 
speckled eggs. The young feed upon 
insects, but the older birds prefer grain 
and are destructive of the farmer’s 
fields.. See QUAIL; PARTRIDGE; RUFFED 
GROUSE; CAPERCAILLIE, 

Grow, Galusha Aaron (1823-1907), 
an American lawyer and statesman, born 
in Ashford, Conn. He entered Congress 
from Pennsylvania in 1851 as its young- 
est member, and served for 12 years, 
first as a Democrat, then as Republican. 
He was speaker of the House from 1861 
to 1863. For ten years he introduced at 
the beginning of each Congress a free- 
homestead bill, until it became a law in 
1862. After an interval of 30 years he 
served again in Congress from 1894 to 
1903. as congressman-at-large from 
Pennsylvania. | 

Guadalajara, Gwah"thah lah hah' rah, 
‘a city in Mexico and the capital of the 
State of Jalisco. It is situated on the 


1240 


_ sive granite blocks. 


GUADALQUIVIR 


Santiago River 125 m. from the Pacific 
Ocean and 275 m. n.w. of the City of 
Mexico. Guadalajara is among the 
most pleasant of Mexican cities. Among 
the most beautiful drives is that of the 
Paseo, along one of the branches of the 
river and terminating in the famous 
Alameda, or public garden. The most 
interesting building is the great cathe- 
dral in Plaza Mayor. The government 
palace in the same square, is in Spanish 
style and is a stately building of pleas- 
ing appearance. Other interesting edi- 
fices are the mint, the library, the Acad- 
emy of Fine Arts, the Teatro Degollado 
and the large penitentiary built of mas- 
Among the educa- 
tional institutions are the university, the 
national college, an Episcopal seminary 
and fine public schools. There are many 
charitable institutions. The chief indus- 
tries of the city are those connected with 
the iron and steel works, and with the 
manufacture of glass and artistic pot- 


tery. Other manufactures are those of 
textiles, leather, furniture, hats and 
candies. Population, 101,208. 


Guadalquivir, God" al kwiv’ er, a river 
of southern Spain, rising in the moun- 
tains of the Province of Jaen and flowing 
in a southwesterly direction to the At- 
lantic. Its length is 360 m. It has many 
large tributaries, and in one part of its 
course. it separates into three channels, 
forming the two islands known as Isla 
Mayor and Isla Menor. The cities of 
Seville and Cordova lie upon its banks 
and large boats can ascend the river to 
the former city. 

Guadalupe Hidalgo, God"a loop’ Hi- 
dal’ go, Treaty of, the treaty made Feb. 
2, 1848, between the United States and 
Mexico, which ended the Mexican War. 
By this treaty the Mexican Government 
ceded to the United States the territory 
of Texas, New Mexico and a part of 
California and agreed upon the Rio 
Grande River as the boundary between 
Mexico and Texas. The United States 
agreed to pay Mexico $15,000,000 and 
to assume all claims of its citizens 
against Mexico arising before the 
treaty. It also reserved to Mexicans in 


GUARDIAN 


the ceded territory the right to remove 
or remain and assured protection of 
their rights of property. See MEXICAN 
War. 

Guam, Gwam, an island of the La- 
drone group, acquired by the United 
States from Spain in 1898. It has an 
area of only 200 sq. m. and is low in 
the north, but rises to a moderate eleva- 
tion in the south. Guam is of coral 
formation, has a-~fertile, well-drained 
surface and is covered with forests. 
Coconut, breadfruit, rice, sugar and in- 
digo are cultivated. Agafia, the capital, 
has San Luis de Apra as its port. The 
island is of especial importance to the 
United States since it has been made a 
landing place of the Pacific cable, and 
will be even more useful after the open- 
ing of the Panama Canal. The execu- 
tive officer is a governor appointed by 
the president. Population, 12,240. 

Guano, Gwah'no, the excrement of 
sea birds, once found in large quantities 
upon the islands of the coast of Peru 
and, because of its rich nitrogen and 
phosphorus content, used extensively as 
a fertilizer. The largest deposits of 
guano having been exhausted, that upon 
the market at the present time is com-. 
monly a manufactured product obtained 
from the refuse at fish canneries and 
known as fish guano. Another variety, 
made at slaughter pens, is known as 
blood guano. At present the menhaden, 
a fish caught in large quantities upon 
the New England coast, is used almost 
entirely for the production of this fer- 
tilizer. See MENHADEN; FERTILIZER. 

Guaranty, Gar’ an ty, or Guarantee, 
a warrant or contract by which one be- 
comes responsible for the debts, defalca- 
tion or miscarriage of another. At com- 
mon law a guaranty is considered bind- 
ing, whether written cr oral. Many so- 
called guaranties, however, such as the 
guaranty of a salesman of the quality 
of his goods or of a certain per cent 
profit on an investment, do not fall with- 
in the legal requirements and are, there- 
fore, worthless. | 

Guardian, Gar’ de an, one having th 
lawful control of the person or property, 


s 1241 


GUATEMALA 


or both, of a person under legal age to 
care for himself, or of a feeble-minded 
or insane person. In the United States 
the term without qualification means one 
who has control of the person and prop- 
erty of an infant; that is, a person under 
21 years of age if a man, and under 18 
years of age if a woman, though these 
limitations may vary in different states. 
Guardians are usually appointed by par- 
ents or courts, and in most states they 
are strictly accountable to the probate 
court of their district or county. The 
authority of a guardian is similar to 
that of a parent. 

Guatemala, Gwah” te mah’ lah. 
CENTRAL AMERICA, \ 

Guava, Gwah’' vah, a low tree of the 
Myrtle Family growing in both the East 
and the West Indies, but probably a na- 
tive of the latter. The tree grows to a 
height of about 20 ft. and has many 
branches, which are thickly covered with 
long, smooth leaves. The flower of the 
white, or lemon, guava is a long white 
blossom having a pleasing fragrance. 
The fruit, which is yellow when ripe, 
has a brittle rind, within which is a flesh- 
colored pulp used in making jellies, pre- 
serves and marmalade. The seeds are 
numerous and extremely hard. Other 
varieties of the guava are the strawberry 
guava and the red guava. The fruit of 
the latter is a beautiful wine color, but 
less pleasant to the taste than that of 
the lemon guava. 

Guayaquil, Gwi’ah keel’, or Santiago 
de Guayaquil, a city and the chief sea- 
port of Ecuador, capital of the Province 
of Guayas, situated on the Guayas 
River, 33 m. above its mouth, The un- 
satisfactory drainage system of the 
streets, the surrounding marshes and the 
floods in rainy seasons make the city 
unhealthful. Recent improvements in 
lighting, tramway and telephone service 
have been made, and several fine build- 
ings added. The exports are cocoa, 
ivory, gold, silver, Panama hats, cotton, 
hides and cinchona bark. Population 
estimated at 51,000. 

Guayule, Gwah yoo’ la, a gum pro- 
duced by a Mexican and Texan plant of 


See 


GUELPH 


the Thistle Family and used there, and 
to a slight extent elsewhere, as a substi- 
tute for India rubber. The plant from 
which the gum is produced is also fre- 
quently called guayule, having no other ~ 
common name. . 

Gudgeon, Guj’ un, a European food 
fish of the Carp Family found in large 
schools upon gravelly beaches. It is a 
trim, plump fish, with a broad body and 
fleshy tail. It is probably among the 
most common fish taken by young Eng- ~ 
lish fishermen. The Niagara gudgeon, 
probably introduced from England, is 
smaller, and though of excellent flavor 
is not commonly considered a food fish. 

Guelder-Rose, Gel' der-Roze, or Snow- 
ball Tree, an ornamental, flowering 
shrub of the Honeysuckle Family, gen- 
erally known here under the latter name. 
It is a cultivated shrub, erect in form 
and growing to a height of from seven 
to ten feet; the bark is somewhat rough 
below but smooth on the finer branches. 
The leaves are generally three-lobed 
with finely-cut margins. The flowers, 
which give the plant its popularity, are 
big balls of blossoms, which when ma- 
ture are pure white, but when opening 
change from leaf-green to white. The 
single blossoms may be either sterile, 
that is, not for fruit production, or fer- 
tile. The outer ones are sterile and are 
much larger than the inner ones; all 
have short tubes and _ evenly-divided, 
five-lobed corollas. The fruit is a sour, 
red berry which is often substituted for 
cranberries, and thus the plant derives 
its name of highbush cranberry. The 
English name comes from the plant’s 
being a native of the Dutch Gerderland. 

Guelph, Gwelf, a city of Canada in 
the Province of Ontario, situated on the 
Speed River, in a fine agricultural dis- 
trict. In addition to the municipal and 
county buildings is found the Ontario 
Agricultural College, which is one of the 
best agricultural colleges in America. A 
waterfall of 30 ft. in the river furnishes 
power for numerous mills and factories. 
The leading manufactures are agricul- 
tural implements, musical instruments, 
sewing machines, furniture and woolen 


1242 


GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES 


goods. 
tant occupation, and fruit, grain and live 
stock are the principal exports. The 
first settlement was made in 1827, and 
the town became a city in 1877. Popu- 
lation in 1911, 15,175. 

Guelphs and Ghibellines, Gib’ el ing, 
names probably corrupted by the Italians 
from the German Welf and Waiblinger. 
The most popular version is that the 
names were used as battle cries between 
the soldiers of Welf VI of Bavaria afid 
Conrad of Hohenstaufen, who owned 
the estate of Waiblinger. The members 
of the Lombard League became known 
as Guelphs in Italy in their struggle 
against Frederick II, and his followers 
were called Ghibellines. The story of 
the fierce struggle of these two parties 
is the story of Italy in the Middle Ages. 
In general, the Guelphs were opposed to 
the rule of the German emperor in Italy 
and allied themselves with the pope, 
while the Ghibellines wished for a 
strong central government and favored 
the rule of the emperor. 

Guernsey, Gurn’ zy, an island of the 
British Channel belonging to the group 
called the Channel Islands. It is the 
second of the group in size and has an 
area of 2414 sq. m., most of which is 
rocky and picturesque. On the south of 
the island are many resorts attractive to 
summer visitors. Gardening, floricul- 
ture and horticulture, the quarrying of 
granite and fishing are the chief indus- 


tries. Port St. Peter is the capital and 
chief city. Population of the island, 
40,500. 


Guiana, Ge ah’ na, a region of South 
America, bounded upon the n. by the 
Caribbean Sea, on the e. and s. by Brazil 
and upon the w. by Venezuela. It lies 
between the basins of the Orinoco and 
the Amazon and rises from a swampy 
coastal plain, rich in tropical vegetation, 
to low mountain ranges containing gold, 
iron, mercury and precious stones. 
Guiana is drained by many rivers, the 
most of which flow toward the north. 
Much of the interior is unexplored but is 
known to contain forests of valuable 
wood. Politically, Guiana is divided into 


Stock raising is also an impor- 


GUIANA 
three parts: British, Dutch and French 
Guiana. 

BritisH GuiANA. This is the largest 
and the westernmost of the three. It 
has an area of 90,277 sq. m. The prin- 
cipal crops are rice, sugar cane, maize, 
wheat, cocoa, vanilla, tobacco and cin- 
namon. The exports are sugar, mo- 
lasses, rum, lumber, gold and diamonds. 
The government is vested in a governor 
and a government secretary, assisted by 
a Court of Policy. Georgetown is the 
capital city and New Amsterdam is the 
only other city of importance. The 
population is about 296,000, not includ- 
ing the aborigines occupying the unex- 
plored depths of the forest. 

DutcH GUIANA, or SURINAM. This 
is the middle region of Guiana and is a 
possession of the Dutch. It is separated 
from Brazil by impassable forests and 
from British Guiana by the Corentyn 
River. Much of Surinam is unsettled, 
for where the forests do not cover the 
land there are swampy districts and 
sandy tracts. The language, laws and 
coinage are all Dutch. The products are 
practically the same as those of British 
Guiana. The government is adminis- 
tered by a governor, a vice-president and 
a council of three members, all appoint- 
ed by the Dutch Crown. The capital is 
Paramaribo. Its area is 46,060 sq. m., 
and its population, exclusive of the na- 
tives in the forests, is 85,100. 

FRENCH GuIANA. This is the small- 
est of the three divisions, having an area 
of but 34,060 sq. m. It_is separated 
from Dutch Guiana by the Maroni River 


vand from Brazil by the Oyapok. In its 


products, its low swampy coast and its 
rolling mountains, it resembles the other 
two divisions, although less of its terri- 
tory is given over to agriculture. Gold 
washing is the most profitable pursuit. 
The colony includes the Island of Cay- 
enne, upon which Cayenne, the capital, 
is situated. The first French settlement 
here was in the Island of Cayenne in 
1664, but at present it is used chiefly as 
a place of banishment for criminals and 
political offenders. The population of 
French Guiana is 27,000. 


1243 


GUIDO RENI 


Guido Reni, Gwe'do Ra'ne, (1575- 
1642), an Italian painter of the School 
of Bologna, born at Calvenzano near 
Bologna. He studied with Calvart and 
Caracci, but early left to study at Rome, 
where he remained for 20 years. There 
in the garden house of the Rospigliosi 
Palace he painted his famous picture 
which he ysalled Phebus and the Hours 
Preceded by Aurora; it is now generally 
spoken of as merely the Aurora. This 
is his masterpiece and gives a good idea 
of his later style. Guido spent a part 
of his time in Naples, but being driven 
out by the enmity of fellow artists he 
returned to Bologna, where he estab- 
lished a large school with more than 200 
students. (Guido’s pictures are generally 
well knowr and are admired for their 
softness of coloring and the beauty of 
form in th figures. He painted chiefly 
from Biblical subjects, but also painted 
a few pleasing portraits. Among his 
best works are The Crucifixion of St. 
Peter in the Vatican, the Pieta in the 
Church of the Mendicanti, Fortune in 
the capitol at Berlin, and Samson Drink- 
ing from the Jawbone of an Ass. Many 
of his pictures are in the Louvre and 
seven are in the National Gallery of 
London. 

Guild, Gild, a society for carrying on 
some particular line of work, such as 
handcraft or commerce. Guilds are of 
ancient origin and were very influential 
in Europe during the Middle Ages. In 
Germany in the 13th century they ob- 
tained the right of bearing arms for the 
defense of their own interests, and in 
time they became so powerful that they 
resisted and overcame the nobility. The 
by-laws of the German guilds regulated 
the learning of apprentices, the practice 
of one’s trade as a journeyman and the 
requirements of a master. Finally their 
political influence became so strong that 
in the 18th century edicts were issued 
against them, and in the 19th century in 
most of the German states freedom was 
granted to all to engage in any occupa- 
tion without joining the guild. In Eng- 
land their influence was largely political, 
since one gained the right to vote by 


GUILLOTINE 


joining a guild and because they were 
in sympathy with the democratic ele- 
ment of the constitution. In the city of 
London there are several guilds which 
are important corporations. Their chief 
functions consist in managing large 
funds left in trust for benevolent pur- 
poses and relieving poor and disabled | 
members. In recent times the guilds 
have been merged with or changed into 
trade unions, both in Europe and the 
United States. 

Guilford, Gil’ ferd, or Guilford Court- 
house, Battle of, one of the most stub- 
born battles of the Revolutionary War, 
fought 30 m. from the Virginia border, 
March 15, 1781. The Americans were 
under Greene, whom Morgan’s forces 
had joined, and the British were com- 
manded by Cornwallis. From the first 
the British had the advantage and a rout 
of the Americans was with difficulty 
prevented. The English lost 600 men, 
the Americans about 400. Greene’s gen- 
eralship turned into a strategic triumph 
what military critics declare was an 
American defeat. His heavy losses 
made Cornwallis retreat to Wilmington, 
abandoning the interior of the state, 
which he had been struggling for 
months to possess. 

Guillemot, Gil’ e mot, or Sea Pigeon, 
birds related to the auks and puffins, 
having a short, slender, straight bill and 
webbed feet. These birds are 12 to 15 
inches in length and the plumage is usu- 
ally black with some white markings, in 
the spring, and variegated black and 
white in the fall. The feet are bright 
red in the summer and pink in the win- 
ter. The nest is made in a depression 
in the rocks near the water and two eggs 
are laid by some species. The common 
guillemot is found on both sides of the 
Atlantic Ocean, while the pigeon guille- 
mot is abundant on the Pacific coast of 
America and in northern Japan. 

Guillotine, Gil’ o teen, an instrument 
for beheading persons. It was invent- 
ed in the Middle Ages, and when Dr. 
Guillotine, for whom it was named, pro- 
posed its adoption in France during the 
French Revolution, the National Assem- 


1244 ‘ 


a tae 


GUILMANT 


bly voted in favor of it. It has a steel 
blade loaded with lead, which slides up 
and down the inner grooves of two per- 
pendicular posts. The prisoner’s neck 
is held below in a round hole between 
two planks and is severed by one blow. 

Guilmant, Geel” mahng', Félix Alex- 
andre (1837-1911), an eminent French 
composer and organist, born at Bou- 
logne. After holding several important 
positions as organist he was appointed 
chief organist at La Trinité, Paris, re- 
maining in this position nearly 30 years. 
As a virtuoso and composer he held first 
rank among organists of his generation. 
His compositions include organ sonatas, 
Christmas carols and many books or 
shorter organ compositions. 

Guinea, Gin’ y, an English gold coin 
in use between 1663 and 1813. It de- 
rived its name from the fact that it was 
first made from gold mined in Guinea. 
It was designed to be worth 20 shillings, 
but was never worth less than 21 shil- 
lings and was finally made legally to 
equal the latter. Its value is $5.11 in 
currency of the United States. 

Guinea Fowl, a bird related to the 
pheasants and native in West Africa and 
the Cape Verde Islands. It is about the 
size of a small domestic fowl, and is 
usually bluish-gray, spotted or speckled 
with white. The neck is purplish and 
the head is yellow and red. There is a 
hard protuberance, or casque, on top of 
the head. The nest is made on the ground 
and upwards of 17 eggs are laid. In 
Africa these birds live in flocks of con- 
siderable size, and roost upon trees at 
night, at which time their noise is al- 
most deafening. The guinea fowl has 
been domesticated and thrives well un- 
der these conditions. 

Guinea, Gulf of, a body of water on 
the western coast of Africa, a portion 
of the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between 
capes Lopez and Palmas, along the 
shores of Upper Guinea. The bights of 
Biafra and Benin are here, and also 
Prince’s, Po and St. Thomas islands. 

Guinea Pig, an interesting South 
American member of the Cavy Family, 
first domesticated by the Peruvians and 


GUIZOT 


now known throughout the United 
States. It has a plump, short-haired 
body, short legs and an inquisitive face. 
Many varieties are reared, mostly black, 
white or tawny in color. They are ex- 
tensively used in bacteriological experi- 
ments. 

Guise, Gu ees’, a ducal house of 
France, and a branch of the Lorraine 
family. The Guises became politically 
important under Francis II, as his wife, 
Mary, Queen of Scots, was the niece of 
the Duke of Guise. The most important 
was Francois of Lorraine, Duke of 
Guise, who defended Metz successfully 
against Charles V and was the real ruler 
of France under Henry II and Francis 
II. Henry, his son, succeeded Francois 
as leader of the Catholic Party. He de 
feated the allies of the Huguenots, but 
his popularity aroused the fear of Henry 
III, who forbade him to enter Paris. 
After the Duke had entered, Henry III 
invited him to'a conference and had him 
assassinated. 

Guitar, Git ar’, a box-shaped musical 
instrument, made of wood, with a neck 
arrangement similar to that of the violin. 
Of its six strings, three are treble and 
made of catgut, and three are bass and 
are made of silk wound with wire. The 
instrument is played upon by plucking 
the strings with the fingers, the pitch 
being regulated by placing the fingers 
of the left hand on a series of metal 
frets along the neck. See VIOLIN. 

Guizot, Ge”’zo’, Francois Pierre Guil- 
laume (1787-1874), a French historian 
and statesman, born at Nimes, France, 
and educated at Geneva. In 1809 he 
wrote a review of Chateaubriand’s Mar- 
tyrs, which was well received, and in 
1812 he became professor of modern 
history at Sorbonne College, University 
of France. In 1814 Guizot was made 
secretary-general of two ministries; in 
1819, director-general of commons and 
departments of the ministry of the in- 
terior. In 1820 he lost his offices be- 
cause of his political opinions, but he 
was restored to his chair and to the 
council of state in 1828. In 1840 he was 
sent as ambassador to London and the 


1245 


GULF STREAM 


same year became minister of foreign 
affairs. In 1847 he became official head 
of the cabinet. On the fall of Louis 
Philippe in 1848 Guizot escaped to Lon- 
don, but returned to Paris in 1849. 
Among his writings are History of Civ- 
‘tlization in France, General History of 
Civilization in Europe, History of the 
English Revolution and a life of Wash- 
ington. 

Gulf Stream, the principal current of 
the Atlantic Ocean. It takes its name 
from the Gulf of Mexico, from which 
it flows northward, passing between 
Florida and the Bahama Islands. The 
stream has its origin in deep currents 
far to the east of the Windward and 
Leeward islands. At its narrowest part 
it is about 50 m. in width. Its depth is 
about 2000 ft., and it flows at an aver- 
age rate of about 2 or 3 m. an hour, in 
some localities reaching a velocity of 5 
or 6 m. an hour. It moves in a north- 
eastwardly direction along the coast of 
North America, and, between 30° and 
35° north, separates into several small 
streams about 600 ft. in depth. North 
of this the stream is further broken up 
by the westerly winds and becomes a 
mere drift flowing in a northeasterly di- 
rection toward northern Europe. The 
current is several degrees warmer than 
the remainder of the ocean through 
which it flows, in the same latitude, and 
in consequence the climate of the Brit- 
ish Isles is greatly tempered by the drifts 
which flow past their shores. 

The Gulf Stream is generally sup- 
posed to be the result of the general 
vertical circulation of the ocean started 
by the creeping of the polar waters 
along the ocean bed toward the equa- 
tor. The equatorial waters are forced 
upward by this deep-sea current and 
move northward to replace the perpet- 
ually sinking waters at the poles. De- 
viation to the east in the flow of the 
current is due to the rotating movement 
of the earth. See CurRRENTS, MARINE. 

Gulf’port”, Miss., a city and port of 
entry of Harrison Co., 13 m. s.w. of Bi- 
loxi, on the Gulf. of Mexico and on the 
Louisville & Nashville and the Gulf & 


nes GULL 


Ship Island railroads. The city has 
the best harbors on the entire Gulf 
coast, and is the port of entry for the 
Pearl River customs district. In 1901 
the Federal Government and the Gulf & 
Ship Island Railroad Company dredged 
a navigable channel for coasting vessels 
which greatly promoted the trade of 


f 
j 


\ Vs = 
1 7A f 
WE Zo 3 a | | 


WCU ES 


Nt 
GULL 


Gulfport. During the last decade the 
town has grown from a small seacoast 
village to a thriving city, and contains 
canning industries, lumber and cotton 
mills, machine shops, woodworking 
plants, foundries and manufactories of 
cotton-seed oil, fertilizers and other di- 
versified products. Prominent among 
the public buildings are the courthouse, 
post office, banks and Great Southern 
Hotel, one of the finest in the South. 
Population in 1920, 8,157. 

Gulla 


name applied 
to many sea 
and lake birds 
with heavy 
bodies, short 
legs, partly- 
webbed feet 
and a more or 
less hooked 
bill. They have long, pointed wings and 
are birds of powerful flight. A number 
of different species are known. 
HERRING GULL, perhaps the most 
common and best-known species.. This 
bird is over two feet in length, with 
pearl-gray back and white under parts, 
the five outer primary feathers of the 


GULL’S HEAD AND FOOT 


1246 


GUM 


wing being black with white tips. The 
bill is yellow with a red spot near the 
end of the lower mandible. In winter 
the plumage of the head and neck is 
streaked with gray. The nest is placed 
on the ground, on rocks or in trees, and 
is made of grass, earth, seaweed, etc. It 
contains three eggs spotted with brown 
or lilac. The herring gulls live on both 
sides of the American continent and on 
the Great Lakes. On the ocean they 
follow the schools of herring and other 
small fish, upon which they feed. On 
the Great Lakes they follow steamers to 
feed upon the refuse thrown overboard. 

Gum, a compound of carbon, hydro- 
gen, and oxygen which occurs in nearly 
all plants and oozes from their stems or 
fruit. Gums differ from resins in being 
capable of being dissolved in water but 
not in alcohol. They are generally odor- 
less and tasteless. Our commonest va- 
rieties are cherry-gum and gum mes- 
quite. Other familiar gums are: gum 
arabic, which is used in the manufacture 
of medicines, candy and paste and also 
to give finish to silk and other cloth 
fabrics; gum tragacanth, used in medi- 
cines and glue; and gum acacia, also used 
in medicines. 

Gum Arabic, Ar’ a bik, a reddish, 
sometimes yellowish, gum obtained from 
acacia trees that grow in Asia and north- 
ern Africa. It is used for a large variety 
of purposes, principally in making muci- 
lage and pastes. See Acacia; Muci- 
LAGE, 

Gum Resin, a name given to the 
thickened, milky juices of plants, made 
up of gum, which is soluble in water; 
resin, which is soluble in alcohol; and 
some mineral and vegetable substances. 
Gum resins are prepared as powders or 
dissolved in diluted alcohol and used 
medicinally. The best-known gum res- 
ins are gamboge, myrrh, asafetida and 
scammony. 

Gunboat, a small war vessel armed 
generally with one large gun. This gun 
is sometimes mounted on a pivot on the 
deck of the vessel, and can be turned 
in any direction; and sometimes it is 
mounted on a platform that is raised 


GUNPOWDER 


and lowered from hold to deck and back 
by machinery. The gunboat is used 
chiefly for coast and river defense. In 
1860 the United States had about 250 
of these vessels, and they rendered good 
service during the Civil War; but their 
use has been practically discontinued. 
Guncotton, or Pyrox’ylin, a highly 
explosive compound prepared by the ac- 
tion of nitric acid on the fibers of cot- 
ton. It is used in the making of collo- 
dion, varnishes and celluloid. Military 
guncotton is very explosive and is used 
by the United States navy in torpedoes. 
It is compressed into blocks of about 
three inches in diameter and two inches 
high, with half-inch holes in them. A 
form of guncotton called pyrocellulose 
is employed in making smokeless pow- 
der. See CoLLopION ; CELLULOID; VAR- 
NISH ; SMOKELESS POWDER; TORPEDO. 
Gunpowder, a well-known explosive 
mixture consisting of saltpeter, charcoal 
and sulphur. The proportions of these 
materials vary according to the kind of 
powder desired. -The origin and early 
history of gunpowder is obscure, but its 
invention is generally attributed to the 
Chinese, who used it before the Chris- 
tian Era. It was known in Europe in 
the 13th century, but it did not come 
into general use for warfare until the 
16th century. The materials used in 
making gunpowder are first relined and 
purified and then ground very fine, and 
for the most common grades are mixed 
in revolving cylinders in the following 
proportions: 75 per cent of saltpeter, 15 
per cent of charcoal and 10 per cent of 
sulphur. They are mixed wet and worked 
into a cake called a mill cake, which is 
afterwards crushed into meal. This meal 
is then pressed into cakes by hydraulic 
pressure, the degree of which depends 
upon the strength of the powder desired. 
These cakes are again crushed by means 
of a machine having toothed rollers, 
which break up the mass and reduce it 
to grains of various sizes, which are 
sorted by screens. Afterwards, the pow- 
der is put through a revolving, wooden 
barrel, whereby it is polished, graphite 
being added for the purpose of produc- 


1247 


GUNPOWDER PLOT 


ing the glaze so commonly seen on that 
used in firearms. Finally it is conveyed 
to drying rooms preparatory to being 
packed in kegs for shipment. See GREEK 
FIRE; GUNCOTTON; SMOKELESS Pow- 
DER. 


Gunpowder Plot, a plan for destroy- 


ing King James I and the members of 
Parliament on Nov. 5, 1605. The King 


had disappointed the ‘Catholics because. 


of his severity in enforcing the penal 
laws, and a few of the most desperate 
banded together to overthrow the gov- 
ernment. They secured the cooperation 
of a fearless soldier, Guy Fawkes, and 
a Thomas Percy. They discovered a 
cellar beneath the House of Lords, and 
stored in it several barrels of gunpow- 
der. Several other plotters were added 
to their band, and Fawkes was selected 
to set fire to the gunpowder on the as- 
sembling of Parliament, Nov. 5. Be- 
trayed by the indiscretion of one of the 
band, Fawkes was arrested early in the 
morning of the fifth, as he was emerg- 
ing from the cellar. Many of the con- 
spirators were killed on being taken and 
several died with Fawkes on the scaf- 
fold. 

Gunsaul’us, Frank Wakeley (1856- 
1921), a distinguished American cler- 
gyman, born at Chesterville, Ohio. He 
was educated at Ohio Wesleyan Uni- 
versity and at Beloit College, Wiscon- 
sin. Beginning as a Methodist minister 
in 1875, he entered the Congregational 
ministry four years later. Since 1899 he 
has been pastor of the Central Church, 
Chicago, an independent organization, 
and in this capacity has attained a wide 
following. His lectures upon Savona- 
rola, John Hampden and other subjects 
have added to his popularity. Dr. Gun- 
saulus became president of Armour In- 
stitute (Chicago) in 1893, and is the 
author of several publications. Among 
his works are Monk and Knight, Phid- 
ias, Gladstone and Paths to Power. 

Gusta’vus I, or Gustavus Vasa 
(1496-1560), King of Sweden from 1523 
until his death, was born at Lindholm. 
At this time the three Scandinavian 
kingdoms, Denmark, Norway and Swe- 


GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS 


den, were united, and the Swedish 
people were divided in their allegiance, 
some favoring more national power for 
Sweden and others upholding the Dan- 
ish authority. Sten Sture, the cousin of 
Gustavus, was one of the former, and 
through his executive ability had been 
proclaimed administrator of Sweden. 
To his court the youthful. Gustavus was 
sent. He took part in the Battle of 
Brannkyrka, in which the Swedish 
forces defeated Christian II of Den- 
mark, and later was sent with five other 
youths of the court as hostage to the 
Danish court. Here he was treacher- 
ously kept prisoner by the King, who 
said, “There is many a Sten Sture in 
the lad.” | 

Escaping from his imprisonment, 
Gustavus wandered as an outcast until 
the news of the Swedish massacre, in 
which his father and uncle lost. their 
lives, and of the price set upon his own 
head determined him to strike a final 
blow for the freedom of Sweden. By 
his own efforts and with courage that 
faced disappointment, privation and 
treachery, he aroused the hardy Dale- 
carlian peasants to a revolt which re- 
leased the country from Danish tyranny 
and placed Gustavus himself upon the 
throne of Sweden. He was crowned in 
1523, and during a long reign of 37 
years was untiring in his efforts to de- 
velop the nationalism of his country. 
His son Eric succeeded him on the 
Swedish throne. 

Gustavus V_ (1858- ), Baines cor 
Sweden, successor of King Oscar II. 
He studied at the University of Upsala -— 
and in 1875 he entered the army, where 
he attained the rank of general in 1898. 
From 1884 to 1891 he was Vice-King 
of Norway, and his efforts to maintain 
the union of Norway and Sweden made 
him greatly disliked by the Norwegian 
Radicals. In 1881 he married Princess 
Victoria, the daughter of the Grand 
Duke of Bavaria. He succeeded his 
father.as King of Sweden in 1907. 

Gustavus Adolphus (1594-1632), 
King of Sweden and successor of Charles 
IX. He conciliated the nobles who had 


1248 


a. «© t 
way tid 
oF 
rh 
> 


GUTENBERG 


deen alienated by his father’s harsh- 
ness, protected the lower classes from 
the oppression of the landowners and 
reorganized the government. He also 
built new towns and encouraged com- 
merce. He terminated his war with the 
Danes with honor in 1613, and in 1617 
by the Treaty of Stolbova gained Carelia 
and Ingria. From Poland he won Li- 
vonia, Esthonia and Courland in 1629. 


In 1630, during the Thirty Years’ War, 


he went to the relief of the Protestants 
in Germany. In 1631 Gustavus defeated 
the Germans at the Battle of Breitenfeld. 
The next year he defeated them again 
under Wallenstein at Ltitzen, but fell on 
the battlefield. His conquests had a last- 
ing influence. See THirTY YEARS’ War. 

Gutenberg, Goo’ ten berk, Johannes 
(about 1398-1468), the inventor of print- 
ing with movable type, born in Mainz, 
Germany. The documents referring to 
his early life are obscure and tell very 
little that may be accepted as authentic. 
His name Gutenberg was assumed from 
*he name of his mother’s birthplace, the 
sity of Gutenberg. His first inventions 
were along a variety of lines, including 
a method of polishing stones and a new 
way of making mirrors. Both business 
ventures connected with these inventions 
turned out disastrously, and Gutenberg 
next appears about 1450 in partnership 
with Johann Fust, a wealthy goldsmith; 
Fust was to furnish the money and 
Gutenberg the “‘tools” for a new printing 
device. The types were cast, the office 
opened and the first book, a large Latin 
Bible, printed, when the partners dis- 
agreed. The printing of the Bible had 
taken five years and Fust saw no re- 
turns for his investment, so he brought 
suit against Gutenberg, secured control 
of the plant and carried on the business 
with a new partner. Gutenberg, how- 
ever, was aided to secure another press 
and continued his work until his death. 
Books believed to have been printed by 
him are now very costly, but Gutenberg 
died poor and friendless and almost un- 
known. A fine bronze monument has 
been erected to his memory in Mainz. 
See PRINTING. 


GUTTA-PERCHA 


Guth’rie, Okla., the county seat of 
Logan Co., located in the central part of 
the state, on Cottonwood Creek not far 


from its juncture with the Cimarron 


River. It is 32 m.n. of Oklahoma City 
and 450 m. s.w. of St. Louis, on the 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chi- 


cago, Rock Island & Pacific, Fort Smith 


& Western and other railroads. It is a 
city that has grown rapidly, but has been 
well planned. Its most interesting public 
buildings are the old capitol, city hall, the 
Federal Building, a Masonic Temple and 
a Methodist hospital. Guthrie is one of 
the seats of the Federal courts, and its 
cotton gins, foundries and machine shops 
attract trade from the surrounding coun- 
try. Cottonseed oil, lumber, brooms, 
flour, cigars and overalls are manufac- 
tured. The city has a St. Joseph’s Col- 
lege and a business college. Population 
in 1920, according to the United States 
Census, 11,757. 

Gut’ta-Per’cha, a substance found in 
the so-called milk sap of various trees 
of the Nettle, Spurge and Sapodilla fam- 
ilies. It occurs in the form of tiny, 
translucent globules suspended in the wa- 
tery sap, and gives to the sap its milky 
appearance. It is supposed to assist in 
protecting plants against wounds. At 
ordinary temperatures gutta-percha is 
hard and resembles India rubber, though 
it is not elastic. 

Gutta-percha is obtained by cutting 
down the trees, stripping the bark and 
allowing the white, thick sap to run into 
troughs. . After exposure to the air a 
light, thick cream +vises and the entire 
liquid darkens. The cream is made into 
cakes which are merely boiled in water 
before being ready for shipment. It is 
shipped in blocks of from five to ten 
pounds each and is put to innumerable 
uses, stich as the making of flexible 
hose, bottles, surgeons’ splints, temporary 
filling for teeth, molds, golf balls, in- 
sulating material, etc. Gutta-percha and 
India rubber are often confused through 
the similarity of their uses, but they dif- 
fer mainly in the fact that India rubber 
is very elastic, while gutta-percha, 


_ though extensible, is inelastic. 


1249 


GUYOT 


Guyot, Ge’ yo, Arnold (1807-1884), a 
Swiss-American geologist and physicist, 
born near Neuchatel, Switzerland. He 
became professor of history and phys- 
ical geography at Neuchatel in 1839. In 
1848 he came to the United States, where 
he lectured in Boston, his lectures later 
appearing as Earth and Man, a text- 
book on physical geography. In 1855 
he became professor of geology and 
physical geography at Princeton, where 
he established the museum. For pre- 
paring a series of geographies and wall 
maps, he was honored by the Vienna 
Exposition of 1873. His publications 
include, besides biographies of Carl Rit- 
ter, James H. Coffin and Louis Agassiz, 
A Treatise on Physical Geography and 
Creation, or the Bible Cosmogony in the 
Light of Modern Science. 

Gymnas’tics, exercises by which the 
physical, and particularly the muscular, 
powers are developed, usually indoors 


and by the use of various machines and — 


appliances, each of which has been scien- 
tifically designed to strengthen a particu- 
lar muscle or set of muscles. These are 
of special value in making it possible 
for one to overcome physical defects, so 
that an inherited weakness, or one de- 
veloped during childhood, shall not con- 
tinue into maturity and prevent the maxi- 
mum of physical efficiency. 

Gymnastic exercises are of most value 
between the ages of 12 and 35. But 
they should be taken under expert direc- 
tion; and, in no case, can the undue 
development of any portion of the body 
or the use of very heavy weights, or 
exhausting exercises, be considered ad- 
visable. Too often these result in the 
straining of some muscle or ligament, 
or in injury to the heart action. Be- 
cause the gymnasium is seldom a well- 
ventilated building, out-of-door exercises 
are usually preferable; while the zest 
which is found in clean, wholesome 
sports is of greater recreative value than 
any mechanical exercise can be. The 
gymnasium, however, has its function, 
and the value of properly directed gym- 
nastic exercise should not be ignored nor 
underestimated. 


-are also always 


GYPSY 


Gymnosperm, Jim’ no sperm, the 
smaller of the two great divisions of 
seed-producing plants, whose members 
are distinguished as not having their un- 
developed seeds enclosed in a case.. The 
flowers are always imperfect,’ that is, 
lacking one of the essential parts neces- 
sary to the production of the seeds, and 
without calyx and 
corolla. Gymnosperms are always trees 
or shrubs with needle-shaped, or, at least, 
very narrow, leaves. Members of the 
Pine Family are typical of this class. 
See ANGIOSPERM. 

Gypsum, J7p’ sum, a calcium sulphate 
which occurs in great abundance in vari- 
ous parts of the earth. It is colorless 
and white; and forms in prismatic or 
tubular crystals. When it occurs in the 
form of transparent crystals it is termed 
selenite; when the formation is fibrous, 
with fibers extending parallel to one an- 
other and at right angles to the direc- 
tion of the vein, and the polished sur- 
face presents a pearly appearance, it is 
called satin spar. Alabaster is a form of 
translucent gypsum, granular like mar- 
ble and colored pink, gray or yellow. 
Rock gypsum, the ordinary gypsum of 
commerce, occurs in large beds of mas- 
sive rock, frequently mixed with clay, 
calcium carbonate and other impurities. 
It is often accompanied by rock salt. 
Gypsum when heated to a high tem- 
perature is reduced to powder. From 
this powder plaster of Paris is made. It 
takes its name from Paris, France, near 
which large quantities of gypsum are 
found. Aside from its use in the manu- 
facture of plaster, gypsum is employed 
for, cementing purposes, in the manu- 
facture of stucco work and imitation 
marble, porcelain and glass, as a filler 
for paper, a basis for paints and a fer- 
tilizer of soils. It is found in Canada, 
the United States, Austria, Germaay, 
France and Arabia. See ALABASTER. 

Gypsy, Jip’ sy, a nation of wandering 
people supposed to have come originally 
from India. Their language, customs 


and physical characteristics distinguish 


them from all other nationalities, al- 
though their nomadic, unsettled life has 


1250 


GYPSY MOTH 


brought them into contact with all races 
of people. They are a finely-built race, 
with clear olive skins, glossy black hair, 
bright black eyes, red lips and white, 
regular teeth. Probably less than 500,000 
now remain. 

Gypsy Moth, a moth of the Tussock 
Moth Family, whose caterpillar is ex- 


<= 
—S=—> 8 = 
= 


a 
\ Ne 


GYPSY MOTH 


tremely destructive to trees. The male 
moth is bluish-yellow in color and very 
active; the female is white, with dark 
irregular spots, and is rarely on the wing. 
The eggs are laid in masses upon the 
limbs and trunks of trees, the sides of 
houses and on fences. These hatch into 
long, blue-gray caterpillars, which, when 
mature, are about three inches in length 
and are marked with two rows of black 
and two rows of red spots. In the illus- 
tration A represents the caterpillar, and 
B the moth. This moth migrates only 
during the caterpillar stage and is then 
carried on passing wagons, carriages and 
trains; thus it is not readily spread, but 
tends to infest thickly certain neighbor- 
hoods. The eggs may be destroyed by 
touching with a mixture of creosote oil, 
50 per cent; carbolic acid, 20 per cent; 
turpentine, 20 per cent; coal tar, 10 per 
cent. The caterpillars may be killed with 
the usual poison sprays, which must be 
used in stronger solutions for the old 
than for the young. Strips of burlap 
tied about the tree are effective, for the 
caterpillars feed only by night, and by 
day will crawl beneath the burlap; from 


GYROSCOPE 


thence they may be easily collected and 
disposed of. See INSECTICIDE. 
Gyrfalcon, Jur' fo k’n, or Gerfalcon, 
a bird of the Hawk and Eagle Family, 
about two feet in length. The plumage 
is barred and streaked white and gray; 
the under parts are marked with slate; 
the tail is banded. The nest is made on 
high, rocky cliffs, is composed of sticks 
and is usually lined with seaweed and sea 
moss. The eggs are spotted with brown. 
The gyrfalcons are rapid flyers and tire- 
less hunters, fiercely pursuing sea birds 
on the coast or land birds in the fields. 
Gyroscope, Ji’ ro skope, an instru- 
ment used to illustrate the motions of 
rotating bodies. It consists of a wheel, 
accurately balanced, freely rotating and 
fixed upon an axis which in turn is 
mounted in a ring. One point of this 
ring has a small socket, into which the 
point of the supporting standard is in- 
serted. When the wheel is set in rapid 
motion by means of a string wound 
about the axis, the instrument balances. 
and moves in apparent defiance of the 
laws of gravitation. These motions are 


ry 
ao ee 


d 
y 
4 
’ 
4 
/ 


GYROSCOPE 
due to resistance to the change of direc- 
tion of the axis of the rotating wheel. 
The gyroscope is used as a balancing or 
steadying device in certain models of 
aeroplanes and in a monorail transporta- 
tion system. Children’s tops are one 
form of gyroscope. See Top. 


1251 


H 


The earliest of them, Haakon 
the Good, spent his youth in 
the court of King Athelstan of England, 
who brought him up according to Chris- 
tian beliefs. At his father’s death in 
933, he wrested the throne from his 
brother, Eric, and unsuccessfully tried to 
introduce Christianity into Norway. Haa- 
kon IV, surnamed the Old, ruled from 
1217 to 1263, and added Iceland and 
Greenland to the Norwegian realm. 
Haakon VI came to the throne while a 
child, in 1343, his father having been 
compelled to resign and serve as regent 
during his minority. See Haakon VII. 
Haakon VII (1872- \indsino: ‘of 
Norway and second son of King Fred- 
erick of Denmark. He entered the Nor- 
wegian navy in 1886 and became familiar 
with all kinds of vessels. In 1896 he 
married Princess Maud, the youngest 
daughter of Edward VII, and in 1905, 
when Norway and Sweden were sepa- 
rated and the Government of Norway 
offered him the crown, he accepted on 
condition that the choice be approved by 
the people. In November, 1905, the peo- 
ple expressed their approval by a large 
majority, and a few days later he became 
king. 

Habak’kuk, a book of the Old Testa- 
ment, the author of which, Habakkuk, 
flourished about 600 B. C., during the 
reign of Jehoiakim, King of Judah. 
Habakkuk was the eighth of the minor 
Hebrew prophets and belonged to the 
tribe of Levi. - The book of Habakkuk 
consists of two parts. The first part con- 
tains a dialogue between the prophet and 
God, in which is foretold the destruc- 
tion of the Babylonian Empire; the sec- 
ond part is a majestic song of prayer 
and praise, expressing the prophet’s con- 
fidence in the justice and mercy of Jeho- 
vah, 


AAKON, Haw’ kon, the name 
of several kings of Norway. 


Habeas Corpus, Ha’ be as Kor’pus, 
an ancient English writ addressed to 
him who has another in custody, and 
commanding him to produce the body of 
the person named at a certain timé and 
place. In other words, it is a “writ of 
right” brought into use for better secur- 
ing the liberty of British subjects. This 
act, passed in 1679, and next in impor- 
tance in England to the Magna Charta, 
provided that if any person were impris- 
oned by order of any court or of the 
king, he might demand a writ to bring 
him before the King’s Bench, which 
should determine whether the commit- 
ment was just. 

In the United States Constitution 
there is a provision that “the privilege 
of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be 
suspended, unless when in cases of re- 
bellion or invasion the public safety de- 
mands it.” Congress may, by majority 
vote, suspend the writ and the same ac- 
tion may be taken by a state Legislature. 
Either the person in custody, or an- 
other acting for him, may demand the 
writ, which must be accompanied by an 
affidavit declaring that the detention is, 
in the opinion of the applicant, contrary 
to law, and also clearly setting forth all 
the facts as they have been established. 


Hab’it, an act of mind or body which 


is performed automatically, and, on some 
occasions at least, unconsciously. Habits 
are acquired, supposedly, because it is 
always easier for the nervous system to 
act as it has once acted than in an en- 
tirely different manner; and easiest for 
it to act as it has on many occasions, 
This is explained upon the theory that 
when a current of nerve force passes 
along a nerve tract it “blazes a trail” 
which similar currents may thus more 
easily follow; and that, the more fre- 
quently such a current travels a par- 
ticular route, the easier this route be- 
comes; unt, ultimately. one performs 


1252 


ae 


<P ee 
war 4 tS 
i 4 
z j : / 
ie * 


HABIT 


even complicated actions, such as walk- 
ing, quite unconsciously, so far as their 
details are concerned. Thus habit may 
be said to free the mind from the neces- 
sity, of giving constant attention to de- 
tails that are unimportant when once 
properly mastered; and has made pos- 
sible not only those achievements already 
recorded, but a host of others which are 
certain to be attained when man learns 
to use his powers more completely. 

But, just as the bones lose their car- 
tilaginous character with the passage of 
youth, so the plastic condition of the 
nervous system is gradually lost as child- 
hood passes into youth and youth into 
maturity. Moreover, as this occurs, it 
becomes increasingly difficult for the 
nerve current to force its way along 
nerve tracts not previously developed, 
but easier and easier for it to traverse 
those routes along which it has fre- 
quently passed. For this reason it is 
difficult for a mature animal, or person, 
to change habits. The man or woman 
who was not in childhood trained to tell 
the truth, to play the violin, to think 
before acting, to control his temper in 
times of emergency or to speak a foreign 
language, cannot easily be trained to do 
these things when he is older. The man 
who bites his finger nails, eats with his 
knife, uses language for which he would 
offer a thousand apologies, or otherwise 
- offends those whose esteem he craves, 
is by no means always ignorant of the 
rules of propriety ; but is very commonly 
the victim of habits acquired in youth 
which are still occasionally victorious 
over those of later years. 

The expert horseman knows by ex- 
perience, if not from books, the impor- 
tance of habit. With him it is purely a 
question of business. He may let some 
inexperienced person drive one of his 
oldest horses. If short of money, he 
may employ cheaper men to exercise his 
older track animals. But his thorough- 
bred and high-priced colts always and 
- everywhere receive the attention of those 
most competent both to prevent the de- 
velopment of bad habits and _ to 
strengthen desirable habits. 


HACKBERRY 


Men are now coming to really appre- 
ciate the wisdom, the economic and social 
importance of applying toward the de- 
velopment of their children those very 
principles which so long have determined 
the financial success of the horseman. 
Because it will cost years of effort and a 
tremendous waste of enérgy to overcome 
but partially the habit of slovenly speech 
and imperfect articulation, the child that 
is just beginning to talk must not be left 
in the care of those who mumble, rather 
than articulate, or who do not know that 
they might better talk “baby-talk” any- 
where else than in the presence of the 
baby. The kindergarten performs no 
more important service than in training 
little children to habits that will be help- 
ful throughout life. The activities of 


‘the primary school, the organized play 


and manual training of the grammar and 
high schools and all the varied tasks of 
youth which are truly efficient agencies 


for education, have been proved valuable 


largely because of the habits that they 
originate or strengthen. “A well-trained 
nervous system is the greatest friend that 
the mind can have. An ill-trained nerv- 
ous system is a relentless enemy to the 
highest mental powers.” See KINDER- 
GARTEN ; MANUAL TRAINING; DOMESTIC 
SCIENCE; EDUCATION. 

Hack’berry, a small Southern tree of 
the Nettle Family, growing in rich, low 
ground. The leaves are much like those 
of the elm, to which it is related, but 
are more tapering and sometimes have 
smooth margins. The flowers are of two 
kinds: the upper ones, which grow singly 
on long slender stems proceeding from 
the leaf joints, are the fruit-bearing blos- 


‘soms, and are said to be pistillate; the 


lower ones grow in short-stemmed clus- 
ters, and because they contain the sta- 
mens with the fertilizing dust, they are 
said to be staminate. Both kinds are 
light green in color and rather incon- 
spicuous. The fruit is a sweet little 
berry about the size of a currant and 
edible; it ripens early in the autumn. 
There are several varieties of the hack- 
berry, variously known as lotus berry 
and nettle tree. 


1253 


HACKENSACK 


Hack’ensack, N. J., county seat of 
Bergen Co., 12 m. n. of New York City 
and 14 m. from Jersey City, on the 
Hackensack River and on the Ontario 
& Western and the New York, Susque- 
hanna & Western railroads. The city 
is attractively located above the Hacken- 
sack Meadows, or salt marshes, and con- 
tains excellent public schools, an old 
ladies’ home, hospital, library, etc. 
Hackensack was settled by the Dutch 
in 1640. The city has manufactories of 
wall paper, silk, carriages and jewelry. 
It was incorporated in 1868. Population 
nit920.. Uo: Census, 817,607 

Had/’dock, a favorite food fish of the 
Cod Family. It is found in restricted 
localities from Iceland to France, but is 
always abundant on the Massachusetts 
coast and in the streams tributary to the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence.. In color the 
haddock is blue-gray above and lighter 
below and has a light-colored, plainly- 
marked lateral line. There are, three 
dorsal fins, all of good size, and a small 
sensitive feeler, called a barbel, upon its 
chin. The average weight of the had- 
dock is three or four pounds. It is an 
excellent food fish and is sold fresh, pre- 
served, smoked, salted or dried. The 
Jerusalem haddock is a member of the 
Mariposa Family, and the Norway had- 
dock is a member of the Rockfish 
Family. 

Hades, Ha’ deez, in classic mythol- 
ogy a place near the center of the earth, 
for departed souls. It consisted of Ely- 
sium for the good and Tartarus for the 
evil. According to Homer, it was merely 
one region where all souls, barring those 
of mortals who had personally wronged 
the gods, busied themselves, in mimicry, 
with their occupations of earth. 

Had’ley, Arthur Twining (1856- 

), an American educator, born at 
New Haven, and educated at Yale and 
Berlin. In 1886 he was made professor 
of political science at Yale; and in 1899, 
president, retiring in 1921. He served as 
commissioner of labor statistics for Con- 
necticut from 1885 to 1887, and is known 
both as a man of affairs and as a scholar. 
His Railroad Transportation: Its History 


HAGGATI 


and Laws is recognized as authorita- 
tive and has been translated into several 
foreign languages. He also wrote Eco- 
nomics: an Account of the Relations Be- 
tween Private Property and Public Wel- 
fare, Report on the Labor Question and 
The Education of the American Citigen. 

Ha’drian (76-138), a Roman emperor, 
successor of Trajan in 117. He quelled 
several insurrections, concluded a peace 
with the Parthians, induced the Roxo- 
lani to withdraw from Meesia, reformed 
the army and fortified the frontiers. He 
erected many fine buildings and public 
works in the provinces and built a wall 
in Britain from Solway to the Tyne. 
As a civil ruler he showed great ability. 
He was also a lover of literature and 
philosophy. 

Hemoglobin, He” mo glo’ bin. 
BLoop. 

Ha’gerstown, Md., a city and the 
county seat of Washington Co., 75 m. 
n.w. of Baltimore, on the Baltimore & 
Ohio, the Norfolk & Western, the Cum- 
berland Valley and the Western Mary- 
land railroads, and in the Cumberland 
Valley. It is an important commercial 
center. Among the activities of the 
town are the manufacturing of silk, 
cigars, furniture, automobiles, flour, ice, 
fertilizer and toys. Of no less import- 
ance is the operating of machine and rail- 
way shops, knitting mills and pipe organ 
factories. Here are located the Wash- 
ington County Hospital and the Wash- 
ington County Free Library. Hagers- 
town was settled about 1740. It was 
an important base of operations during 
the Civil War. Population in 1920, 
U. S. Census, 28,064. 

Haggai, Hag’ a i, a book of the Old 
Testament, the author of which, Haggai, 
was one of the 12 minor Hebrew prophets 
and the first to prophesy after the Cap- 
tivity. Accompanying Zerubbabel to Je- 
rusalem for the purpose of rebuilding 
the Temple, Haggai was inspired by God 
to rouse the people to support their 
leader, after a long period of lethargy 
and discouragement. The book of Hag- 

ai contains four distinct prophecies, two 
in the first chapter and two in the sec- 


See 


1254 


HAGGARD 


ond. At the close there is a prediction 
of the establishment of the Kingdom of 
God midst the ruin of temporal king- 
doms. See BIBLE, subhead The Old 
Testament. ‘ 
Hag’gard, Sir Henry Rider (1856- 
), an English novelist, born in Nor- 
folk. He was made private secretary 
to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal, 
South Africa, at the age of 19, and was 
later master of the High Court in the 
Transvaal. Upon his return to England 
he practiced law and wrote fiction that 
was popular, but possessed little endur- 
ing merit. After 1895 he retired to his 
estate in Norfolk and became a practical 
farmer and gardener. He made a study 
of rural conditions in England and of 
Salvation Army settlements in Califor- 
nia and Colorado, and reported on these 
investigations in his works Rural Eng- 
land, The Poor and the Land and Report 
on the Salvation Army Colonies. He was 
knighted in 1911. His works of fiction 
include King Solomon’s Mines, Dawn, 
She, The Brethren, The Heart of the 
World and Ayesha, or the Return of 
She. 

Hague, Hage, The, the capital of 
Netherlands, situated in the Province of 
South Holland, about 3 m. from the 
North Sea and about 15 m. from Rot- 
terdam. As the chief town of the prov- 
ince, the residence of the sovereign and 
the seat of the government, it is a hand- 
some and fashionable ‘“‘half-Dutch, half- 
French” city. The principal edifices in- 
clude the medieval government buildings, 
the picturesque town hall, the Groote 
Kerk, or Church of St. James, the palace 
of justice, the Gevangenpoort, or the 
‘prison gatehouse, the Binnenhof, the 
Buitenhof, the royal palace, the old hall 
of the knights, the municipal museum 
and several hospitals, theaters and 
schools. The Mauritshuis contains the 
famous picture gallery with its treasures 
by Rembrandt, Ruysdael, Rubens and 
others. The royal library is large and 
very valuable. 

The industries of the city are not im- 
portant. The Hague is preeminently a 
fashionable residential city, depending 


HAIL 


for its life and activity on the court and 
nobility, as well as on the tourists that 
throng it in large numbers. A great 
number of treaties and conventions have 
been signed here. The first “Hague 
Convention” assembled at The Hague, 
and in 1899 The Hague Tribunal, or 
International Court of Arbitration, was 
established. Andrew Carnegie contrib- 
uted $1,500,000 toward the cost of a 
Palace of Peace which, as the seat of 
the tribunal, was to be completed in 
1913. During the thirteenth century The 
Hague was a hunting lodge of the counts 
of Holland. It became a princely resi- 
dence under William II in 1250, and 
prospered greatly, being the seat of the 
States-General and of the stadtholder of _ 
Holland, and by the seventeenth century © 
the diplomatic capital of Europe. Pop- 
ulation in 1905, 242,054. See PEaAcE 
CONFERENCE, INTERNATIONAL. 

Hah’nemann, Samuel Christian 
Friedrich (1755-1843), founder of the 
homeopathic school of medicine, born at 
Meissen, Saxony. He studied at the 
“elector’s school’ at Meissen, and later 
took his courses in medicine in Leipsic, 
Vienna and Erlangen. In translating 
Cullen’s Materia Medica, he was led to 
make some experiments upon himself 
that led him to the conviction that the 
cure of a disease was the drug that 
would cause the disease in a well per- 
son. He also decided that the doses 
usually administered were too large. His 
life was from this time on given to per- 
fecting and making public his system. 
See HoMEopPATHY. 

Haidarabad, Hi” dar ah bahd’. See 
HYDERABAD. | 

Hail, lumps of ice of various sizes 
which fall in showers either before or 
during the progress of a storm of wind 
and rain. The masses of ice are usually 
irregular in form, being rounded, pyra- 
midal or star-shaped. In size they range 
from fine grains to lumps of a pound or 
more in weight. When the masses of 
ice attain a diameter of a quarter of an 
inch or greater, they are called hail- 
stones. Stones weighing from 12 to 16 
ounces fall annually in America, Europe 


1255 


HAIL COLUMBIA 


and India; the largest of which there 
is record weighed as much as two 
pounds. There are various theories which 
attempt to explain the formation of hail. 
If the larger stones are closely exam- 
ined, they are found to be formed 
around a nucleus of some foreign sub- 
stance, such as a. grain of sand or a 
pebble, and consisting of alternating 
coatings of ice. When a rising volume 
of air cools to a certain point, it begins 
to form a cloud. Above this it reaches 
a temperature where hail is formed. 
With the movement of the upper air 
currents, these clouds of moisture are apt 
to make a series of ascents and descents, 
in the course of which the ice particles 
become covered with layers of ice or 
snow, which form in alternating layers, 
like the layers of an onion. The large 
and destructive hailstones frequently fall 
during local thunderstorms and torna- 
does. 

Hail Columbia. 
TIONAL. 

Hainan, Hi’ nahn’, an island in the 
China Sea, separated from the mainland 
by Hainan Strait, 10 m. in width. It 
has an area of 13,600 sq. m. and forms 
a department of the Chinese Province 
of Kwangtung. In the interior are nu- 
merous wooded mountain chains, and 
the chief products of the fertile soil are 
coconuts, cotton, sugar cane and to- 
bacco. The capital is the treaty port of 
Kiungchow, and the population is esti- 
mated at 2,500,000. 

Hair, a part of the protective cover- 
ing of Mammals. It is variously dis- 
tributed over the body and corresponds 
with the feathers of birds, scales of fishes 
and of reptiles. It takes the form of 
wool and fur or bristles and quills, and 
presents variations of color equally di- 
verse. Because of the delicate struc- 
ture and important function of the brain, 
the human head is abundantly supplied 
with hair to cover necessarily exposed 
or thinly covered parts. 

In the illustration, 1 is the skin; 2, 
the subcutaneous tissue; 3, the muscles 
of the hair follicle; and 4, the sebaceous 
gland. Each‘ hair of the human head 


See Hymns, Na- 


HAIRWORM 


springs from a depression in the skin, 
called the hair follicle. It consists of a 
stem and a bulb-shaped root, which rests 
upon a minute elevation, or papilla, of 
the skin at the lower end of the follicle. 
A hair is made up of a number of elon- 


gated epidermic cells united to form — 


fibers. These cells multiply rapidly in 
the papilla and, pushing upward, force 
along the older cells. It is in this man- 
ner that hair grows. If the reproductive 
organ at the base of the root be de- 
stroyed, as is often the case when hair 
is pulled out, growth is no longer pos- 
sible. Death of all the papille of the 
head, often caused by poor circulation 
of the blood in the scalp, results in bald- 
ness. Extending from the side of each 
hair follicle to 
the skin  sur- 
face is a slen- 
der bundle of 
= unstriped mus- 
cle, its oblong 
W\GE direction caus- 
—~y ing the hair to 
lie close to the 
head. Empty- 
ing into the 
follicle are se- 
baceous, or oil, 
glands, one or more to each follicle, 
which lubricate and soften the hair. 

Hair is an important article of com- 
merce, sheep’s wool being the most valu- 
able. The hair of camels, goats and 
alpacas is used in combination with cot- 
ton and wool in the manufacture of 
dress fabrics. Hog bristles are used for 
making hair brushes, while the fine 
brushes of painters are made from the 
hair of sable and marten. Hair used 
for making wigs comes largely from 
the heads of European peasants. 


ae) 


all 


Hairworm, a family of threadlike 


animals usually called worms, but scien- 
tifically named Nematodes. They are 
distinguished by their great length and 
are sometimes found in ditches by the 
roadside, where children say that they 
have developed from the horsehairs 
which they greatly resemble. Hair- 
worms, however, generally live as para- 


1256 


HAITI 


sites in the bodies of insects; they re- 
quire a great deal of moisture and when 
this is lacking they dry up and become 
apparently lifeless, though they readily 
revive if moistened. 

Haiti, Ha’ ty, or Hayti, the second 
largest island of the West Indies, lying 
50 m. s.e. of Cuba, from which it is 
separated by the Windward Passage. 
Haiti is nearly 400 m. in length and has 
an area of 29,000 sq. m., or about the 
same as that of South Carolina. The 
island is mountainous, but luxuriant; al- 
most impassable forests cover its rugged- 
ness and make the island one of the most 
beautiful of the group. The chief rivers 
rise in these mountains and form rapidly- 
flowing outlets to the sea. The climate 
is tropical, and in the lowlands it is apt 
to be unhealthful to Europeans. De- 
structive hurricanes are frequent. The 
soil is fertile and yields excellent returns. 
Silver, platinum, tin, antimony, iron and 
rock salt occur on the island, but are not 
mined in great quantity. The chief ex- 
ports are mahogany, logwood, coffee, 
cotton, tobacco, cocoa and sugar. 

Haiti was discovered by Columbus in 
1492, and the town of Santo Domingo 
on its coast was the first permanent white 
settlement of the Western world. It was 
long a Spanish possession of importance 
and was one of the first colonies to 
which negro slaves were brought. The 
French began their settlement there 
about 100 years later, and in 1697 the 
western part of the island passed by 
treaty into the hands of the French. See 
Haiti, REPUBLIC OF; SANTO DoMINGO, 
REPUBLIC OF. 

Haiti, Republic of, a republic occu- 
pying the western portion of the Island 
of Haiti and having an area of 10,750 
sq. m., or slightly greater than that of the 
State of Vermcnt. For the description 
of its physical characteristics, see Harr. 
The republic was a colony of France, but 
after the emancipation of its slaves in 
1793, the state of anarchy which existed 
could not be quelled by French author- 
ity. Toussaint L’Ouverture, an able ne- 
gro, rescued the country from its un- 
fortunate a and became the com- 


HALBERD 


mander of the colony. In 1803 Nae: 
leon carried him to France, but the na- 
tives refused to accept French control 
and became independent in 1804. The 
present constitution dates from 1889. 
The executive is a president elected for 
seven years; the Legislative Assembly 
consists of a Chamber of Communes and 
a Senate. The people are chiefly negroes, 
mulattoes and descendants of the 
French settlers. The prevailing religion 
is the Roman Catholic. Port-au-Prince 
is the capital and is located on a large 
bay, with an excellent harbor. Other 
cities of importance are Cape Haitien, 
Aux Cayes, Gonaives and Port de Paix. 
Population, 2,020,000. 

Hake, a well-known fish of the Cod 
Family, from which boneless shredded 
and smoked cod are frequently prepared. | 
There are six or seven species, all having 
long bodies, one short and one long dor- 
sal fin, a depressed head and a protrud- 
ing lower jaw. The hake feeds close 
to the bottom and devours all kinds of 
small fish and mollusks. Another fish 
of this same’ name has recently been 
separated into a family by itself, the 
Hake Family. Fishes of this class have 
long, small-scaled bodies and tooth-lined 
jaws. They are found in Northern waters 
and as far south as the West Indies. 

Hakluyt, Hak’ loot, Richard (about 
1552-1616), an English geographer and 
historian, educated at Oxford. He was 
the first to teach the use of globes. In 
1582 he published Divers Voyages 
Touching the Discovery of America, 
which was later supplemented chiefly by 
The Principal Navigations, Voyages and 
Discoveries of the English Nation, a 
work greatly valued by mariners. In 
1589 he was appointed by Raleigh a 
member of the company formed for fur- 
thering the colonization of America. 

Hal’berd, or Hal’bert, a weapon of 
warfare combining spear and battle-ax. 
The halberd was first used in Scandi- 
navia and Germany and was brought 
into use in France in 1420 by the Swiss. 
The shaft varies in length from five to six 
feet. The head is an ax blade balanced 
by a pick with a pike head. It was in 


1257 


HALCYON 


common use in the fifteenth and six- 
teenth centuries by foot and artillery, 
called halberdiers, and at the present 
time is frequently seen on ceremonial 
occasions. 

Halcyon, 
FISIIER. 

Halcyone, Hal si’'o ne, daughter of 
fEolus, was the devoted wife of King 
Ceyx, of Thessaly, who was so distressed 
by the fearful prodigies following the 
death of his brother that he determined 
to consult the Ionian oracle of Apollo. 
Halcyone frantically begged him either 
not to expose his life to the wild sea 
voyage, or to take her with him. Ceyx 
calmed her as best he could and, vowing 
to return in two months, set sail. Shortly 
afterward he was drowned in the A“gean 
Sea. Meanwhile Halcyone prayed so 
earnestly for her husband’s return that 
Juno, moved to pity, had Morpheus dele- 
gated to impersonate the dead Ceyx, and, 
by appearing to her while she slept, ac- 
quaint the Queen with her husband’s 
fate. On awakening from what she knew 
was a divine vision, Halcyone: rushed 
to the seashore where she had bid Ceyx 
farewell. Seeing a dark object floating 
toward her on the waters, she miracu- 
lously flew toward it. It was her hus- 
band’s body, which, incredibly, flew to 
meet her; both had that instant been 
changed into the birds which are now 
called kingfisher. 

For seven days in winter Halcyone 
sits over her floating nest on the waters, 
while AZolus guards the winds and pre- 
serves calm for her. Hence comes our 
expression, halcyon days. 

Hale, Edward Everett (1822-1909), 
clergyman, philanthropist and author, 
born in Boston, and educated in the Bos- 
ton Latin School and Harvard Univer- 
sity, where he graduated in 1839. From 
1846 to 1856 he was pastor of the Uni- 
tarian Church at Worcester, Mass. He 
removed to Boston in 1856 and became 
pastor of the South Congregational 
Church in that city, continuing in the 
pastorate for 45 years. During these 
years he also did editorial work on the 
Daily Advertiser, Boston; revived the 


Hal’ si un. See _ KINc- 


HALF-BREEDS 


New England Magazine; founded and 
for a long time edited the Christian Ex- 
aminer; also a magazine called The Old 
and the New, which was afterwards 
merged with Scribner's Monthly. In 
1903 he was chaplain of the United 
States Senate. Dr. Hale wrote -many 
stories, some of them exceedingly real- 
istic, as for example, The Man Without 
a Country. His book, Ten Times One 
Is Ten, led to the organization of the 
Helping Hand Society, and numerous 


other organizations of like nature. 


Hale, Nathan (1756-1776), an Amer- 
ican soldier and patriot of Revolutionary 
fame, born at Coventry, Conn. He grad- 
uated from Yale in 1773, and enlisted 
in the army at the opening of the Revo- 
lution. He commanded a company un- 
der Colonel Webb and was given recruit- 
ing duty in New York. He took part in 
the Battle of Long Island, and at the 
call of Washington, volunteered to enter 
the English lines as a spy. Just as he 
was returning to American headquarters 
he was caught, and on the morning of 


‘Sept. 22, 1776, was executed by“ order 


of Howe, in New York City. His last 
words were: “I only regret that I have 
but one life to lose for my country.” 
Hale’s grave is unmarked; but memorial 
statues have been erected to him in Hart- 
ford, Conn., and in City Hall Park, New 
York. 

Halévy, Al’a"ve', Ludovic (1834- 
1908), a French dramatist, born in Paris. 
Together with Henri Meilhac he pro- 
duced several sparkling farces, comedies 
and sketches; their greatest success was 
the sensational drama, Frou-Frou. Work- 
ing independently, Halévy wrote chiefly 
satiric novels and idyllic sketches. His 
L’Abbé Constantin was enthusiastically 
received. He also produced M. et Mme. 
Cardinal, Criquette and Les Petites Car- 
dinal. 

Half-Breeds, the members of the fac- 
tion of the Republican Party in New 
York in 1881 and thereafter who favored — 
civil service reform, opposed the regular — 
Republican machine and supported Presi- 
dent Garfield in his controversy with 
Senator Conkling and Senator Platt. 


1258 


HALF TONE 


Their opponents, called Stalwarts, sided 
with Conkling and Platt, and in 1880 
persistently advocated a third term for 
Grant. 

Half Tone, a process by which en- 
gravings, wash drawings and _ photo- 
graphs are reproduced on metal plates 
and made ready for printing. The fun- 
damental principle of the half tone is 
the diamond-ruled screen introduced into 
this country by Max Levy. The proc- 
ess consists of taking a photographic 
negative of the drawing to be repro- 
duced, made through this screen, which 
has been prepared as follows. A plate 
of the finest sheet glass is coated with 
a varnish of asphalt and wax, which is 
placed on a bed of an automatic ruling 
machine capable of making lines to a 
fineness of 500 to an inch. The cutter 
is a diantond-pointed graver and is 
gauged to cut any desired width. The 
lines are cut through the coating into 
the glass diagonally at an angle of 45°, 
the number depending upon the char- 
acter of the plate desired, whether for 
fine book work or for coarse printing. 
The plate is then treated with hydro- 
fluoric acid, which eats or bites into the 
exposed lines. Afterwards, these lines 
are filled with an opaque pigment, and 
the plate is baked in an oven, which 
hardens the pigment. The plate is then 
cleaned and polished smooth, leaving the 
clear glass transparent. Two of these 
plates identically ruled and prepared are 
now cemented together with Canada bal- 
sam, being so placed that the lines of 
each cross at right angles, forming dia- 
mond shapes. 

This screen is placed in the camera 
in front of the sensitive plate, and the 
image is broken into dots, whereby the 
light and shade of the original is re- 
produced, the dots being so fine as to 
be unrecognizable. A sensitized plate of 
copper is exposed under the hailf-tone 
negative and is given a cold-water bath, 
and the portions not printed on are 
washed out. The picture reproduced on 
this plate is hardened and then etched 
afterwards, mounted on wood type-high 
for printing. The sensitized solution con- 


HALIBURTON 


sists of a compound of fish glue, albumen, 
chromic acid, bichromate of ammonia 
and water, and this is flowed over the 
plate a number of times or spread by 
having the plate rapidly revolved in a 
machine made for the purpose, so that 
the sensitized solution may be evenly 
distributed. When it is required to re- 
produce drawings, they should be made 
two or three times larger than the print 
desired, because in reducing their size 
in the camea the lines come out with 
more distinctness in the half tone than 
if made originally the same size. 

A process known as stagmatophy has 
recently been devised that does away 
with the ruled screen and produces a 
picture free from the dotted or lined 
appearance common to most half tones. 
In this process a plate of copper or zinc 
is coated with a gum-gelatin emulsion, 
made sensitive to light by the addition 
of potassium bichromate. The emulsion 
is made by mixing solutions of gum 
arabic and gelatin. The gum arabic does 
not dissolve in the gelatin, but is distrib- 
uted through the solution in minute glob- 
ules, which come to rest at approxi- 
mately equal distances from each other. 
The dry plate is exposed under an ordi- 
nary negative and etched at once. The 
globules of gum arabic form the neces- 
sary granulation for the half tone, and 
by this process it is claimed that a much 
more satisfactory picture can be obtained 
than by the ordinary method. See 
PHOTOGRAVURE; ETCHING. 

Hal’ibur’ton, —Thomas Chandler 
(1796-1865), a British-American humor- 
ist, who wrote under the pen name of 
Sam Slick. He was born at Windsor, 
Nova Scotia, and attended King’s College 
in his native town. Called to the bar in 
1820, he became judge of the Common 
Pleas in 1828 and judge of the Supreme 
Court in 1842. On his retirement from 
the bench in 1856 he removed to Eng- 
land, entering Parliament as a Conserva- 
tive in 1859. Haliburton is best known 
as the creator of Sam Slick, who appears 
in a series of newspaper sketches (1837, 
1838, 1840) as a Yankee clock maker 
and peddler. The drollery, knowledge 


1259 


HALIBUT 


of human nature and originality of this 
character have made the sketches widely 
popular. Among Haliburton’s other 
works are Wise Saws and Modern In- 
stances, Bubbles of Canada, Rule and 
Misrule of the English in America and 
An Historical and Statistical Account of 
Nova Scotia, 

Hal’ibut, a large food fish of the 
Flounder, or Flatfish, Family, abundant 
in northern regions of both the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans. Like all flatfish, it 
has a peculiar twisting of the cranium 
by which both eyes are upon the same 
side of its head. It has a single, pointed 
dorsal fin and a single anal fin, reach- 
ing almost to the caudal fin. The flesh 
is highly prized, and to supply the mar- 
ket, halibut is taken in large quantities 
on both coasts of America. Individuals 


HALIBUT 


weighing 400 Ib. have been caught, but 
such size is extremely uncommon; the 
average weight of males is from 30 to 50 
Ib. and of the females somewhat more. 
Catching and shipping halibut is an im- 
portant industry. See FisH Commis- 
SION, UNITED STATES; FISHERIES, 
Hal’ifax, a city of Canada, the cap- 
ital and metropolis of Nova Scotia, is 
situated on a peninsular point, lying be- 
tween Halifax Harbor and the North 
West Arm, also on the Intercolonial, Ca- 
nadian Pacific and other railroads. The 


harbor, one of the finest in the world, 


and protected by 11 forts and batteries, 
terminates in Bedford Basin, which pos- 
sesses ten square miles of anchorage for 
large seagoing vessels; and the extensive 
steamship connection with the United 
States, British and West Indian ports 
makes Halifax one of the chief Atlantic 
seaports of Canada. The city is built 
around the base of and on the sloping 


HALL 

sides of a hill, which is crowned by a 
citadel, and along the shores of the North 
West Arm are the summer homes of the 
wealthier citizens. Point Pleasant Park 
is used for both military and pleasure 
purposes. The public gardens, cover- 
ing 17 acres, are the most beautiful, ac- 
cording to their size, in America. Build- 
ings of note include the government 
house, Dominion Building, custom-house, 
postoffice, the Melville Island Military 
Prison, the armories, the state home, St. 
Luke’s and the Roman Catholic cathe- 
drals and St. Paul’s Church, the school 
for the blind, the school for deaf and 
dumb and the conservatory of music. 

The chief industries are fisheries, com- 
merce and manufacturing. The manu- 
factories include sugar refineries, facto- 
ries for the making of furniture and 
other articles of wood, a skate factory 
and cordage works. 

Halifax was founded in 1749 as a mili- 
tary colony, with Edward Cornwallis as 
governor, and was named in honor of the 
Earl of Halifax. Edward, Duke of Kent, 
father of Queen Victoria, was stationed 
here four years at the head of the gar- 
rison. Population in 1911, 46,619. 

Hall, Asaph (1829-1907), an Amer- 
ican astronomer, born in Goshen, Conn., 
and educated at Central College, New 
York, and at the University of Michigan. 
He was assistant in the observatory at 
Harvard, and aide in the United States 
Naval Observatory at Washington, 
where he was later professor of mathe- 
matics. In 1895 he became professor of 
astronomy at Harvard. His greatest dis- 
covery was that of the two moons of 
Mars, and his most valuable work deals 
with the double stars. 

Hall, Granville Stanley (1846- }; 
an American educator and psychologist, 
born at Ashfield, Mass., and educated at 
Williams College and at Berlin, Bonn, 
Heidelberg and Leipsic. He was pro- 
fessor of psychology in Antioch College, 
1872-76, and lecturer on psychology at 
Harvard and Williams, 1880-81. In 
1888 he became professor of psychology - 
in the newly-founded Clark University at 
Worcester, Mass., and president of that 


1260 


a 


HALLAM 


institution. He is an eminent authority 
in his field, He is a frequent contributor 
to educational magazines and is editor 
of the Pedagogical Seminary and the 
American Journal of Psychology. His 
greatest work, Adolescence, is an ex- 
haustive and authentic treatment of this 
subject. | 

Hal’lam, Henry (1777-1859), an Eng- 
lish historian and critic, born in Wind- 
sor. After graduating at Oxford and 
studying law at the Inner Temple, he 
became a barrister and practiced until 
1812, when he retired and devoted him- 
self to literary and historical work. He 
was a Whig, but took a general rather 
than a partisan interest in politics. His 
studies are analytical, lucid and unsur- 
passed in accuracy and detail. They in- 
clude contributions to the Edinburgh 
Review, The Constitutional History of 
England from the Accession of Henry 
VII to the Death of George II and In- 
troduction to the Literature of Europe 
im the Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seven- 
teenth Centuries. His son, Arthur 
Henry Hallam, became an essayist of 
note, and his name has been made mem- 


_orable by reason of its connection with 


ny 


Tennyson’s In Memoriam. 

Hal’leck, Fitz-Greene (1790-1867), an 
American poet, born at Guilford, Conn. 
After serving as clerk in a New York 
bank for 20 years, he became the confi- 
dential agent of John Jacob Astor and 
was one of the original trustees of the 
Astor Library in New York. In 1819 
he began to contribute the humorous 
series of “Croaker Papers” to the New 
York Evening Post. He was associated 
with Joseph Rodman Drake until the 
time of Drake’s death, which event oc- 
casioned one of Halleck’s best-known 


and most beautiful poems, the one be- . 
ginning “Green be the turf above thee.” 


He also wrote satiric political and social 
verse, the longest and most popular be- 
ing Fanny. After his visit to Europe in 
1822-23, he published a slender volume 
which includes practically all of his con- 
tributions of genuine lyric poems. 
Among them are Alnwick Castle, Burns 
and Marco Bogzaris. 


HALL OF FAME 


Halleck, Henry Wager (1815-1872), 
an American soldier, born in Western- 
ville, N. Y., and educated at West Point. 
In 1845 he visited the military establish- 
ments of Europe, and, upon his return, 
delivered in Boston a course of lectures 
on the science of war, which later ap- / 
peared in book form under the title Ele- 
ments of Military Art and Science, He 
participated in the Mexican War, but in 
1854 he left the army, becoming a law- 
yer and director of a mining company 
in San Francisco. At the opening’ of 
the Civil War he was created major- 
general in the regular army, and shortly 
succeeded Fremont in command of the 
Western Department. Following vic- 
tories at Paducah, Ft. Henry and Ft. 
Donelson and at Corinth, he became, in 
July, 1862, commander-in-chief. This 
post he held until superseded by General 
Grant in 1864, when he was appointed 
chief of staff of the army, remaining 
such until April, 1865. Halleck pub- 


lished several military and_ scientific 
treatises. 
Halley, Edmund (1656-1742), an 


English astronomer and mathematician, 
born in London, England. He studied 
at St. Paul’s School and at Queen’s Col- 
lege, Oxford. After leaving college he 
soon became. interested’ in astronomy, 
going to St. Helena in 1676 for the 
purpose of making a catalogue of the 
stars of the southern heavens. In 1680 
he made the careful observations of the 
comet that bears his name, and which 
formed so important a part of the basis 
of Newton’s calculations. Halley was 
the’ first astronomer who ever foretold 
the return of a comet. 

Hall of Fame, a memorial building 
in New York City whose erection was 
made possible by a gift to the New 
York University of $10,000 to be used 
for that purpose. The building stands 
upon University Heights overlooking 
the Hudson, and contains 150 panels 
which are to be inscribed with the names 
of native Americans of note. Only 
those are admitted who have been dead 
for ten years and whose names have 
been selected by a committee of 100 


1261 


HALLOWEEN 


eminent authorities representing every 
state of the Union. After the last selec- 
tion 58 names had been chosen, includ- 
ing Washington, Lincoln, Emerson, 
Fulton, Farragut, Lee, Grant, Audubon, 
Channing, Harriet Beecher Stowe and 
Frances Willard. 

Hal’”loween’, or Hallow-Even, the 
evening of the 3lst of October, which 
is the eve of All-Hallows, or All-Saints 
Day, Nov. 1. This was originally a 
pagan celebration, when, in thanksgiv- 
ing for the harvest, the Druids of Eng- 
land held their great autumn festival. 
In their celebration they lighted fires in 
honor of the sun god; and, in the High- 
lands of Scotland and Wales, where the 
Celts for centuries survived the inva- 
sions of other races, the lighting of bon- 
fires long remained a feature of the 
festivities. In Ireland, the celebration 
has also retained traces of its early Cel- 
tic origin and is known as the “Vigil 
of Saman,” the lord of death, who was 
supposed to assemble on this occasion 
those wicked souls which, during the 
preceding year, had been condemned to 
inhabit the bodies of animals. To these 
Celtic features were added, in early 
Christian times, others characteristic of 
the Roman festival in honor of Pomona, 
and thus nuts and apples, typical of na- 
ture’s bounty, came to play an important 
part in various rites. See Brand’s An- 
tiquities of Great Britain. 

Ha’lo, a general term used to desig- 
nate a variety of luminous appearances 
in the sky. Halos appear to be rings 
about the sun or moon, and are believed 
to be due to diffraction or scattering, 
by particles of moisture, of the light in 
the atmosphere. The halo around the 
moon is thought to be due to refraction 
of the light. These halos are commonly 
called coronas. Sun halos seen in the 
Arctic regions are due to the refraction 
of light by the ice crystals of cirrus 
clouds. These halos sometimes have the 
appearance of circles within circles in- 
tersected by vertical or horizontal lines 
of light. At the points of intersection, 
bright spots appear, which are called 
mock suns or sun dogs. 


HAMBURG 


Hals, Hahis, Frans (about 1584- 
1666), a famous Dutch painter of por- 
traits and scenes of everyday life, next 
to Rembrandt, the greatest of his school. 
He was born at Antwerp, where he 
studied under Karel van Mander. He 
has been called the father of Dutch 
genre, or scenes of everyday life, and 
was one of the greatest portrait painters 
that ever lived. Among his chief works 
in the former class are Jolly Trio, Fool 
Playing a Lute, The Bohemian Girl and 
the famous Hille Bobbe. His greatest 
portraits include Nicholas ‘Berensteyn 
and His Wife; Girl of the Berensteyn 
Family; Wiliam van Heythuysen (Vi- 
enna), by some considered his master- 
piece; and Descartes; besides numerous 
singing boys and lute players. In the 
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New 
York, and the Art Institute of Chicago 
are examples of his portraits. In 
breadth and boldness of execution he 
has never been surpassed by any other 
master. 

Ham/burg, a seaport of Germany, 
capital of the State of Hamburg, 
situated on the right bank of the Elbe 
River, 63 m. from the North Sea and 
178 m. by rail n.w. of Berlin. The State 
of Hamburg, which includes the city 
with its suburbs, as. well as several is- 
lands and surrounding communes, em- 
braces a territory of 160 sq. m. The 
city is the foremost seaport of the 
European Continent and the third larg- 
est port in the world. The older por- 
tion lies to the east of the Alster, 
extending over a low plain and crossed 
by several canals which serve as pictur- 
esque and convenient thoroughfares. 
To the west are the Neustadt and the 
suburbs of Altona and St. Pauli. St. 
Georg lies to the northeast. 

The Jungfernstieg is the principal 
commercial street. Among the promi- 
nent buildings are the churches of St. 
Nicholas, St. Michael and St. Catherine, 
the Rathaus, the Exchange, the build- 
ings of the German Meteorological Sta- 
tion, the Stadt-Theater, the new Su- 
preme Court, the public art gallery, the 
Natural History Museum and the hospi- 


1262 


HAMILTON 


tal at Eppendorf (one of the finest of 
the kind in Europe). As a shipping cen- 
ter, Hamburg is of great importance, 
partly because of its geographical posi- 
tion and also because of the complete 
dock and harbor facilities, the harbor 
being one of the impressive sights of the 
world. Hamburg is one of the largest 
emigration ports of Germany, and ranks 
among the foremost cities in money- 
exchange transactions. It is the great- 
est Continental market for coffee, and 
its other imports include coal, cotton, 
foodstuffs and raw materials. The in- 
dustries are shipbuilding, cigar making, 
brewing, spirit and sugar refining, meat 
curing, coffee roasting, flour milling 
and the manufacture of chocolate, ivory, 
celluloid, leather, furniture, musical in- 
struments and mechanical and optical 
apparatus. 

Hamburg was founded by Charle- 
magne in 808. By its treaties with 
Lubeck arid Bremen, in 1241 and 1249, 
the Hanseatic League was formed. In 
1810 it became a part of the French 
Empire and suffered commercially from 
Napoleon’s Continental System. It en- 
tered the German Confederation in 1815 
and became a part of the German Em- 
pire in 1871. The population of the 
State of Hamburg, exclusive of the city, 
was, in 1905, 72,085. Population of the 
city alone, 802,793. 

Hamilton, a city of Canada, capital 
of Wentworth Co., Ontario, situated 
on the shore of Burlington Bay, at the 
head of Lake Ontario. The city is a 
regular port of call for all the steam- 
ship lines operating from Montreal to 
the head of Lake Superior. Besides 
being the center of a complete electric- 
railway system, it has direct connection 
with the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian 
National, the Toronto, Hamilton & Buf- 
falo, the Michigan Central and the New 
York Central railroads. 

Hamilton is situated in a rich fruit and 
agricultural district. The city has an un- 
limited amount of electric power, sup- 
plied by two large companies, at Decew 
Falls and at Niagara Falls. The attrac- 
tiveness of the city, which is renowned 


HAMILTON 


for its beautiful homes, is enhanced by 
its parks, driveways and _ recreation 
grounds. The mountain driveway af- 
fords a delightful view of the city and 
surroundings. _ Opportunity for recrea- 
tion is provided by Dundurn, Harvey, 
Gore, Victoria and North Shore parks, 
golf links, Burlington Beach and the 
Hamilton Athletic Association. 

The noteworthy buildings include the 
custom-house, city hall, post office, nor- 
mal school, a public library and Col- 
legiate Institute. The city is an excellent 
place for the location of factories, and 
considerable United States capital is 
invested in industrial pursuits. Because 
of its diversified industries, numbering 
about 500, Hamilton has become known 
as the “Birmingham of Canada.” It has 
the largest plow and implement works 
in the British Empire, and is the center 
for Canada of the steel and iron indus- 
try as well as the textile, agricultural im- 
plements and wire industries. 

The city has 83 churches, 33 banks, 51 
schools (public, private and technical), 5 
hospitals, and 3 public libraries. The 
annual outward merchandise tonnage of 
its harbor is second to the ocean port of 
Montreal. 


Hamilton, Alexander (1757-1804), an 
eminent American statesman, born in 
Nevis, an island of the West Indies. His 
marked abilities early attracted the notice 
of friends, and at the age of 15 he was 
sent to Elizabethown, N. J., to prepare 
for college. A year later he entered Co- 
lumbia College, and was soon writing 
such able letters on colonial issues that 
they were attributed to John Jay. At the 
beginning of the Revolution he became 
captain of artillery, and fought so ef- 
ficiently that Washington gave him a 
place on his staff in 1777 and utilized 
his services as friend and adviser as 
well as aid-de-camp. 

Soon after the Battle of Yorktown, 
where he led a storming party, he left 
the army and began to study law in 
New York. He was there admitted to 
the bar and soon attained eminence in 
his profession, He served in Congress 


1263 


HAMILTON 


in 1782-83, and took an important part 


in the Constitutional Convention of 
1787, where he urged a much stronger 
centralized government than was finally 
incorporated in the Constitution. He 
accepted the Constitution as submitted, 
however, and worked enthusiastically to 
secure its adoption by the states, accom- 
plishing this end in the Legislature of 
New York almost single-handed against 
great odds. His famous articles'in The 
Federalist had marked influence in 
turning the popular mind in favor of 
the Constitution. 

Upon the organization of the new 
government Washington made Hamil- 
ton secretary of the treasury, and it is 
not too much to say that in this capacity 
he not only saved the credit of the na- 
tion, but also laid the foundations of 
our national financial policy. In 1795 
Hamilton resigned from the cabinet be- 
cause of serious differences with Jeffer- 
son, who was also a member, and re- 
sumed his law practice in New York. He 
still remained the real leader of the Fed- 
eralists, however, advising with Wash- 
ington, writing the noted “Camillus” 
letters in defense of the Jay Treaty, and 
influencing the course of public opin- 
ion. Personal and political animosities 
led to a challenge to a duel by Aaron 
Burr, which was accepted, according to 
the customs of the times, and Hamilton 
was mortally wounded, dying the next 
day. Hamilton’s reputation has in- 
creased with the passing years, and he 
is now regarded as one of the most bril- 
liant statesmen America has produced. 

Hamilton, Gail. See Dopcre, Mary 
ABIGAIL, 

Hamilton, Ohio, a city and county 
seat of Butler Co., 25 m. n. of Cincin- 
nati and 32 m. s.w. of Dayton, on both 
banks of the Great Miami River, on the 
Miami & Erie Canal and on the Cincin- 
nati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Erie, the 
Pennsylvania, the Louisville, Cincinnati 
& Dayton, the Grand Rapids & Indiana 
and other railroads. The Ohio Electric 
and Millcreek Valley interurban lines 
give excellent service to Cincinnati, Day- 
ton and Toledo and many other towns 


1264 


HAMILTON 


and cities. The water power derived 
from both the river and hydraulic canal 
has aided the city’s development. 

The streets of the city are well paved 
and shaded and there are many hand- 
some residences. There are _ several 
parks, including Ludlow Park, . First 
Ward Park, Lindenwald Park and the 
new River Front Park. The site of 
Old Ft. Hamilton, founded in 1791 by 
General St. Clair, is marked by the Sol- 
diers’ and Sailors’ Monument. Camp- 
bell Avenue is an extensive boulevard. 

Among the most prominent public 
buildings are the county courthouse, 
Federal Building, Rentschler Building, 
a number of banks, new Hamilton 
Y. M. C. A. Building and a number of 
churches of handsome architectural de- 
sign. The educational institutions in- 
clude a high school, public and parochiai — 
schools and the Lane Free Library. 
Among the charitable institutions, are 
the Mercy Hospital, Children’s Home 
and Butler County Infirmary. 

Among the leading industrial estab- 
lishments are extensive paper and 
paper-pulp mills, iron foundries, woolen 
mills, railway-tool works,: bank-vault — 
and fireproof-safe works, Corliss-engine 
works, breweries and manufactories of — 
power punching and shearing machin- 
ery, agricultural machinery, paper and 
pulp-mill machinery, sugar-mill and 
plate-glass machinery, computing scales, 
stoves, woodworking machinery, car- 
riages, harness and upholstery leather, 
ornamental wire, steel and _ bronze ~ 
goods, railway frogs and switches, type- 
writer ribbons, sanitary appliances, knit 
goods, motor cars, steel letter files, car- 
bon paper and flour. There is also con- 
siderable trade in tobacco, grain, — 
vegetables and farm and dairy products. 

The first settlement was made in 1/91 — 
when Gen, Arthur St. Clair built a fort 
and named it Ft. Hamilton in honor of 
Alexander Hamilton. Gen. Anthony 
Wayne launched from this fort his suc- 
cessful campaign against the Miamis 
that broke the Indian power and opened 
the Northwest Territory to settlement. — 
The fort was abandoned in 1796 and the 


> 

at 

Ls 

. 
. “i 
» 


HAMILTON 


village that sprang up about it was in- 
corporated as a town in 1810. In 1854 
Rossville, on the opposite side of the 
river, was annexed, and in 1857 a city 
charter was cranted. Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 39,675. 

Hamilton, Sir William (1788-1856), 

a Scottish theologian and philosopher, 
born in Glasgow. After gaining dis- 
tinction as a student at Glasgow he went 
to Oxford, where he took first honors. 
In 1813 he was admitted to the Scottish 
bar. Turning his attention to literature 
and philosophy, he was appointed pro- 
fessor of history at the University of 
Edinburgh in 1821, and in 1836 became 
professor of logic and metaphysics in 
the same institution. In 1844 he was 
stricken with paralysis, but continued to 
do his work, with the aid of an assist- 
ant, until his death. 
Hamilton was an exponent of the 
“common sense” school of Scottish phi- 
losophy. He accepted a natural realism, 
maintaining that we are directly con- 
scious of external objects. In his doc- 
trine that the unconditioned cannot be 
known and that God is an object of 
faith, not of knowledge, he closely ap- 
proached the position of Kant. He was 
for many years a regular contributor to 
the Edinburgh Review. In 1852 he 
edited these contributions with. addi- 
tions, under the title Discussions in Phi- 
losophy and Literature, Education, and 
University Reform. After his death 
was published his Lectures on Meta- 
physics and Logic. 

Ham/ites, a race in northern Africa, 
the supposed descendants of Ham. The 
Copts, Somalis, Nubians, Berbers, Abys- 
sinians and Guanches belong to the 
class. The dialects are, the Libyan 
(known as Berber), the Cushitic, or 
Ethiopian, and the ancient Egyptian. The 
northern Hamites reached a compara- 
tively high state of civilization. The east- 
ern Hamites -are pastoral and nomadic 
tribes. 

Ham/lin, Hannibal (1809-1891), 
vice-president of the United States, born 
in Paris Hill, Me. He was admitted to 
the bar in 1833. He served in the State 


HAMPDEN 


Legislature in 1836-40 and in 1847; in 
the lower branch of Congress in 1843- 
47; and in the Senate in 1848-56, the 
latter year being elected governor of 
Maine. He joined the Republican 
Party, which he had helped to organize. 
In 1860 he was elected vice-president of 
the United States on the ticket with 
Lincoln. He was again United States 
senator from 1869 to 1881, when he be- 
came minister to Spain, serving for two: 
years. 

Ham/’/mond, Ind., a city of Lake Co., 
18 m. s.e. of Chicago’s business center, 
on the Grand Calumet River and on the 
Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Michi- 
gan Central, the Pennsylvania, the Wa- 
bash and other railroads. As far as its 
industries are concerned Hammond is 
a part of Chicago. It has> extensive 
slaughtering and packing houses, iron 
and steel works, a piano factory, wagon 
and carriage factories, printing plants, 
flour and starch mills, book binderies, 


glue. works, _brickyards, _ tanner- 
ies, foundries, chemical works, a_ nail 
plant and steel-spring works. Ham- 


mond was settled in 1868 and named in 
honor of Abram A. Hammond, acting 
governor of Indiana in 1860-61. It re- 
ceived a city charter in 1883. Popula- 
tion in 1920, U. S. Census, 36,004. 
Hampden, Ham'den, John (1594- 
1643), an English stateman famous for 
his refusal to be taxed by royal prerog- 
ative. He was educated at Oxford and 
Aeshusat in -Parhament) ini l6Zie wile 
drew the attention of the whole nation 
upon him when he refused to pay the 
demand of Charles I for ship money. 
This was a tax originally limited to 
London and the maritime towns, but 
which in 1635 was extended to the in- 
land counties by Charles. In 1637 
Hampden was prosecuted for nonpay- 
ment. Although seven of the twelve 
judges voted against him, the people 
had formed their own opinion in his 
favor. He sat in the Short and Long 
Parliaments, and was one of the five 


-members sought by Charles when he 


tried to intimidate Parliament. After 
the Civil War began he was placed in 


1265 


HAMPTON 


command of a Parliamentary regiment. 
He was wounded on Chalgrove Field 
in 1643 and died a few days later. 

Hamp’ton, Wade (1818-1902), an 
American soldier and statesman, born 
at Columbia, S. C. He graduated from 
the University of South Carolina, stud- 
ied law, and then gave his attention to 
his great estates. He served for a time 
in both branches of the South Carolina 
Legislature. When the Civil War broke 
out he enlisted in the Confederate 
army, raising and equipping the famous 
“Hampton’s Legion.” During the war 
Hampton rose to the rank of lieutenant- 
general, serving with Lee and Johnston, 
and becoming commander-in-chief of 
the Confederate cavalry. After the war 
he exerted his influence to secure loyalty 
te the Union. In 1876 he was elected 
governor of his state; in 1879 he entered 
the United States Senate, where he 
served with great ability until 1891; and 
two years later he was appointed United 
States commissioner of railroads. 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural 
Institute, Hampton, Va. (18608). This 
is a coeducational school, established 
under the auspices of the American 
Missionary Association, by Gen. S. C. 
Armstrong, who became its first super- 
intendent. The General Assembly 
granted a charter in 1870, and five years 
later gave the school one-third of Vir- 
ginia’s share in the Federal land grant 
for the support of agricultural and 
mechanical instruction. Many Indian 
pupils, chiefly from the Sioux tribe, 
have also been enrolled here since 1878. 
The most eminent of its many gradu- 
ates is Booker T. Washington, the 
founder of Tuskegee Institute. The 
institution has 1160 acres in its farm, 
27,000 volumes in its library, a faculty 
of 54 men and 58 women, about 1400 
students, and assets amounting to over 
$3,470,300. See WASHINGTON, BOOKER 
TALIAFERRO; TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND 
INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE. 

Hampton Roads, Battle of, a naval 
battle between the Federal ironclad war- 
ship Monitor and the Confederate iron- 
clad Merrimac, fought in Hampton 


HAMPTON ROADS CONFERENCE 


Roads March 9, 1862. On the previous 
day the Federal frigate Congress, the 
sloop Cumberland, the frigates Minne- 
sota and Roanoke, with the ship St. 
Lawrence, were attacked by the Confed- 
erate ironclad Virginia, but more popu- 
larly known as the Merrimac, whose 
armor rendered it invulnerable to the 
shot from the Federal ships. Within a 
short time after beginning the attack the 
Merrimac had sunk the Cumberland and 
disabled the Congress. During the night 
the Momitor, an ironclad ship constructed 
on an entirely different pattern, arrived, 
and on the morning of the ninth the 
contest began and lasted several hours. 
While to outward appearances neither 


ZN Norlalk. 


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Portsmouth 
ae Yardy 


ys 
NS 


HAMPTON ROADS 


ship was seriously injured, the Merri- 
mac withdrew, and some days later was 
sunk by the Confederate naval authori- 
ties. This was one of the most spectac- 
ular conflicts of the war, and also one 
of the most far-reaching in its influence, 
since it revolutionized naval construc- 
tion; all nations began to build ironclad 
warships. See Monitor, THE. 
Hampton Roads Conference, an in- 
formal conference held Feb. 3, 1865, 
with reference to the arrangement of a 
peace between the North and South. 
The meeting, which lasted four hours, 
took place on board the River Queen 
near Fortress Monroe, toward the close 
of the Civil War. President Lincoln 
and Secretary of State Seward repre: 


1266 


HANCOCK 


sented the United States Government, 
and Vice-President Stephens, Senator 
R. M. T. Hunter and Assistant Secre- 
tary of War John A. Campbell, the Con- 
federate States. The originator of this 
conference was Francis P. Blair. The 
representatives failed to agree on the 
most important points at issue and the 
conference failed of accomplishing its 
purpose. 

Han’cock, John (1737-1793), an 
American Revolutionary statesman, 
born in Braintree, Mass. He inherited 
a large fortune from his uncle. From 
1766 to 1772 he serve@iin the Massachu- 
setts Legislature, where he advocated 
the cause of the colonists. After the 
Boston Massacre he was one of the com- 
missioners who demanded the with- 
drawal of the British troops from the 
city. He was elected to the Provincial 
Congress in 1774. It was his arrest and 
that of Samuel Adams that the British 
were attempting in their expedition to 
Concord in April (1775), which resulted 
im the Battle of Lexington. 

From 1775 to 1780 Hancock repre- 
sented Massachusetts in the Continental 
Congress, being president of that body 
from 1775 to 1777; and in that capacity 
he was the first signer of the Declara- 
tion of Independence. He served as 
major-general in the Revolutionary 
War, and was most liberal in the use of 
his fortune for the patriot cause. He 
was the first governor of Massachusetts 
as a state, which office he held from 
1780 until his death, except in 1785-86, 
when he was again a member of the 
Continental Congress. Hancock was a 
man of pleasing address, excellent edu- 
cation, firmness of character and unques- 
tioned patriotism. ) 

Hancock, Mich., a city in Houghton 
Co., opposite Houghton on Lake Por- 
tage, and on the Duluth, South Shore & 
Atiantic and other railroads; and on a 
ship canal communicating with Lake 
Superior. Hancock is situated in the 
Lake Superior copper belt and has valu- 
able copper mines, smelting works, ma- 
chine shops, foundries, stamp mills, 
lumber mills and brickyards. Notable 


- HAND BALL 


features of the town are a Finnish col- 
lege and a public park. Settled in 1859, 
Hancock was incorporated in 1863 and 
ig governed under a charter of 1895. 
Population in 1920, 7,527. 

Hancock, Winfield Scott (1824-1886), 
an American soldier, born in Pennsyl- 
vania and educated at West Point. He 
participated in the war with Mexico, 
and became quartermaster of his regi- 
ment. In 1861 he was made brigadier- 
general of volunteers, with command of 
a brigade in the Army of the Potomac. 
He distinguished himself at Williams- 
burg, Antietam, Fredericksburg and 
Gettysburg, where he was_ severely 
wounded, and was prominent in the 
campaign of the Army of the Potomac 
of 1864-65. In 1866 he was appointed 
major-general in the regular army, and 
in 1867 superintended reconstruction in 
Louisiana and Texas. In 1880 he was 
Democratic candidate for presidency. 
Grant considered Hancock the most 
conspicuous general officer who did not 
hold a separate command in the Civil 


art 

Hand Ball, an Irish and an Amer- 
ican sport similar to the English game 
of Fives. It is played indoors by two 
or four persons on a well-floored court 
measuring about 60 by 24% ft., and en- 
closed, save at one end, by walls ap- 
proximately 35 ft. high., The floor 
should be of wood and the front wall 
of brick, faced with marble, while the 
side walls may be of cement. A service 
line is drawn parallel to the front wall 
through the middle of the court. A 
single rubber ball is used, which in Ire- 
land is called a red ace or a black ace, 
according to its color. The striker, 
standing in front of the service line, 
bounces the ball upon the floor and then 
with his hand endeavors to strike it 
against the front wall. If it strikes 
either side wall before hitting the front, 
or rebounds either within the service 
line or behind the court, he tries a sec- 
ond time.. If he again fails to put it 
into the player’s territory, that is, be- 
tween the 30- and the 60-foot lines, it 
is a hand-out and the players change 


1267 


HANDEL 


places. If the ball is properly served 
by the striker, and his opponent, the 
player, fails to strike it before it hits 
the floor or on the first bound, back 
against the front wall, the striker scores 
one point. The game is usually for 21 
points, but rules vary somewhat. Hand 
ball is one of the favorite games of 
those who are training for contests re- 
quiring great endurance and agility. 
See Spalding Athletic Library. 

Han’del, George Frederick (1685- 
1759), a German musician and com- 
poser, born at Halle. He early showed 
a love and appreciation for music. At 
the age of 12 Handel could play “he 
violin, oboe, organ and several other 
instruments, and through the interces- 
sion of his teacher, Zachau, he was sent 
to Berlin for further study. When but 
17, he was appointed organist at the 
cathedral of his native town. After oc- 
cupying that post for one year, Handel 
played in the orchestra at Hamburg, 
where in 1705 his first opera, Almira, 
was performed with great success. This 
was followed after a few weeks by 
Nero. From 1706 to 1709 he studied 
in London and there produced the 
opera Roderigo. Upon his return to 
Germany he was appointed chapelmas- 
ter to the Elector of Hanover, but he 
returned to England, and while there 
produced many operas and _ oratorios 
and was director of the Haymarket 
Theater. Ill health put an end to his 
public activities, and in 1752 he became 
blind; but he continued to write and to 
play upon the piano, deriving much 
solace from both. Handel holds an ex- 
alted place among the greatest of the 
world’s composers and his music reaches 
to sublime heights. His greatest and 
best-known work is the oratorio The 
Messiah, Others of his orchestral com- 
positions are Israel in Egypt, Saul, Es- 
ther, Samson, Alexander's Feast, Deb- 
orah and L’ Allegro. 

Hangbird. See OrIoLe, subhead Bal- 
timore Oriole, 

Hangchow, Hahng’ chou’, a city of 
China, capital of the Province of Che- 
kiang, situated near the Tsientang 


; aa 
i ae 
ae 


HANNIBAL 


River, about 100 m, s.w. of Shanghai. 
Canals connect it with Shanghai and 
Suchow, these waterways forming the 
highway of commerce through the rich- 
est district of China. Features of inter- 
est are the Nestorian Church, several 
Protestant and Catholic missions, col- 
leges, hospitals, temples, arches, monu- 
ments, bridges and baths. The city is 
recognized as the center of Chinese lit- 
erary and ecclesiastic life. In commerce 
it is important because of its silk manu- 
factures, tinsel paper, gold and silver 
work, fans and lacquered ware. In 1896 
it was declared Open to foreign trade. 
Population, estimated at from 400,000 
to 800,000. 

Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a 
structure of ancient Babylon; referred 
to as one of the wonders of the ancient 
world. It is supposed to have been a 
tower, or pyramid, constructed by Neb- 
uchadnezzar to satisfy the longings of 
his Median Queen for sights other than 
the dreary stretches of the Babylonian 
plain. In construction, it rose in ter- 
races which were planted in trees, 
shrubs and flowers; and a large force 
of men were employed in irrigating its 
gardens by water pumped from the 
Euphrates. 

Hankow, Hahn' kou’, a river port and 
commercial city of China, situated in 
the center of the country on the left 
bank of the Yangtse River. The native 
city has narrow, dirty and crooked 
streets, but the foreign settlement to the 
east has excellent streets and substan- 
tial buildings and is kept in spendid con- 
dition. Commercially, the city is of the 
first importance. The industrial estab- 
lishments comprise hemp, flour and 
cotton mills, iron and steel works, a 
mint and a tannery. The exports are 
tea, tobacco, silk, hemp, vegetable wax, 
medicines and coal. Population, includ- 
ing the surrounding concessions and de- 
partmental cities, about 1,500,000; of 
Hankow alone, approximately 870,000. 

Han/’nibal (about 247-about 183 B. 
C.), a Carthaginian general and states- 
man. He was devoted from youth to 
the overthrow of Rome. At 26 he was 


1268 


L 


HANNIBAL 


commander of the Carthaginian army 
in Spain, and gained the southern half 
as a province for Carthage, then took 
Saguntum, an ally of Rome, after a long 
siege. Hannibal’s services in Spain led 
to’ war between Rome and Carthage. 
During this war Hannibal led his army 
over the Alps, a feat supposed impossi- 
ble, and defeated the Romans in several 
engagements on their own ground. The 
most noted of these was the Battle of 
Canne (216 B. C.), in which the Ro- 
mans lost over 80,000 men. The success 
of Scipio in Africa caused Hannibal’s 
recall to defend Carthage, and he was 
defeated by Scipio near Zama in 202 
B. C. After peace was restored he was 
made chief magistrate, in which position 
he proved himself as great a statesman 
as he was general. In time, Roman 
jealousy compelled him to retire, and 
soon afterwards he ended his life by 
taking poison. See Punic Wars. 
Hannibal, Mo., a city of Marion Co., 
about 20 m. s. of Quincy, Ill., and about 
120 m. n.w. of St. Louis, on the Missis- 
sippi River and on the Wabash, the 
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the 
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the St. 
Louis & Hannibal railroads. It has 
steamboat communication with other 
points along the river and carries on 
a considerable trade in agricultural 
produce, flour, lumber and tobacco. The 
principal manufactures are shoes, stoves, 
cigars, car wheels, lime, cement, furni- 
ture, and foundry and machine-shop 
products. The residential part of Hanni- 
bal is built upon elevated ground above 
the river and commands fine views. There 
is a bridge across the river connecting 
with East Hannibal, Ill. The important 
buildings include a United States Gov- 
ernment Building, municipal buildings, 
a high school building, grade school 
buildings, a public library and several 
churches. There are also two hospitals 
and a public park. Mark Twain spent 
his boyhood at Hannibal, which was 
the scene of parts of his Tom Sawyer, 
Huckleberry Finn and Life on the Miss- 
issippi. Mark Twain Cave is near the 
town. Hannibal was platted in 1819 and 


HANSEATIC LEAGUE 


chartered as a city in 1839. Population 
in 1920, U. S. Census, 10,392. 
Han/over, a province of northwest 


Prussia, formerly a kingdom of Ger- 


many. It is bounded on the n. by the . 
North Sea, on the e. by Saxony and 
Brunswick, on the s. by Hesse-Nassau 
and Westphalia and on the w. by Hol- 
land. It includes the old Brunswick- 
Luneburg possessions, and also Hilde- 
sheim, East Friesland, Osnabrtick, Got- 
tingen and other districts. In the region 
of the Harz Mountains are valuable 
mineral deposits and dense woods, and 
the valleys are fertile. The coast, like 
that of Holland, is low and frequently 
subject to overflow. The manufactures 
include cotton and woolen textiles, 
leather, machinery, wagons, paper, 
chemicals, glassware, etc. The early 
history of Hanover is identical with that 
of Brunswick. In 1692 it became an 
electorate; in 1714 George Louis, Elec- 
tor of Hanover, became King of Eng- 
land (as George I), and as a result of 
this, Hanover grew rapidly in impor- 
tance. A century later it was established 
as a kingdom by the Congress of Vien- 
na. It was annexed to Prussia by the 
Peace of Prague in 1866. Population, 
about 2,760,000. 

Hanover, a city of Prussia, the cap- 
ital of the Prussian Province of Han- 
overt. The city is divided into the old 
and new towns, and in the newer part 
are many handsome edifices, including | 
the new municipal buildings. The 
Royal Palace, the old Marktkirche, the 
old Gothic Rathaus and the Royal 
Theater are other prominent buildings. 
The manufactures are important. Han- 
over was originally a fishing village, and 
in 1241 it received a municipal charter, 
two centuries later joining the Hansea- 
tic League. Since 1866, when the King- 
dom of Hanover was annexed to Prus- 
sia, it has been the capital of the Prov- 
ince of Hanover. Population, about 
303,000. 

Hanseatic, Han’se at’ ik, League, or 
The Hansa, a union established in the 
13th century by various cities of northern 
Germany for the purpose of protecting 


1269 


HAPSBURG, HOUSE OF 


their trade. Between 1241 and 1255 
Lubeck and Hamburg entered into a 
compact whereby the control of the Bal- 
tic and North seas was put into the 
hands of the merchants of those cities. 
In 1259 Lubeck, Rostock and Wismar 
formed an alliance against pirates and 
land robbers, and in 1284-85 Lubeck, 
Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund and Greifs- 
wald, by waging war, secured from Eric 
of Denmark certain privileges. Vari- 
ous other groups of allied cities found 
it advisable to join the Lubeck union, 
which in 1343 was officially named The 
Hansa. The league at one period in- 
cluded every important city between 
Netherlands and Livonia, and for years 
it was the mistress of the Baltic and the 
German Ocean. Its services to trade, 
agriculture and the industrial arts were 
notable, but after the 15th century its 
power rapidly declined. 

Hapsburg, House of, the most cele- 
brated dynastic house in the history of 
Europe. For two centuries they were 
scarcely noticeable among the confused 
lists of petty German chieftains. In 
1273, Rudolph I was elected Emperor of 
the Holy Roman Empire. From that 
date until the close of the World War 
they played a leading part in the history 
of Europe. With the exception of the 
century following 1332, they furnished 
the emperors of the Roman empire until 
that empire ceased to exist in 1740. From 
the time of Rudolph IJ, the Hapsburg 
furnished the rulers of Austria until the 
downfall of that empire in 1918. By 
reason of a succession of fortunate mar- 
riages the Hapsburg exercised rule over 
Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, 
Spain; and a large part of what is now 
the United States, Mexico, Central 
America, the Spanish states of South 
America, the West India Islands, and the 
Philippines. The ill-fated Maximilian, 
Emperor of Mexico was a Hapsburg. 

Harbin, Har been’, or Kharbin, a 
town of Manchuria, situated on the right 
bank of the Sungari River. The town 
was founded in 1896 as a center for the 
surveys of the Chinese Eastern Railway 
Company, and soon became the junction 


HARBOR 


of the Manchurian main line and the 
branch line extending south to Port Ar- 
thur. During the Russo-Japanese War 
it was an important Russian military 
station. Population, estimated at 20,000. 

Harbor, an outlet on the shore of a 
sea or lake forming a roadstead, or port, 
for ships, being either a natural con- 
formation for protecting them against 
wind and waves or having an artificial 
system of walls or breakwaters. A har- 
bor includes all the structures and ap- 
purtenances to facilitate the safe anchor- 
age, loading, unloading and repairs of 
vessels, such as quays, docks, break- 
waters, jetties, piers and wharves. The 
value of a harbor depends largely upon 
the depth of its water, its freedom from 
breakers and its natural protection 
against sea storms. Harbors are main- 
tained usually by national governments, 
and liberal appropriations are made to 
dredge and otherwise improve them in 
order to make a safe entrance for ships. 
The United States spends nearly $20,- 
000,000 annually in keeping in condition 
its various harbors, not including the 
expenses of quarantine stations or the 
removal of wrecks, 

Harsor CoNnstTRUCTION. The open- 
coast harbor, consisting of a quay wall 
or bulkhead wall open to the sea, is 
the simplest form, but it serves only to 
tie up ships alongside the shore, to dis- 
charge and receive cargoes, and affords 
no protection from winds, tides or cur- 
rents. A straight pier, extending out 
from the shore, affords no shelter from 
waves coming inshore, but in case of 
winds and waves alongshore, it gives 
some protection on the lee side. When 
the pier is curved with its convex side 
to the sea, there is better protection, 
but it is best to build two curved piers, 
converging toward each other, so as to 
include a harbor basin. A breakwater 
wall built offshore to break the force 
of the waves is sometimes employed, and 
a harbor may contain a combination of 
all these structures. Jetties are also em- 
ployed for protecting harbors, as well as 
to maintain their depth (See Jerry). 
The harbor of New York is so enclosed 


1270 


29 


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WARREN G. HARDING 


HARD CIDER CAMPAIGN 


by a natural conformation that piers or 
breakwaters are not needed. 

Hard Cider Campaign, the name 
given to the Whig political campaign of 
1840, which for popular enthusiasm and 
widespread activity has had few equals 
in American politics. The Whig presi- 
dential nominee, William Henry Har- 
rison, was a man of plain manners, and 
a Democratic organ asserted that if a 
barrel of hard cider and a log cabin were 
donated Harrison would be content to 
remain on his farm in Ohio. This ex- 
pression ‘caught the popular fancy and 
the log cabins and hard cider became 
especial emblems of the party of “Tippe- 
canoe and Tyler, too.” — 

Hardecanute, Har’de ka nute’, or 
Harthacnut (about 1019-1042), King of 
England and Denmark. His father, Ca- 
nute, died in 1035, after having firmly 
established a kingdom which practically 
extended throughout England, and Har- 
decanute, who was in Denmark at the 
time, was there acclaimed king. But his 
half brother, Harold, who was in Eng- 
land, possessed himself of Mercia, Nor- 
thumbria and Wessex. However, Har- 
decanute quietly succeeded to the throne 
in 1040, though the government, during 
his nominal sway of two years, was left 
mostly to his mother and to the famous 
Earl Godwine. Hardecanute was suc- 
ceeded by his half brother, Edward the 
Confessor. 

Hardenberg, Har’ den berk, Karl 
August, Prince (1750-1822), a Prussian 
statesman, born in Hanover. He appears 
prominently in history during the Napo- 
leonic wars. After Prussia’s defeat at 
Jena, Hardenberg became minister of 
foreign affairs, and in 1810 was made 
Prussian chancellor. He now entered 
upon a vigorous policy of reform, deter- 
mined to accomplish the regeneration of 
_Prussia and to make his country strong 
enough to resist Napoleon. In this he 
was successful. He took part in the 
proceedings of the Congress of Vienna, 
being raised to the rank of Prince in 
1814. See Stern, HEINRICH. 

Harding, Warren Gamaliel (1865- 
1923). Twenty-ninth President of the 


HARDY 


United States, whose term was suddenly 
ended by death from cerebral apoplexy 
in San Francisco, August 2, 1923, after 
two years and five month in office. Born 
at Corsica, O., November 2, 1865, ‘the 
son of George Tyton and Phebe Elizabeth 
Dickerson Harding, he was graduated from 
Ohio Central College in 1882. In 1881 he was 
married to Miss Florence Kling, of Marion, O. 

Shortly after his graduation he entered jour- 
nalism and founded the Marion Star at Marion, 
O. During the first years of his venture he was 
editor, reporter, compositor and publisher com- 
bined. He became interested in politics and was 
soon one of the Republican leaders of Ohio. 
He was elected to the Ohio State Senate in 1900 
and to the United States Senate in 1915, re- 
maining a member until 1921. During the try- 
ing days of the World War he was a member 
of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and 
was a leader in party counsels. 

Chief features of the Harding administration 
were the world disarmament conference at the 
president’s invitation, resulting in important in- 
ternational agreements for the reduction of 
navies; the signing of a peace treaty with Ger- 
many in 1921; the Central American Confer- 
ence at Washington; presidential veto of the 
soldier bonus bill; adoption of the budget sys- 
tem in government expenditures; a policy of 
economy in government; tariff legislation giv- 
ing the president the right of modification; and 
difficulties in enforcing the prohibition amend- 
ment. 

Mr. Harding’s engaging personality, and his 
zeal in patriotic endeavor won him a place of 
warm affection in the hearts of his countrymen. 
His death came at the close of an extended and 
exhausting trip to Alaska made for the purpose 
of studying at close range the pressing prob- 
lems relating to that territory. An extraordi- 
nary demonstration .of national sorrow followed 
the news of President Harding’s death. 


Har’dy, Thomas _ (1840- Yovaa 
English novelist, born in Dorsetshire, He 
was educated as an architect, but turned 
to literature at the age of 27. His view 
of life is hopeless, often despairing; 
his theme is not civilization and man- 
ners, but humanity—almost primitive in 
its simplicity. Nature, as he has seen’ 
it along the rugged countrysides of Wes- 
sex, has an unending charm for him; in 
The Return of the Native the grim and 
somber heath is as much a personality 
as are the human characters moving 
slowly to their tragic end. His view of 
women is biased, cruel; but he has cre- 
ated unforgetable types, and though his 
stern realism and fatalistic attitude to 


1271 


HARE 


life do not make for popularity, he has 
rank as one of the greatest modern 
English novelists. He has written 4 
Pair of Blue Eyes, Far from the Mad- 
ding Crowd, The Return of the Native, 
The Trumpet-Major, Tess of the D’Ur- 
bervilles, Life's Little Ironies and Jude 
the Obscure. ~ 

Hare, a family of Rodents including 
both the hare and the rabbit. There 
are about 60 species scattered over all 
parts of the globe, except Madagascar 
and Australasia, but most numerous in 
Northern regions. All have long, erect 
ears, sharp incisor teeth, a divided upper 
lip and a short, furry, upturned tail. 
The long hind legs, which enable it to 
run with great speed, especially uphill, 
give the hare great advantage over a 
_pursuing enemy. The home of the true 
hare is upon grassy plains or rocky, 
bramble-covered hillsides. Unlike the 
rabbit it never burrows, but, in coldest 
winter, may seek the shelter of a hollow 
tree or of a discarded woodchuck’s hole. 
By day it crouches upon its trampled 
bed, or ‘“form,’ ‘where overhanging 
branches and tall grasses conceal it. At 
the approach of danger it rises quickly 
upon its haunches, erects its inquisitive 
ears, then crouches back or leaps away to 
safety. When speed alone will not save 
it from its enemy the hare takes to 
stratagem, doubles on its track, leaps 
over its pursuer occasionally, even strik- 
ing it forcefully and unexpectedly with 
its active hind legs as it goes over, and 
sometimes swimming with fair speed 
across intervening streams. 

The young of the hare, called leverets, 
are born in the form, are fur-covered and 
active and have keen sight. The mother 
cares for them about four weeks before 
they are able to shift for themselves. 
Like the rabbit, the hare is extremely 
prolific. The flesh of the hare is dry, but 
of good quality. The so-called Belgian 
hare is really a pure breed of rabbit, 
while the jack rabbit of the Western 
plains is better called the prairie hare. 
See Rassir. ; 

Harebell, a delicate plant of the 
Campanula Family growing in groves 


1272 


HAREBELL 


and marshes or in the crevices of nearly- 
barren rocks. It has slender spreading 
stems and rounding root leaves, but the 
stem leaves are harrow and inconspic- 
uous. The flowers are a delicate light 
blue, and they swing on their stems at 


HAREBELL 


the breath of the slightest breeze. They 
have five-parted corollas, which the bees 
enter, fertilizing the pistils as they brush 
against them in their search for nectar. 


Although the harebell is seemingly a 


delicate plant, it is strong enough to sur- 
vive cold climates and rough winds. It 
blooms throughout the entire summer, 


and in the United States is found from i 


Maine to California. 


In Europe, espe- — 


HARGREAVES 


cially the British Isles, it is called the 
bluebell of Scotland, and it is also com- 
mon in Asia. 3 

Hargreaves, Har’ greevz, James 
(about 1720-1778), an English inventor. 
He was an illiterate man and earned 
his living by weaving and spinning in 
his home, according to the custom. In 
1760 he invented the carding machine 
and four years later he produced the 
spinning jenny. The amount of cotton 
which he was able to spin excited sus- 
picion, and his house was broken into 
and the machine destroyed. Manufac- 
turers stole his design and the govern- 
ment refused him a patent. Hargreaves, 
therefore, never profited much from his 
inventions, which, with the power loom, 
established the cotton industry on a new 
basis. 

Har’lan, John Marshall (1833-1911), 
an American jurist, born in Boyle 
County, Ky. He graduated at Centre 
College in 1850, studied law, was ad- 
mitted to the bar-in 1853 and became 
county judge in 1858. From 1861 to 
1863 he was colonel in the Union army, 
was attorney-general of Kentucky from 
1863 to 1867, and was appointed asso- 
ciate justice of the United States Su- 
preme Court in 1877. He was a member 
of the commission to settle the Bering 
Sea Controversy in 1893. 

Har’land, Marion. See TERHUNE, 
Mary VIRGINIA. 

Har’lequin Duck, a bird of the Duck 
and Goose Family. It is about 17 inches 
long; the female is dull sooty or gray- 
ish, with white on the side of the face. 
The male has a black head, white-spot- 
ted on the sides, lead-colored chest and 
shoulders, a white neck band, blackish 
under parts, reddish sides and wings 
with four white spots and one metallic- 
blue spot. The nest is made in a hollow 
tree or under rocks, and contains six to 
eight eggs. This handsome duck is an 
inhabitant of eastern Asia, northern 
North America, Greenland and Iceland. 
It breeds from the mountains of Cali- 
fornia and Colorado to the Arctic coast. 
Next to the wood duck, the harlequin is 
the handsomest of the American ducks. 


HARNESS 


It is rare in the United States, though 
fairly common in zoological gardens. 
The varied plumage of the male suggests 
the name harlequin. 

Har’mon, Judson (1846- ivan 
American lawyer and jurist, born at 
Newton, Ohio, and educated at Deni- 
son University and the Cincinnati Law 
School. He was mayor of Wyoming, 
Ohio, 1875-76, judge of the Court of 
Common Pleas, 1876-78, and judge of 
the Superior Court, 1878-88. He was 
attorney-general of the United States in 
Cleveland’s second cabinet, and in 1909 
he was elected governor of Ohio on the 
Democratic ticket. He was reelected in 
1911. In 1912 he was prominent as a 
presidential candidate, being identified 
with the conservative wing of the party. 

Harmon’ica, originally a musical in- 
strument constructed with glasses of dif- 
ferent sizes, arrayed on a disk which was 
attached to a mechanism allowing it to 
be revolved by the foot. The glasses 
were played upon by touching the rim 
with a moistened finger. The term mu- 
sical glasses was also given the mechan- 
ism. The name is now frequently ap- 
plied to a mouth organ. 

Harmony. See Music. 

Harms’worth, Sir Alfred Charles 
William (1865- ), an English jour- 
nalist, born near Dublin and educated 
privately and at Stamford Grammar 
School. In 1894 he became editor and 
proprietor of the London Evening News, 
two years later founded the London 
Daily Mail and in 1898 established 
Harmsworth’s Magazine. Meanwhile, in 
1894, he organized and promoted the 
Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic Expedition. 
In 1900 he visited the United States, 
publishing an issue of a New York daily 
indicative of his views of the future 
newspaper. In 1905 he was created 
Baron Northcliffe. 

Har’ness, an arrangement of leather 
straps usually held together by sewing 
and provided with buckles. The harness 
is placed upon an animal, generally a 
horse, to enable it to draw loads. A 
single harness consists of a bridle fitted 
to the head of the animal, with a metal 


44 1273 


HAROLD II 


bit to which is buckled reins, or lines, 
in order to drive the animal in the direc- 
tion desired and to control its actions. A 
saddle, held in place by a girth, sup- 
ports the weight of the shafts of the 
vehicle and is fastened to the breeching, 
by which the animal backs the load. 
Hames are fitted on a collar and are 
provided with traces to draw the vehicle. 
Wagon harness is made heavy and 
strong, while buggy harness is light and 
generally ornamented. 

Harold II (1022-1066), King of Eng- 
land, the last of the Anglo-Saxon line. 
He was the son of the powerful Earl 
Godwine. After his father’s death in 
1053, Harold became Earl of Wessex 
~and head of the National Party, which 
aimed to counteract the Norman influ- 
ence at the court of Edward the Con- 
fessor. In 1064 he invaded Normandy. 
When Edward the Confessor died, in 
1066, Harold was elected king. Obliged 
to defend his election by force of arms, 
he defeated the supporters of William 
at Stamford Bridge, Sept. 25, but was 
himself defeated by William near Has- 
tings, on Oct. 14, and slain. See Has- 
TINGS, BATTLE OF. 

Harp, a stringed musical instrument 
of great antiquity. It consists of a tri- 
angular frame about five and a half feet 
in height, across which are stretched 46 
strings arranged vertically. It is tuned 
to the diatonic scale of C flat, which 
can be modified by the several pedals, 
each connected with a particular set of 
strings. The strings are plucked by the 
performer with the fingers of both hands. 

Har’per, William Rainey (1856- 
1906), an American educator and 
scholar, born at New Concord, Ohio, and 
educated at Muskingum College and 
Yale University. After teaching for five 
years in preparatory schools, he was 
professor of Hebrew in the Baptist 
Union Theological Seminary, Chicago, 
1879-1886 professor of Semitic lan- 
euages at Yale, 1886-1891, and of Bib- 
lical literature, 1889-1891; principal of 
Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts, 
1885-91; president and head professor 
of Semitic languages and literature at 


HARPOON 


the University of Chicago, 1891-1906. | 
He may properly be considered the crea- 
tor of the new University of Chicago, 


of which he was the first president. Upon 


its campus, facing the beautiful Mid- 
way Plaisance, a magnificent memorial 
library has been erected in his hanor. 
As an administrative officer he displayed 
unusual abilities. He won an interna- 
tional reputation as a student and teacher 
of Hebrew, was the author of several 
Hebrew textbooks emphasizing the in- 
ductive method of study, and was editor 
of three publications of the University 
of Chicago—The Biblical World, the 
American Journal of Theology and the 
American Journal of Semitic Languages 
and Literature. See CHAUTAUQUA 
MovEMENT; CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF. 

Harper’s Ferry, W. Va., a town in 
Jefferson Co., on the Baltimore & Ohio 
railroad, 55 m. n.w. of Washington, 
D. C. It was the scene of John Brown’s 
Raid, Oct. 16, 1859 (See Brown, JoHN). ~ 
At the outbreak of the Civil War, upon 
being abandoned by the Federals, the 
Confederates occupied it, first under 
Jackson and later under Johnston. They 
evacuated it on June 15, 1862, and after- 
ward the Union leaders, Miles and 
White, held the place with 11,000 men 
until the Confederates under Jackson ap- 
peared and bombarded it. The town 
surrendered as he was about to open an 
attackisSept. 15,1862: 

Har’pies, three winged monsters, 
part woman, part bird, with straggling 
black hair, red eyes and leaden lips and 
claws: They poisoned whatever they 
touched. In punishment, Jove sent them 
to snatch the food from the tables of 
Phineus, from whose land they were 
driven to the Strophades, where A“neas 
was tormented by them. 

Harpoon’, a_ spearlike implement 
used in killing whales and other large 
fish. It is made of steel or iron, with 
a broad head sharpened and provided 
with barbs. _ It is usually about three 
feet long, and its shank is attached to 
a long rope, or whale line, which is coiled 
in the whale boat. ‘The harpoon is 
thrown by a strong sailor with great 


1274 


HARPSICHORD 


force into the whale, or it is shot from 
a special form of gun. Of recent years 
the bomb lance has come into use, this 
being shot from a gun and arranged to 
explode on penetrating the whale’s body. 

Harpsichord, Harp’ si kord, an obso- 
lete musical instrument, resembling in 
shape the modern grand piano, but much 
smaller in size. The performer struck 
the keys in the manner of the piano 
player, thereby raising a set of quills or 
bits of hard leather which plucked the 
strings and produced a sharp, thin sound. 
In some of these instruments the key- 
board was double, and again stops were 
provided for modifying the tone. See 
PIANOFORTE. 

Harpy Eagle, a bird of the Hawk and 
Eagle Family. It is a bird of prey about 
42 inches long, with large, powerful tal- 
ons and a strong hooked beak. It is 
grayish or lead-colored above, barred 
with black; white beneath, with a black 
bar. across the chest. The head is whit- 
ish with a dark crest. The large nest 
is made in a tall tree or on a ledge of an 
inaccessible cliff. The nesting habits are 
not well known, but it is reported that 
the nest contains five eggs. This eagle 
is very fierce, hunting small Mammals 
and birds. It is a native of the dense 
forests of tropical America from Bolivia 
to Mexico. 

Har’rier. See Marsu Hawk. 

Harriman, Edward Henry (1848- 
1909), an American financier and rail- 
way president, born in Hempstead, N. Y. 
At the age of 14 he began work in a 
~ broker’s office in New York, and at 22 
was a member of the New York Stock 
Exchange. Later he became a director 
and then vice-president of the Illinois 
Central Railroad. In 1897 and the years 
immediately following, he gained control 
of the Union Pacific, which he reorgan- 
ized and greatly improved. Harriman 
then secured control of the Southern Pa- 
cific and the Oregon Railroad and Navi- 
gation Company. The control of these 
and their affiliated lines made Harriman 
at the time of his death the. leading 
railway magnate of America. In 1899 
he organized and financed a scientific 


HARRIS 


expedition to Alaska. In 1910 his widow 
presented most of his estate of 26,000 
acres at Arden to the State of New York 
for a state park. 

Harris, Joel Chandler (1848-1908), 
an American author, known as “Uncle 
Remus,” born in Eatonton, Ga. He be- 
came an apprentice to the printer’s trade, 
studied law, and, after serving on the 
staff of the Savannah Daily News and 
the Atlanta Constitution, became editor 
of the last-named paper in 1890. In 
connection with his journalistic work ap- 
peared a popular series of sketches and 
a collection of folk lore, later published 
as Uncle Remus, His Songs and His 
Sayings. These humorous pieces in ne- 
gro dialect were faithful delineations of 
the life and homely philosophy which 
he had discovered on the plantations in 
the South, and the public clamored for 
more. Nights with Uncle Remus and 
Uncle Remus and His Friends soon fol- 
lowed. Other publications are Free Joe 
and Other Georgian Sketches, Balaam 
and His Master, Mr. Rabbit at Home, 
Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit, Stories 
of Georgia History and Life of Henry 
W. Grady, Including His Writings and 
Speeches. 

Harris, Robert (1849-1919), a Cana- 
dian artist, born in North Wales and 
educated at Prince of Wales College, 
Charlottetown. He studied art in Lon- 
don, Paris, Italy, Belgium and Holland. 
In 1880 he became a member of the 
Royal Canadian Academy, of which he 
was president from 1893 to 1906. 
Known principally as a figure and por- 
trait paimter, he has exhibited in London 
and Paris and was awarded medals at 
the Chicago, Buffalo and St. Louis expo- 
sitions. Among his most successful por- 
traits are those of Lord Aberdeen, Sir 
John A. Macdonald, Sir Mowat and 
Archbishop Bond. 

Harris, William Torrey (1835-1909), 
an American educator, born at Killingly, 
Conn., and educated at Yale. In 1857 
he began teaching shorthand in the pub- 
lic schools of St. Louis. Ten years later 
he became superintendent of the schools 
there, and during the next 13 years made 


1275 


HARRISBURG ~ 


a national reputation in that position. 
In 1867 he founded The Journal of 
Speculative Philosophy, the first journal 
of the kind in the English language. 
With Miss Susan E. Blow he estab- 
lished in St. Louis in 1873 the first per- 
manent public school kindergarten in 
America. His able service as United 
States commissioner of education, from 
1889 to 1906, won him an international 
reputation. In 1906 the Carnegie Foun- 
dation for the Advancement of Teach- 
ing voted him the highest retiring allow- 
ance which their rules would allow. Dr. 
Harris was a prolific writer on educa- 
tional and philosophical subjects, and 
was editor of the International Educa- 
tion Series and editor-in-chief of the 
1909 Revised Edition of the Interna- 
tional Dictionary. 

Harrisburg, Pa., a city, county seat 
of Dauphin Co. and capital of the state, 
105 m. n.w. of Philadelphia and 85 m. 
n.w. of Baltimore, on the east bank of 
the Susquehanna River and on the Penn- 
sylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading 
railroads. These railroads operate in all 
directions. Several electric systems with 
interurban lines connect the city with 
near-by towns and cities. Harrisburg has 
an area of ten square miles and pos- 
sesses great scenic beauty. The mile- 
wide Susquehanna is here spanned by 
four bridges, two for railroads and two 
for driving. The city proper is situated 
on the slope of a hill, and overlooks the 
river. Here are located the finest resi- 
dences, among them being the governor’s 
mansion. There is also a monument one 
hundred and ten feet high in memory of 
the Dauphin County soldiers who died 
in the Civil War, and a statue of General 
John F. Hartranft. 

Parks AND BouteEvarps. Harrisburg 
is noted for its well-kept streets and 
boulevards. A parkway encircles the city 
and connects the park system, which con- 
tains a total acreage of over one thou- 
sand, and fifty-four acres. Among the 
city parks are Capital Park, which covers 
forty-five acres, containing the state cap- 
itol buildings. Other smaller and beau- 
tiful parks include Paxtang, Reservoir, 


place the one burned in 1897. 


HARRISBURG 


Harris, Lincoln, Promenade, Gross and 
Wildwood. 

PusLic Buitpincs. The most promi- 
nent building is the state capitol, dedi- 
cated in 1906, which was erected to re- 
The esti- 
mated cost of this building is about 
$12,000,000. The dome is modeled after 
St. Peter’s at Rome. At the main en- 
trance is a fountain 78 ft. wide. The 
bronze doors are decorated in relief 
with state historical scenes and the floor 
of the rotunda is paved with tiles in 
the style of the pottery made by early 
Moravian settlers. The Senate and 
House chambers have stained glass win- 
dows designed by W. B. van Ingen, and 
mural paintings by Edwin A. Abbey. 
Two heroic groups of statuary for the 
building were designed by George Grey 
Barnard. Other public buildings include 
a state arsenal, courthouse and Federal 
Building. 

INSTITUTIONS. The educational insti- 
tutions include the Harrisburg academy, 
high schools junior high schools, several 
parochial schools, a young ladies’ semi- 
nary and a conservatory of music. 
state library, founded in 1790, contains 
about 150,000 volumes. The charitable in- 
stitutions include a city hospital, state in- 
sane asylum, children’s industrial home 
and home for the friendless. The city is 
the seat of a Catholic and Episcopal see. 

INDUSTRIES. The prosperity of Har- 
risburg is derived largely from manufac- 
tures. Among the industrial establish- 
ments are steelworks, rolling mills, blast 
furnaces, railway repair shops, boot and 


shoe factories, silk mills, cigar factories, 


flour and grist mills, tin mills, nail 
works, pipe-bending works, Bessemer 
steelworks and manufactories of cotton 
and woolen goods, mattresses, brick, tile, 
cornice, galvanized iron, undertakers’ 


The . 


supplies, wagons and carriages, marble- _ 


ized slate, typewriters and railroad cars. 

History. John Harris, an English 
trader, built the first house on the site of 
Harrisburg in 1726 and secured a grant 
of land of 800 acres. His son estab- 
lished a ferry here in 1753 and the place 
was called Harris Ferry. The town was 


1276 


HARRISON 


Jaid out and named Harrisburg in 1785, 
and was incorporated in 1791. In 1812 
Harrisburg became the state capital and 
in 1860 a city charter was granted. 

Harrisburg is the home of a system 
of municipal reform, known as the Har- 
risburg plan, which has attracted wide- 
spread attention throughout the United 
States. All city improvement measured 
are under control of an authorized 
board of public works composed of citi- 
zens who serve without pay, and are 
voted upon by the city without regard 
to political affiliations... Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 75,917. 

Harrison, Benjamin (1833-1901), 
twenty-third president of the United 
States, born in North Bend, Ohio, the 
grandson of William H. Harrison, ninth 
president of the United States. He grad- 


uated from Miami University in 1852, 


was admitted to the bar in 1854, and 
began practice in Indianapolis, Ind., 
which he made his home. He joined the 
Union army as lieutenant when the Civil 
War began, soon being appointed colonel. 
He was at Resaca, Kenesaw Moun- 
tain and Peachtree Creek; was with 
Sherman at Atlanta, and participated in 
the Battle of Nashville. He was com- 
missioned brevet brigadier-general in 
1865. 

After the war Harrison became Su- 
preme Court reporter, but in 1867 de- 
voted his attention to the practice of law. 
He made vigorous campaigns for Grant 
in 1868 and 1872; was defeated for gov- 
ernor in 1876; became a member of the 
Mississippi River Commission in 1879; 
and was elected to the United States 
Senate in 1880, serving one term. 

He was elected president of the 
United States in 1888, defeating Grover 
Cleveland, the Democratic nominee. In 
1892 he was a candidate for a second 
term, but was defeated by Cleveland. 
At the expiration of his term of office 
he resumed his law practice, and lectured 
and wrote on jurisprudence. He was 
chief representative of the United States 
at The Hague Peace Conference in 1899. 
He published This Country of Ours and 
Views of an Ex-President. 


HARRISON 


Harrison, Carter Henry (1860- ye 
an American politician, born in Chicago, 
Ill. He attended the public schools in 
Chicago and went to Germany for fur- 
ther study. In 1881 he graduated from 
St. Ignatius College, Chicago, and from 
the law school at Yale University, New 
Haven, Conn., in 1883. For three years 
he was the editor and publisher of the 
Chicago Times. He was elected Demo- 
cratic mayor of Chicago in 1897, 1899, 
1901, 1903 and 1905, and again in 1911. 
In 1900 he was honored by his alma 
mater with the degree of doctor of laws. 
Mr. Harrison has served as delegate to 
several state and national conventions, 
and during the World War was in charge 
of American Red Cross activities in 
several hospitals in France. 

Harrison, Constance Cary (1846- 

), an American novelist, born at 
Vaucluse, Va. She married Burton Har- 
rison, private secretary to Jefferson Da- 
vis, in 1867, and after their removal to 
New York wrote novels and plays and 
contributed freely to periodicals. Among 
her works. are Bar Harbor Days, The 
Anglomamacs, A Daughter of the South, 
Externals of Modern New York, The 
Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch and Trans- 
planted Daughters. 

Harrison, N. J., a city of Hudson Co., 
formerly called East Newark, opposite 
Newark, on the Passaic River, 9 m. w. 
of New York City, and on the Erie, the 
Pennsylvania and the Delaware, Lacka- 
wanna & Western railroads. It is an 
attractive residential suburb of Newark 
and other near-by cities and has large 
and well-kept grounds. The city has 
manufactories of electric lamps, cutlery, 


cotton thread, refrigerators, trunks, 
leather, wire cloth, marine engines, etc., 
‘and has steel and iron works. It was 


settled in 1668 and incorporated in 1873. 
Population in 1920, 15,721.. 

Harrison, William Henry (1773- 
1841), ninth president of the United 
States, son of Benjamin Harrison, a 
signer of the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, was born in Berkeley, Va. He 
entered the army in 1791 and acccom- 
panied Gen. Anthony Wayne’s expedi- 


1277 


HARRISS 


tion against the Indians of the North- 
west, showing great gallantry at the Bat- 
tle of the Maumee. In 1798 he was ap- 
pointed secretary of the Northwest Ter- 
ritory, but resigned the next year to rep- 
resent it as delegate to Congress. In 
1800, when Indiana Territory was 
formed, Harrison was appointed gov- 
ernor, and served with great ability and 


efficiency until 1813. At Tippecanoe he 


finally quelled the uprising of Tecumseh 
and his brother in a battle on Nov. 7, 
1811, and from this circumstance became 
known as the “Hero of Tippecanoe.” 

Soon after the beginning of the War 
of 1812 Harrison was made brigadier- 
general in the regular army, and given 
chief command in the Northwest with 
full discretionary powers. He was then 
promoted to be major-general. {He re- 
pulsed Proctor, the British general, at 
Ft. Meigs, and, strengthened by Commo- 
dore Perry’s victory on Lake Erie, pur- 
sued the enemy into Canada where he 
routed the combined British and Indians 
in the Battle of the Thames, Oct. 5, 
1813. He resigned his commission in 
1814, and two years later was elected 
to Congress, where he served until 1819, 
when he became senator in the Ohio 
Legislature. In 1828-29 he was minis- 
ter to Columbia. Retiring to his farm 
at North Bend, near Cincinnati, he lived 
in comparative quiet for 12 years. 

The Whigs nominated him for the 
presidency in 1835, but he was defeated 
by Van Buren. Four years later, how- 
ever, he was again nominated, and was 
elected by a large majority, after one 
of the most remarkable campaigns in 
American history (See Harp CIDER 
CAMPAIGN), marking the introduction 
into presidential campaigns of enormous 
mass meetings and processions. Within 
a month after his inauguration Harrison 
was stricken with pneumonia and died, 
being succeeded by Vice-President Tyler. 

Harriss, Charles Albert (1862- oe 
a Canadian musician and composer, born 
in London, England. He was organist 
at various Canadian parish churches, 
later was concert organist in Canada and 
the United States and in 1905 became 


HART 


director of the Philharmonic Society of 
Montreal. From 1904 to 1907 he was 
the first director of the McGill Con- 
servatorium, Montreal. He directed the 
first British-American Musical Festivals 
and the first Canadian-British Festival, 


and in London in 1907 founded the. Em- 


pire Day concerts. Dr. Harris, who 
played before Edward VII, has com- 
posed Daniel Before the King, Torquil, 
Pan, Sands of Dee and innumerable cho- 
ruses, songs and piano and organ pieces. 
In December, 1911, he was awarded the 
silver medal of the Musicians of Lon- 


don in appreciation of his service to Brit- 


ish music throughout the empire. 
Har’row, a well-known agricultural 
implement employed for pulverizing the 


DISK HARROW 


soil. The common harrow, as used by 
farmers, consists of a wooden frame, 
square or triangular, into which iron 
teeth have been driven. This is dragged 
over plowed ground by horses or oxen. 
For pulverizing unplowed ground, the 
disk harrow is employed. This consists 
of a riding implement on two wheels, 
having a series of steel disks, which, when 
forced into theground at an angle, revolve 
and cut up the soil into fine fragments. 

Hart, Albert Bushnell (1854- yj 
an American historian and teacher, born 
at Clarksville, Pa. He graduated at Har- 
vard in 1880, and after further study 
abroad, became an instructor, and later, 
professor of history at Harvard. He 
has written Coercive Powers of the 


1278 


HARTE 


. Umited States Government; Introduction 
to the Study of Federal Government, 


Studies in American Education and other © 


valuable works. He served as joint edi- 
tor of the American Historical Review 
and of the American History Leaflets 
and edited the Epochs of American His- 
tory Series and other works. 

Harte, Aart, Francis Bret (1839- 
1902), an American poet and novelist, 
born in Albany, N. Y. Attracted by the 
gold excitement, he went to California 
at the age of 15, and tried his hand 
at mining, teaching and journalism. In 
1868 he founded the Overland Monthly, 
and as its editor contributed sketches 
and stories of life in the open which at- 
tracted wide attention. He removed to 
New York in 1871, after having been 
professor of recent literature in the Uni- 
versity of California for a year, and 
became a regular contributor to the At- 
lantic Monthly. Ue served as United 
States consul at Crefeld, Germany, and 
at Glasgow, Scotland, and after 1885 
lived in England, dying in London. 

Bret Harte possessed a genuine dra- 
matic instinct and portrayed faithfully 
the life on the frontier. At times he 
idealized both scenes and characters, but 
they were invariably drawn from life. 
His types are large, primitive; and some 
of his short stories are classics in their 
masterly delineations of pioneer life. 
Though he often dealt with the sin and 
misery that he saw in the world, a whole- 
some spirit of optimism pervades his 
work. He is essentially an American, 
choosing gorges, canyons and mountains 
as a suitable background for the stormy, 
spectacular scenes he loves to draw. There 
is in his work humor, pathos, irony and 
melodramatic treatment—an impersonal 
portrayal of characters and facts. He 
-wrote The Luck of Roaring Camp, How 
Santa Claus Came to Simpson's Bar, So- 
ciety upon the Stanislaus, The Outcasts 
of Poker Flat, Under the Redwoods and 
Plain Language from Truthful James, 
also known as The Heathen Chinee. 

Hartford, Conn., a city, port of entry, 
county seat of Hartford Co., and capital 
of the state, 36 m. n.e. of New Haven, 


HARTFORD 


110 m. ne. of New York and 124 m. 
s.w. of Boston, on the west bank of the 
Connecticut River, on the New York, 
New Haven & Hartford, the Central of 
New England and other railroads, and 
at the head of navigation for large ves- 
sels on the Connecticut River, 50 m. from 
Long Island Sound. A stone arch bridge 
across the Connecticut River connects 
with East Hartford, which has impor- 
tant manufacturing interests. Interurban 
electric railroads radiate to all the sur- 
rounding towns and cities. 

Hartford has an area of 17 sq. m. and 
is delightfully situated. The more ele- 
vated portions of the city command ex- 
tensive views of the Connecticut Valley. 
There are several costly residence dis- 
tricts. Many streets and boulevards have 
magnificent arches of old oaks and elms, 
and Charter Oak Place (See CHARTER 
Oak) marks the site where, in 1687, 
the charter of the state is said to have 
been concealed. 

ParKS AND BOULEVARDS, The park 
system contains over 1200 acres. Bush- 
nell Park of 46 acres, the oldest and 
most attractive of the 21 public parks, 
is crowned by the state capitol and con- 
tains monuments to Israel Putnam, Hor- 
ace Wells, the discoverer of anesthesia, 
and Col. Thomas Knowlton. Near the 
capitol is the soldiers’ and sailors’ me- 
morial arch. The city is also the seat 
of a Catholic see. 

Pusiic Buitpines. Among the nota- 
ble public buildings are the city hall, 
Wadsworth Atheneum, Colt Memorial 
Library, the Watkinson and state his- 
torical society libraries, a state arsenal, 
state capitol built of white marble in the 
modern Gothic style, St. Joseph’s Cathe- 
dral, Centre Congregational Church and 
Morgan Art Gallery. 

InstitTuTIONS. The educational insti- 
tutions of Hartford include Trinity Col- 
lege, established in 1823, and Hartford 
Theological Seminary. Among the phil- 
anthropic and charitable institutions are 
the tuberculosis, Hartford and St. Fran- 
cis hospitals, an old people’s home, or- 
phan asylum, school for the deaf and a - 
Union for home work. 


1279 


HARTFORD CONVENTION 


InpustTRIES. Hartford is an impor- 
tant tobacco market. The city is also 
widely known as the center of insurance 
interests. The manufacturing interests 
include extensive manufactories of re- 
volvers, sewing machines, Gatling guns, 
automobiles, bicycles, typewriters, cy- 
clometers, wagons and carriages, cigars, 
belting, machinists’ tools, horseshoe nails, 
typesetting machines, electric equipment, 
drop forgings, car wheels, hosiery and 
knit goods, envelopes, woven-wire mat- 
tresses, steam engines, coil piping, church 
organs, silverware, boilers, harness, fur- 
niture, valves and hydrants. The city 
is the port of entry for the customs dis- 
trict of Hartford. 

History. <A fort was built in 1633 
by the Dutch on what is still known as 
Dutch Point. Later emigrants from 
Massachusetts settled here and called the 
place Newtown. This name was changed 
in 1637 to Hartford, after Hertford, 
England. On Jan. 14, 1639, the famous 
Fundamental Orders of Connecticut 
were adopted, forming the first written 
constitution ever adopted by a people 
that organized a government. In 1814- 
15 the Hartford Convention (See Hart- 
FORD CONVENTION) was in session here. 
Hartford was the capital of Connecticut 
until 1701, when New Haven became 
joint capital. Hartford has, however, 
been sole capital since 1873. Hartford 
was first chartered in 1784 and rechar- 
tered in 1856. Population in 1920, U. S. 
Census, 138,036. 

Hartford Convention, an assembly 
held in 1814 at Hartford, Conn., repre- 
senting the Federalists of the New Eng- 
land States, beginning Dec. 15 and con- 
tinuing for three weeks in secret session. 
Rumors were afloat that the secession 
of New England was being planned, but 
the real aim of the assembly was to pro- 
pose reforms in the government in the 
direction of greater independence for the 
states. The New England States were 
much opposed to the War of 1812 be- 
cause it greatly impaired their commerce 
and seemed an unjustifiable war of ag- 
gression. The convention proved of lit- 
tle avail, except that it was the crown- 


HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


ing event which led to the overthrow 
of the Federalist Party. 

Harts’horn”. See AMMONIA. 

Harun-al-Rashid, Hah roon’-ar-Ra- 
sheed', (  ?-809), a renowned caliph of 
the Saracens. He succeeded to the cal- 
iphate in 786, speedily suppressed all 
insurrections and gave himself unreserv- 
edly to pleasure, the country meanwhile 
prospering under trusted administrators. 
He made his capital, Bagdad, the most 
flourishing city of the period. More- 
over, he patronized learning, poetry and 
music, and his court was the resort of 
the most eminent Mohammedans. © He 
is celebrated in song, narrative and in 
stories of the Arabian Nights. 

Har’vard, John (1607-1638), an Eng- 
lish clergyman, born in Southwark, Lon- 
don. He secured his education at Em- 
manuel College, Cambridge, England. In. 
1637 he came to America and made his 
home at Charlestown, Mass. He died 
the following year and left his library 
and half of his estate of £800 to the 
college at Newtown. The-name of the 
town was changed to Cambridge and the 
college was named in honor of John 
Harvard. See HaAarvarp UNIVERSITY. 

Harvard University, at Cambridge, 
Mass. (1636), is the oldest and most 
famous of American universities. In 
1636 the General Court of Massachu- 
setts appropriated £400 for the estab- 
lishing of a college, and the next year 
decided upon its location at New- 
town, subsequently called Cambridge 
after the site of the famous English 
university of that name. The college 
opened in 1638 and graduated its first 
class in 1642: It took the name of John 
Harvard in 1639, having received by his 
bequest his library of some 300 volumes 
and about $2000 in cash. In its inception 
Harvard was a state institution and 
throughout its earlier history it received 
considerable support from the common- 
wealth. But its connection with the state 
was wholly severed in 1865. Harvard is 
governed by a board of overseers elected 
by its alumni, since 1880, regardless of 
state lines. Harvard has a nation-wide 
clientage and a world-wide influence. 


1280 


HARVESTER 


Harvard has an endowment of over 
$47,000,000. The university maintains 
22 departments, including several muse- 
ums and an astronomical observatory 
which has a branch at Arequipa, Peru, 


‘ and the Arnold Arboretum at Jamaica 


Plain. 


The teaching staff numbers 957 
and the enrollment in all departments 
exceeds 6,000. 

RADCLIFFE COLLEGE was developed 
from the Society for the Collegiate In- 
struction for Women, established in 
1782. It took its present name in 1894. 
The instruction is given by teachers in 
Harvard University and the Radcliffe 
degrees are countersigned by the Presi- 
dent of Harvard. It enrolls about 500 
students. See Exiot, CHARLES WIL- 
LIAM; LoweLL, ApBsotT LAWRENCE; 
WoMEN, COLLEGES FOR. 

Harvester. See REAPING MACHINE. 

Harvest Moon, a term used in the 
Northern Hemisphere for the full moon 
at or uear the autumnal equinox, Sept. 
20. For several evenings the full moon 
rises at about the same time and is of 
unusual brilliancy. At this time the moon 
is moving over that part of its orbit 
where the angle with the ecliptic is very 
slight, and the earth, moon and sun are 
in such relative positions that the moon 
is “full. In the Southern Hempishere 
this phenomenon occurs in March. 

Harz, Harts, Mountains, a mountain 
range in northern Germany extending 
through Prussia, Brunswick and Anhalt 


for a distance of 60 m., with a total area 


of 900 sq. m. Its highest summit is the 
Brocken, with an altitude of 3747 ft. 
The peaks are too lofty to support any- 
thing but a scant vegetation, but the 
slopes are heavily wooded with beeches, 
pines and oaks. The important mineral 
deposits include silver, copper, lead and 
iron. | 

Hashish, Hash’ eesh, an Eastern drug 
prepared from species of hemp and used 
as a stimulant. The leaves and tops are 
steeped, or the resin which they contain 
is allowed to exude from the stems and 
is collected. It is sold in drops, which, 
when sweetened, form a sort of candy; 
the leaves are chewed or smoked. Hash- 


HASTINGS 


ish produces a peculiar intoxication 
which may take the form of unnatural 
gayety or of stupor. Its after effects 
are less harmful than those of opium 
and it is sometimes prescribed by physi- 
Clans as a narcotic. 

Hastings, Neb., a city and the county 
seat of Adams Co., 97 m. w. of Lin- 
coln, on the Missouri Pacific, the Chi- 
cago & North Western, the Chicago, Bur- 
lington & Quincy and other railroads. 
The city is situated in an agricultural 
region and has a considerable trade in 
live stock, wheat and corn. Among the 
manufactures are agricultural imple- 
ments, wagons, flour, foundry products 
and bricks. Hastings is the seat of 
Hastings College (Presbyterian), and of 
the Nebraska State Asylum for the © 
Chronic Insane. It has a fine city hall 
and three parks. Settled in 1872, the 
place was incorporated in 1874. » Popu- 
lation in 1920, 11,647. 

Hastings, Warren (1732-1818), the 
first governor-general of India. At 17 
he went to Calcutta in the service of 
the East India Company. He was taken 
prisoner during an Indian uprising, but 
escaped and did good service under 
Clive in the recovery of Calcutta. In 
1758 Clive rewarded him by the post of 
resident at the court of Murshidabad. 
He went to England in 1764, and re- 
turned to India four years later as second 
in council at Madras, and in 1772 he 
was president of the Council of Bengal. 
In 1774 he became governor-general of 
India and devoted his energy to the de- 
velopment of the business of the com- 
pany. He left for England 11 years 
later, with the country in a highly pros- 
perous condition. Soon after, Burke 
charged him with acts of injustice and 
with receiving bribes while in India. 
Hastings was acquitted in 1795 after he 
had used nearly all his wealth in his 
defense. The East India Company set- 
tled a large annuity on him, and he 
passed the remainder of his days at 
Daylesford. 

Hastings, Battle of, a decisive battle 
between Harold II and William the Con- 
queror in 1066. MHarold had been 


1281 


HAT 


crowned king, but William laid claim to 
the throne. Harold was _ mortally 
wounded, the English were defeated and 
the work of the Norman Conquest be- 
gan.’ This is one of the 15 decisive 
battles of the world. See Haroxp II. 
Hat, a covering for the head, usually 
carrying a brim. Hats were occasionally 
worn by the Greeks and Romans, but 
did not become an indispensable article 
of dress until modern times. In the 15th 
century hats were extensively manufac- 
tured in western Europe, and in the 17th 
century were introduced into England. 
Styles in hats are all the time undergo- 
ing changes, those of women’s hats be- 
ing more pronounced than men’s. Hats 
are made of various materials, felt, silk, 
cloth, grass and straw being commonly 
employed in their manufacture. Felt 
hats are made of rabbit’s hair with a 
small mixture of beaver fur. Straw hats 
are made either by plaiting or weaving, 
the former being the more usual method. 
The finest straw hats are the Leghorns 
and Milans of Italy and the Panamas of 
South America. Very fine straw hats 
are made also in China and Japan. 
Hattiesburg, Hat’ iz burg,. Miss., a 
city and the county seat of Forrest Co., 
84 m. s.e. of Jackson and 111 m. ne. of 
New Orleans, La., on the Hastahatchee 
River and on the Queen & Crescent 
Route, the Mobile, Jackson & Kansas 
City, the Mississippi Central, the Gulf 
& Ship Island and other railroads. 
There are in and near the city cotton- 
seed-oil mills, a cotton compress, saw 
and planing mills, a foundry, machine 
shops, boiler works, railroad shops, an 
ice plant and manufactories of naval 
stores, brick, wood alcohol and mat- 
tresses. There are several handsome 
buildings. Hattiesburg is governed un- 
der a revised charter of 1906. Popula- 
tion in 1920, U. S. Census, 13,270, 
Hau/berk, a coat of mail, sometimes 
extending only to the neck, but often 
coming up over the head as a coif, leav- 
ing only the face exposed. The sleeves 
sometimes terminated at the elbow, but 
often extended to the wrist, and occa- 
sionally even covered the hands as a 


HAVANA 


glove. In the 14th century the hauberk 
was worn under plate armor. 

Haupt’mann, Gerhart (1862- sea 
German dramatist, born in Silesia. He 
is one of the most important repre- 
sentatives of modern German dramatic 
literature, his later writing being dis- 
tinguished from the earlier realistic dra- 
mas by its idealism, mysticism and poetic 
beauty. His best work is represented 
by Before Sunrise, The Sunken Bell, 
Florian Geyer, The Driver Henschel, 
The Weavers and Hannele. In 1912 he 
was awarded the Nobel prize for litera- 
ture. 

Havan’a, the capital of Cuba and one 
of the important commercial ports of the 
New World. It is located on the north- 
west coast of the island upon a fine har- 
bor whose narrow channel, nearly one- 
half mile in length, opens into a basin 
capable of sheltering a fleet of 1000 ves- 
sels. At the west entrance to the harbor 
stands Punta Castle, and at the west are 
Morro Castle and La Cabafia, fortresses 
that guard the city. Havana is an at- 
tractive city with its buildings of Span- 
ish architecture, its tiled roofs’ and its 
gaily-painted houses of red, yellow and 
blue. The inner part of the city is old, 
and up to the time of the American occu- 
pation had narrow, crooked streets, in 
kempt and unpaved. Owing to the in» 
adequate sewer systems, the city was un~ 
sanitary and plagues were frequent. 
With the improvements in these lines 
Flavana has become a pleasing modern 
city. Among its attractive edifices are 
the great cathedral, a fine opera house, 
and the government buildings. Still more 
admirable are its beautiful parks, shaded 
drives and flower-bedecked open spaces. 
There is a university and several lesser 
schools. The manufacture of tobacco and 
sugar refining are the chief industries. 

The harbor of Havana was first en- 
tered in 1508, and the city was founded 
in 1515. The city has been many times 
entered and sacked by pirates; it was 
once captured by Drake, was attacked by 
the Dutch and was held for a year by 
the English. In February, 1898, the 
United States battleship Maine was 


1282 


ett ieee 


HAVELOCK 


blown up in the harbor and the city was 
blockaded by the American fleet in the 
Spanish-American War. Population, 
360,000. 

Havelock, Hav’ lok, Sir Henry (1795- 
1857), a British general. He entered the 
British army and in 1823 went to India. 
He became captain in 1838 and his pro- 
motions followed rapidly from that time; 
he became deputy adjutant-general of 
the troops in India in 1854. During the 
mutiny in India he rendered valuable 
service and crowned his career with the 
capture of Lucknow. 

Haverhill, Ha’ ver il, Mass., a city of 
Essex Co., 18 m. n.e..of Lowell and 33 
m. n. of Boston, on the left bank of the 
Merrimac River at the head of naviga- 
tion, 14 m. from Newburyport. Harbor, 
and on the Boston & Maine and other 
railroads. It is an important center of 
street-railway traffic ; electric lines radiat- 
ing from it connect with all the near-by 
towns and cities of northeastern Massa- 
chusetts and southeastern New Hamp- 
shire. The city contains several villages 
and the former town of Bradford, which 
was annexed in 1897. Like nearly all 
old New England cities, it is irregularly 


laid out. Six lakes—Kenoza, Saltonstall, 


Round Pond, Crystal, Chadwick’s Pond 
and Mill Vale—lie within the limits of 
the city. There are 15 public parks, the 
largest of which, Winnikenni Park, is 
of great natural beauty. Among the 
noted public institutions are the Brad- 
ford Academy for girls, founded in 1803 
and one of the oldest academies in the 
country, St. James School (Catholic), a 
new high school, the public library and 
the Hale Hospital. The Buttonwoods, 
now occupied by the Historical Society, 
marks closely the site of the first settle- 
ment of Haverhill. The Whittier home- 
stead, where the poet was born (See 
WaHitTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF), and the 
scene of his famous poem Snow-Bound, 
is situated about three miles from the 
city. The building is now owned by 
the Whittier Association. 

There are extensive woolen mills and 
morocco factories and manufactories of 
wool hats, worsted cloth, machinery, 


HAVERSTRAW 


tacks, heels, stiffenings, shanks, lasts and 
patterns. The leading industry, how- 
ever, is the manufacture of boots, shoes 
and slippers, chiefly of the finer grades. 
One of the largest sole-leather manu- 
factories in the world is located here. 
Haverhill leads the world in the manu- 
facture of low-cut shoes. It stands third 
in the value of manufactured boots and 
shoes. The first settlement was made in 
1640 and called Pentucket. The name 
was later changed to Haverhill. In 1890 
Haverhill celebrated the 250th anniver- 
sary of its settlement, Whittier sending 
as a tribute his beautiful poem, Haver- 
hill, two stanzas of which are appended 
below. A city charter was granted in 
1869. Haverhill has the commission 


form of government. Population in 1920, 
U.S. Census, 53,884. 


Wise was the choice which led our sires 
To kindle here their household fires, 
And share the large content of all 
Whose lives in pleasant places fall. 


More dear, as years on years advance, 
We prize the old inheritance, 

And feel, as far and wide we roam, 
That all we seek we leave at home. 


Hav’ersack, a word meaning, liter- 
ally, a sack for oats, but used to desig- 
nate a soldier’s bag for carrying rations. 
This bag is made of strong duck cloth, 
and is secured by a strap passing over 
the right shoulder. It is carried when 
on the march, and can contain sufficient 
food to sustain the soldier until he is 
again within reach of a base of supplies. 

Hav’erstraw, N. Y., a city of Rock- 
Iand).©o., 32° m:«17. ot ‘New York City, 
on the west bank of the Hudson River, 


‘ which here expands into broad Haver- 


straw Bay, and on the West Shore and 
the New York, Ontario & Western rail- 
roads. At the house of Thomas H. Smith, 
since called the “Old Treason House,” 
Arnold met André in September, 1780, 
to arrange for the surrender of West 
Point. Haverstraw has extensive manu- 
factories of brick and brick machines, 
and dye works, print mills, etc. The 
city is surrounded on the west by the 
steep and rocky cliffs of the Ramapo 
Mountains. Population in 1920, 5,226, 


1283 


HAVRE 


Havre, Hah’ ver, a seaport of north- 
-western France, situated on the estuary 
of the Seine, 143 m. n.w. of Paris. The 
chief buildings are the Church of Notre 
Dame, the Hotel de Ville, the exchange, 
an arsenal, a museum and several thea- 
ters and schools. Because of its forti- 
fications Havre ranks next to Marseilles 
in importance as a seaport. It is the 
great French market for cotton; other 
exports include silk and woolen goods, 
coffee, leather, hides, wine, earthenware, 
glass and fancy goods. Population in 
1906, 129,403. 

Hawaii, Hah wi ee, or Hawaiian 
Islands, a group of islands forming a 
territory of the United States and lying 
in the Pacific Ocean about 2400 m. s.w. 
of San Francisco and 3392 m. s.e. of 
Yokohama. The group consists of nine 
inhabited islands lying between latitudes 
18° to 23° north and between longitudes 
154° to 161° west, and has a total area 
of from 6000 to 7000 sq. m. Besides 
these larger islands, there are several 
smaller barren rocks. The names of the 
islands are Midway, Hawaii, Maui, 
Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Kahool- 
awe and Niihau. These are all volcanic 
in origin and the mountains of Hawaii 
contain some of the largest volcanoes 
in the world. Mauna Kea and Mauna 
Loa upon the Island of Hawaii are re- 
spectively 13,805 and 13,675 ft. in height, 
and Kilauea, a lower shoulder of Mauna 
Loa is the most active crater in the world. 
The other islands have volcanoes only 
slightly less well known. 

CrimaTe. The climate of the islands 
is pleasant at sea level; the tempera- 
ture rarely falls below 55 degrees or rises 
above 88 degrees. The amount of rain- 
fall differs greatly in different sections, 
being as low as 25 inches annually in 
some parts and as high as 400 inches 
annually in others. 

Propucts AND INpustrIEs. The soil 
is very fertile, and large forests, espe- 
cially of acacias, candlenut trees and 
ohia flourish. Fruits, both native and 
introduced, are abundant, and include 
such plants as the strawberry, guava, 
mango, banana, pineapple and aracado 


HAWK 


pear. The chief industries are the rais- 
ing of sugar cane and pineapples, and 
these occupations employ the great ma- 
jority of the people. Sugar, pineapple, 
coffee and bananas are exported. Some 
cattle are raised on the mountain slopes, 
but the herds are from imported stock 
since no animals larger than Rodents are 
native in the islands. Manufacturers 
are almost unknown. 

INHABITANTS, CiTIEs, Etc. The na- 
tive Hawaiians are said to be the most 
intelligent of the Polynesians; as a race 
they are of the Christian faith and are 
industrious and skillful. The pure Ha- 
waiian race is, however, rapidly dying 
out. At present the greatest racial ele- 
ment is Japanese, while Caucasians, 
chiefly Portuguese, and Chinese are also 
numerous. The principal city and the 
capital is Honolulu, a city in direct steam- 
ship connection with San _ Francisco, 
Seattle, Tacoma, Sydney and all ports. 
Other important cities are Hilo, Lahaina, 
Kahului, Wailukee and Lihue. 

History. The Hawaiian Islands were 
discovered by Cook in 1778 and were 
first called.the Sandwich Islands after 
Lord Sandwich. At that time each island 
had its own king, but in time the eight 
islands were united into one kingdom, 
whose only law was the will of the ruler. 
In 1840 King Kamehameha granted a 
constitution, which continued in effect 
until 1893, when Queen Liliuokalani as- 
cended the throne and attempted a return 
to the old despotic form of government ; 
a revolution resulted, in which the Queen 
was deposed and a republic organized. 


In 1898, after many previous unsuccess- 


ful attempts, Hawaii was annexed to the 
United States, and in 1900 became the 
Territory of Hawaii. The population 
in 1920, United States Census, was 
255,912) 

Hawk, a bird of the Hawk and Eagle 
Family. The common hen, or chicken 
hawk, is the bird known to science as 
Copper’s hawk. It is about the size of a 
hen (17 inches long) and is bluish-gray 
above, darker on the head; the throat 
and sides of the head are whitish, with 
black shaft lines, while the rest of the 


1284 


HAWKINS 


body is white, with reddish bars. The 
tail is gray with blackish bars. Cooper’s 
hawk is a good flyer, and usually rises 
to a great altitude. Its flight is very 
characteristic, consisting of several wing 
strokes followed by a period of sailing 
or soaring. The nest is very large and 
is made of sticks. It is usually placed 
near the top of a large tree. 
ally an old crow’s nest or a deserted 
hawk’s nest is used. Four or five bluish 
or greenish-white eggs are laid, which 
are unspotted or irregularly marked with 
brown. 

There are three hawks which habit- 
ually feed on poultry: the goshawk, 
Cooper’s hawk, and the sharp-shinned 
hawk, which is smaller than Cooper’s 
hawk, but marked almost exactly like it. 
The majority of the hawks are beneficial 
and feed on meadow mice, moles and 
injurious Rodents, as well as upon in- 
sects. The small sparrow hawk feeds 
largely on grasshoppers, a fact which 


‘should lead to its more rigid protection. 


See SPARROW HaAwk. 
Hawkins, Anthony Hope _ (1863- 
), an English novelist, born in Lon- 
don. After studying at Marlborough 
and at Oxford, he took up law and was 
admitted to the bar in 1887. Finding 
literary work more to his liking, he 
abandoned law, and has been writing 
fiction since 1890. The Prisoner of 
Zenda, published in 1894, made him fa- 
mous. The Dolly Dialogues, published 
the same year and since, are delightful 
reading because of their neat epigrams 
and clever repartee. Mr. Hawkins writes 
with admirable animation and precision 
of touch. His other writings include 
The Chronicles of Count Antonio, Com- 
edies of Courtship, The Heart of Prin- 
cess Osra, Phroso and The King’s Mur- 
ror. 

Hawkins, or Hawkyns, Sir John 
(1532-1595), an English naval officer 
and explorer. In 1562 he carried a 
cargo of 300 slaves from Guinea to 
Cuba, where he sold them. Two years 


- later he barely escaped capture while try- 


ing to enslave a town near Sierra Leone; 
out he later disposed of two cargoes of 


Occasion- | 


HAWTHORN 


Africans. Returning from his third ex- 
pedition, he encountered a Spanish fleet, 
was defeated but escaped. Subsequently 
he was a member of Parliament and was 
treasurer and comptroller of the navy, 
in which capacity he was efficient but 
dishonest. 

Hawk Moth, a family of large, pow- 
erful moths, with thick bodies and strong 
wings. In this family the different spe- 
cies, of which there are about 60, vary 
in color according to their habits and 
their surroundings. In general, how- 
ever, they have long forewings, whose 
posterior margins are noticeably oblique, 
and short, narrow hind wings generally 
of paler color. The antennz are short, 
and, in the males, are beset with a row 
of short bristles. The tongue is most 
commonly long, spiral and very strong. 
The larve, or caterpillars, are large, 
fleshy worms frequently of bright color. 
The pupz are large and leathery in color. 

The hawk moths most frequently fly 
by night or at twilight, and, while on 
the wing, suck honey from the flowers 
or the exuding sap of trees. They are 
most widely distributed in Europe, but 
are found not infrequently in the United 
States. All species are admired for their 
size and for their soft or gaudy colors. 
See DEatTH’s-HEap Moru. 

Haw’thorn, a small tree or shrub of 
the Rose Family, which in England is 
the most common hedge plant and in 
America is known chiefly as an orna- 
mental lawn shrub. The tree has hard 
wood; and the branches, hard, spiny 
thorns. The leaves are cleft, sometimes 
with rounding and sometimes with 
pointed lobes. The flowers, which are 
fragrant, are white or pinkish-white 
and purple, and, though smaller, resem- 
ble the single wild rose in form and 
growth. In England, where the hedges 
are unclipped, they form one of the chief 
delights of the landscape in the spring 
and early summer. The fruits are yel- 


low, scarlet or coral-red stone fruits 


scarcely larger than peas, and are called 
haws. These, like the flowers, grow in 
loose clusters. Many rural customs of 
England are associated with the haw- 


1285 


HAWTHORNE 


thorn. The Maypole in southern Eng- 
land is always crowned with hawthorn 
blossoms and the entire plant is dedi- 
cated to the pastoral Muse. 

Hawthorne, julian (1846- \evein 
American novelist and journalist, born 
in Boston, Mass. He graduated at Har- 
vard and studied civil engineering in 
‘Dresden, but soon, like his father Na- 
thaniel Hawthorne, entered upon a lit- 
erary career. His early productions 
were in the form of magazine contri- 
butions. His writings are characterized 
by originality and an atmosphere of 
mystery and romance. They include 
The Professor’s Sister, John Parmelee’s 
Curse, A Fool of Nature, Confessions of 
a Convict, Noble Blood, History of the 
United States and Nathaniel Hawthorne 
and His Wrfe. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1804-1864), 
foremost American novelist, born at Sa- 
lem, Mass. William Hathorne, the 
head of the American branch of the fam- 
ily, came to America from Wiltshire, 
England, in 1630. His son John, who 
was active in the Salem witchcraft per- 
secutions, was followed by a line of sea- 
farers, the father of Nathaniel Haw- 
thorne being the captain of a trading 
vessel. Upon the death of Captain Ha- 
thorne in 1808, his widow at once re- 
moved with her three children to her 
father’s house, where the little family 
lived in almost total seclusion. Nathaniel 
was a solitary, imaginative boy whose 
natural liking for the weird and mystical 
was intensified by the atmosphere of the 
home life and the haunting memories 
Salem possessed of the old witchcraft 
days. As a child he read Shakespeare, 
Milton, Pope and Thomson. Dr. Worces- 
ter, the dictionary maker, was an early 
teacher. One year of his boyhood was 
spent on Sebago Lake, in Maine, where, 
enjoying the solitude of the primeval 
woods, he lived, as he afterwards said, 
with the freedom of “a bird in the air.” 
In his early manhood he changed the 
family name of Hathorne to that of Haw- 
thorne. 

A? COLLEGE; First WriTINcs. Re- 
turning to Salem to prepare for college, 


HAWTHORNE 


Hawthorne found amusement in issuing a 
few copies of a periodical which he called 
the Spectator, and which gave evidence 
of considerable talent. He entered Bow- 
doin College in 1821, where he became 
acquainted with Longfellow and formed 
a lifelong friendship with Franklin 
Pierce. His college life was not event- 
ful, and he was graduated in 1825 with- 
out honors, having distinguished himself 
only by his compositions. On leaving 
college, Hawthorne resumed his solitary 
life in Salem, varying a period of con- 
stant reading and writing, which lasted 
i2Z years, by long walks at twilight. Most 
of what he wrote by day he burned by 
night, so fastidious were his tastes. A 
crude story, Fanshawe, he afterwards 
suppressed, but he finally became known 
to readers by the publication in the Bos- 
ton Token of some of his sketches and 
tales. Being further encouraged by 
friendly notices regarding his work, in 
the London Atheneum, he had published 
in 1837 the first series of Twice-Told 
Tales. ‘Longfellow enthusiastically re- 
viewed the book in the North American 
Review, the beginning of a warm friend- 
ship between the two authors. 
Hawthorne’s appearance as a writer 
had led to his acquaintance with a lady 
of literary tastes, Miss Sophia Peabody, 
to whom he became engaged. The mea- 
ger financial returns from his literary 
work made marriage impossible as yet, 
and he therefore accepted in 1839 a posi- 
tion as weigher in the custom-house at 
Boston. A change of administration in 
two years released him from this unat- 


tractive work and he was glad to return - 


to his writing in Salem. The first part 
of Grandfather's Chair, a series of 
sketches for children, appeared in 1841, 
and in the same year he invested his 
modest savings of $1000 and a few 
months of his time in the unsuccessful 
Brook Farm enterprise (See Brook 
FARM). 

LITERARY DEVELOPMENT. Hawthorne 
was married in 1842, taking his bride to 
an historic old house in Concord, where 
he had as neighbors Ellery Channing, 
Emerson and Thoreau. The appearance 


1286 


HAWTHORNE 


of a second series of Twice-Told Tales in 
1842 and of Mosses from an Old Manse 
the following year added to his literary 
reputation rather than to his financial 
prosperity, and in 1846 he returned to 
Salem to accept another custom-house po- 
sition. This work did not entirely hinder 
his literary efforts, for he wrote during 
this period the first draft of The Scarlet 
Letter, which, on its publication in 1850, 
was received in America and England 
with deserved warmth. 

After the publication of The Scarlet 
Letter, Hawthorne removed to Lenox, 
Mass., where he wrote The House of the 
Seven Gables and The Wonder-Book; 
later, to West Newton near Boston, pro- 
ducing here The Blithedale Romance, a 
story suggested by his experience at 
Brook Farm, and some more tales. In 
the summer of 1852 he bought a house 
’ in Concord, Mass., naming it The Way- 
side. A life of Franklin Pierce, then 
candidate for the presidency, and Tangle- 
wood Tales were written here. On the 
election of Pierce as president, Haw- 
thorne received the appointment to the 
consulate at Liverpool, and spent the next 
seven years in Europe (1853-60), part 
of this period being devoted to travel 
in the British Isles, France and Italy. 
During his residence in Italy he sketched 
out The Marble Faun, The last four 
years of his life, during which his health 
gradually declined, were spent at The 
Wayside and were productive of only a 
volume of English impressions, Our Old 
Home, and some unfinished stories. He 
died at Plymouth, N. H., while on a trip 
to the White Mountains with his friend, 
Ex-President Pierce, and was buried in 
Sleepy Hollow, a beautiful cemetery at 
Concord. Near his grave are those of 
Emerson and Thoreau. 

LITERARY QUALITIES. Hawthorne was 
the most typically Puritan of all the New 
England group who hold first place in 
American literature. The deep earnest- 
ness, the consciousness of ancestral sin, 
the sense of the mystery of life were 
his by inheritance, and the conscience of 
man was his theme. Yet he was not a 
moralist. The lessons that his books teach 


HAY 


are there because his vision of life was 
broad and his understanding and inter- 
pretation of human nature true to life; 
his books are not marred by a preach- 
ing spirit because he viewed human ex- 
periences in the light of his rich, crea- 
tive imagination. Lacking the prophetic 
spirit of Emerson, the passionate love 
of reform that animated Whittier, or the 
knowledge of world literature possessed 
by Lowell and Longfellow, he was more 
than all of these an artist—attaining a 
grace and perfection of language that 
place him among the great writers of 
English prose. His work reflects his own 
life, that of a man who lived purely, sim- 
ply and sincerely, keeping somewhat 
aloof from worldly cares, quietly devoted 
to his art. 

Hawthorne’s works consist chiefly of 
four novels, The Scarlet Letter, The 
Blithedale Romance, The House of the 
Seven Gables and The Marble Faun; 
five volumes of short tales; American, 
English, French and Italian note-books ; 
and his books for children. 

Hay, the stems of certain grasses and 
sedges dried and used as fodder. The 
name is broadly used to include the dried 
plants of clover, but excludes such 
grasses as corn, sorghum and sugar cane, 
and the stems of cereals, as wheat, oats 
and rye, which are called straw. The 
hay crop in the United States is the 
most valuable crop after the cereals. It 
is produced in all of the states, but its 
price varies in different sections of the 
country. The average yield of hay is 
about one and a quarter tons per acre. 
It should be cut when in flower and 
dried in the sun; thus successful haying 
weather must be warm, bright and dry. 
The cutting is now done almost entirely 
by machinery. After being thoroughly 
dried the hay is often stacked and left 
with no other protection than its own 
thatch. For shipping any distance hay 
is baled, or pressed, into large, tightly- 
compressed bales of about 200 Ib. each. 
New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and 
Towa, in the order named, are the great- 
est hay-producing states. See ALFALFA; 
CLOVER; TIMOTHY. 


1287 


HAY 


Hay, John (1838-1905), an. Amer- 
ican author and diplomat of Scottish de- 
scent, born at Salem, Ind. He gradu- 
ated at Brown University in 1858, stud- 
ied law, and was admitted to the bar 
in Illinois in 1861. He immediately went 
to Washington, however, as assistant 
secretary to Lincoln, whose friendship 
he had gained, and remained with him 
almost constantly until his death. He 
acted also as Lincoln’s adjutant and aid- 
de-camp. This friendship later bore 
fruit in Hay’s Life of Abraham Lincoln, 
written in collaboration with John G. 
Nicolay. 

From 1865 to 1870 Hay was secre- 
tary of legation at Paris, Vienna and 
Madrid. He was an editorial writer on 
the New York Tribune from 1870 to 
1875. In 1879-81 he was first assist- 
ant secretary of state, and was ambas- 
sador to Great Britain in 1897-98, after 
which he returned home to become sec- 
retary of state, filling this position until 
his death. In 1901 he negotiated the 
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, dealing with 
the Isthmian Canal. He also hada lead- 
ing part in the settlement of Chinese 
affairs after the Boxer uprising, secur- 
ing pledges guaranteeing the territorial 
integrity of China and the “open-door’”’ 
policy in trade. He was the exponent 
of a frank and straight-forward diplo- 
macy that commanded universal respect. 

In addition to his Life of Lincoln he 
published, among other works, Pike 
County Ballads, Castilian Days and sev- 
eral volumes of essays. 

Hay’den, Ferdinand Vandeveer 
(1829-1887), an American scientist, 


born in Westfield, Mass., and educated ° 


at Oberlin College and in Albany, N. Y., 
where he studied medicine. He early 
explored and surveyed the Great Plains 
and the Rocky Mountains, in 1861 be- 
coming surgeon of volunteers. Follow- 
ing the war, in 1867, he made a geolog- 
ical survey of the Territory of Nebraska. 
The organization which he effected in 
making this survey was finally, in 1879, 
formed into the United States Geolog- 
ical Survey, through his efforts. He su- 
perintended the survey until 1886, and 


1288 


HAYES 


wrote widely on the resources of the 
West. 

Hay’dn, Franz Joseph (1732-1809), 
one of the greatest of musical compos- 
ers, born at Rohrau, Austria. After 
various struggles with poverty, his gen- 
ius was recognized, and in 1758 he-»was 
appointed musical director to Count 
Franz Morzin, for whose orchestra he 
wrote his first symphony. In 1760 he 
became assistant choirmaster to Prince 
Esterhazy, succeeding to the directorship 
in 1766 and remaining nearly 30 years 
in this capacity. During this period he 
composed a large number of works in 
various forms. At the termination of 
this engagement, he traveled through 
Europe and visited England, where he 
was honored by royalty and by Oxford, 
which conferred upon him an honorary 
degree. In London he wrote the opera 
Orpheus and Euridice and his oratorios, 
The Creation and The Seasons. He was 
an indefatigable worker, and produced 
in all some 7/00 instrumental works, . 
among them 125 symphonies, 77 quar- 
tets, about 50 sonatas, 31 concertos, three 
trios and the famous Austrian national 
anthem. 

Haydn is rightly called the father of 
the symphony and quartet. These forms 
reached perfection in his hands, where 
they became the pattern for all that 
were written afterward. | 

Hayes, Haze, Rutherford Birchard 
(1822-1893), nineteenth president of the 
United States, born in Delaware, Ohio. 
He graduated from Kenyon College and 
was admitted to the bar in 1845, begin- 
ning his practice at Lower Sandusky, 
but removing to Cincinnati in 1849. At 
the beginning of the Civil War he be- 
came major of volunteers, and by dis- 
tinguished service rose to the rank of 
brevet major-general before its close. In 
1864-66 he was a member of Congress, 
and was governor of Ohio from 1867 
to 1871, and from 1875 to 1877. 

Hayes was nominated for the presi- 
dency of the United States by the Re- 
publican Party in 1876. He favored the 
withdrawal of troops from the South in 
the interests of conciliation, and advo- 


ih 


 lassitude. 


HAY FEVER 


cated civil service reform and a sound 
financial policy. At the close of his 


_ administration he retired from political 


life and devoted himself to interests of 


a philanthropic and seinem, EEE 


He was a member of the Peabody Edu- 
cation Board and was president of the 
National Prison Association. Many ed- 
ucational institutions recognized his em1- 
nent services by conferring upon him 


honorary degrees. 


Hay Fever, a malady which takes the 
form of a “cold in the head.” It is 
characterized by a profuse discharge 
from the nose, sneezing ahd inflamma- 
tion of the eyes, causing them to run 
water. It is enervating to the whole 
system and causes a feeling of general 
The disease usually appears 
in the late summer, and it has been 
thought to be due to ripening of the 
pollen of certain plants or to dust. It 


is doubtless greatly aggravated by these’ 


agencies. The disease may be fore- 
stalled by a change of climate; other- 
wise it is liable to recur with increasing 
violence each year and to terminate in 
asthma. 

Hayne, Robert Young (1791-1839), 
an American statesman, born in St. 
Paul’s Parish, S. C. He was admitted 
to the bar at the age of 21; served in 
the War of 1812; was in the State Legis- 
lature from 1814 to 1818; was attorney- 
general of his state during the next four 
years; was United States senator from 
1823 to 1832; and then became governor 
of the state. He was a strong advocate 
of states’ rights and the nullification doc- 
trine, and gained special prominence by 
his famotis debate with Daniel Webster 
on that issue in 1830. See NULLIFICA- 
TION. ! , 

Hay-Pauncefote, Pons’ foot, Treaty, 


the name applied to the treaty nego- 


tated in 1901 by Secretary of State 
Jun. Hay for the United States and 
Lord Pauncefote, ambassador to the 
United States for Great Britain. This 
treaty abrogated the Clayton-Bulwer 
Treaty of 1850 and recognized the right 
of the United States to construct, own 
ind control a canal across the isthmus 


HAZEL 


connecting North and South America. 
By the terms of the treaty no guaran- 
tees of the neutrality of the canal were 
to be asked of Great Britain or any other » 
power; the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was 
specifically abrogated; and the United 
States not forbidden to construct forti- | 
fications nor required to keep the canal 
open in time of war. 

Hays, Charles Melville (1856-1912), 
a railway official, born in Rock Island, 
Ill. When 17 he entered the service 
of the Atlantic & Pacific Railway, St. 


Louis, Mo., later being promoted to the 


office of its general superintendent. In 
1886 he was appointed assistant gen- 
eral manager of the Wabash, St. Louis 
& Pacific Railway. The following year 
he became general manager of the Wa- 
bash Western and two years later was 
appointed to a like position with the 
reorganized Wabash system, of which he 
subsequently became vice-president. From 
1896 to 1901 he was general manager 
of the Grand Trunk Railway, of which, 
in October, 1910, he became president. 
He died in the Titanic disaster of April, 
1912. 

Hay’ti. See Hairt. 

Haze, an aggregation of minute par- 
ticles in the air which partly obscure vi- 
sion. Hazy effects are usually observed 
when the lower air is in a state of excep- 
tional dryness. Although sometimes 
caused by the refraction of light in as- 
cending and descending atmospheric cur- 
rents of different densities over a heated 
area, known as heat haze, and again by 
minute particles of moisture in the upper 
air and called aqueous haze, these effects 
are ordinarily due to dust. The dust is 
swept into the upper air currents by the 
wind, where it is frequently of sufficient 
density to form a veil usually at a height 
of about 1500 ft. though often much 
higher. Haze is almost invariably caused 
by the great forest fires of North Amer- 
ica, being produced in this case by the 
particles of carbon left by the smoke. 

Ha/’zel, a nut-bearing shrub of the 
Oak Family, found in thickets mostly 
in the Northern States. The flowers 
appear before the leaves in the spring 


| 1289 


HAZEN 


and are of two kinds; those which pro- 
duce fruit are borne in fringed or plumed 
cups, and those which furnish the fer- 
tilizing dust are borne in long, droop- 
ing catkins. The leaves are broad, light 
green in color and have margins marked 
with intricate scallops and lobes. The 
nut is surrounded by a leafy covering, 
called a cupule, which tightly encloses 
its treasure until the frost releases it. 
Hazelnuts are sweet and very nutritious 
and, though not sold abundantly upon 
the market, are sought and prized in re- 
gions where they grow. Fuilberts, which 
are probably better known commercially, 
are a variety of hazelnuts which have 
been produced through cultivation, and 
are sweeter and more meaty than na- 
tive hazelnuts. 

Many legends and traditions center 
around the hazel, which like the witch- 
hazel is said to be efficacious as a di- 
vining rod for locating hidden treasure. 
Legend also connects the comparatively 
modern word hazing with the word hazel, 
since the hazel rod was the ready assist- 
ant of the early schoolmaster who strove, 
by its aid, to induce a more strict appli- 
cation to books. 

Ha’zen, William Babcock (1830- 
1887), an American soldier, born at West 
Hartford, Vt., and educated at West 
Point. He joined the Union army at 
the beginning of the Civil War and won 
distinction in a number of important 
engagements. He served under Sher- 
man in his Atlanta campaign and took 
a prominent part in the capture of Sa- 
vannah. In 1880 he was appointed head 
of the signal service and was instru- 
mental in securing great improvement 
in the service and equipment of the de- 
partment. He was practically the origi- 
nator of, the “ weather’) bureau see 
WEATHER BUREAU. 

Ha/’zleton, Pa., a city of Luzerne Co., 
31 m. s.w. of Wilkes-Barre, the county 
seat, and 114 m. n.w. of Philadelphia, 
on the Lehigh Valley, the Pennsylvania 
and other railroads. The Wilkes-Barre 
& Hazleton electric railroad connects 
with Wilkes-Barre and Scranton and the 
near-by towns and cities. Hazleton is 


HAZLITT 


picturesquely situated on a broad table 
land on Nescopeck, or Buck, Mountain, 
a spur of the Blue Mountains, nearly 
1800 ft. above sea level, and is an at- 
tractive summer resort. A large and 
well-kept park and many handsome resi- 
dences are located here. The principal 
industry is the mining and shipping of 
anthracite. Among the public buildings 
are a state hospital and Nurses home, a 
city hall, a\ public Library, about thir- 
ty churches, several parochial schools 
and fourteen public school buildings, 
including a fine modern High School. 
Among the manufacturing  establish- 
ments are silk mills, knitting factories, 
lumber and planing mills, shirt fac- 
tories, ironworks, baking-pan works, 
earthenware works, cigar factories, cas- 
ket works, foundries and machine shops, 
wagon and carriage works and cornice 
works. 

The first settlement was made in 1820. 
The place was laid out as a town in 1836, 
incorporated as a borough in 1856 and 
granted a city charter in 1891. Popu- 
lation in 1920, U.S. Censusiee2 7 

Haz’litt, William (1778-1830), an 
English essayist and critic, born in Maid- 
stone. His father was a clergyman, but 
in the Unitarian College at Hackney the 
son showed greater interest in literature 
and art than in theology and decided to 
become a portrait painter. He visited 


the art galleries of Paris in 1802, and © 


ten years later settled in Westminster. 
After lecturing on philosophy he turned 
to journalism, and began his work as an 
essayist and dramatic, art and literary 
critic. His criticisms illustrated the new 
spirit of the age in which he lived, the 


tendency to regard literature with per- 


sonal enthusiasm, and like Charles Lamb 
and Thomas De Quincey, contemporary 
prose writers of the Romantic Period, 
he united the criticism of literature with 
the criticism of life. His essays were 
highly effective, both because of their 
clear and vigorous style and their wide 
range of subject matter. His writings 
were collected under the titles The Round 
Table, The Spirit of the Age, The Plain 
Speaker, Lectures on the Dramatic Liter- 


1290 


\ 


HEALTH, BOARDS OF 


ature of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, 
Table Talk, A View of the English 
Stage, Lectures on the English Poets 
and Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 

Health, Boards of, institutions or- 
ganized under government for the pur- 
pose of safeguarding the health of citi- 
zens. The organizations are national, 
state or municipal. In the United States 
there has been no national board of 
health since 1883, but the duties which 
would devolve upon such a body are now 
discharged by the United States Bureau 
of Animal Industry, various food com- 
missions and by the United States Ma- 
rine Hospital Service. State boards are 
established by enactments of the Legisla- 
tures of the respective states, and each 
maintains an advisory relation to the san- 
itary organizations in various localities 
over which it has jurisdiction. It is the 
function of the municipal boards to pro- 
tect the health of the municipality. This 
is accomplished by regulating building 
construction in such a way as to make 
proper provision for ventilation, drain- 
age and plumbing, and to secure such 
safety devices as fire escapes and eleva- 
tors; by controlling the sale of drugs and 
food, and thereby preventing the mar- 
keting of impure food products and 
drugs under misleading labels; by pro- 
viding for the removal of garbage and 
the cleaning of streets; by supervising 
slaughterhouses, public vaccination and 
quarantine; and by regulating a multi- 
tude of other matters pertaining to the 
public health. 

Hearing. See Ear. 

Hearst, William Randolph (1863- 

), an American journalist, born in 

San Francisco and educated at Harvard 
University. In 1886 he became editor 
and publisher of the San Francisco Ex- 
aminer. He secured possession also of 
the New York Journal and of The Ad- 
vertiser, and founded the Chicago Amer- 
ican. He has been congressman from 
New York and president of the National 
League of Democratic Clubs. He was 
candidate for president of the United 
States in 1904, ran for the mayoralty 
of New York City in 1905, and was 


HEART 


candidate for governor of New York 
State in 1906. Mr. Hearst has been 
prominent in efforts to secure a regula- 
tion of corporate combinations by legal 
enactments. At the time of the Galves- 
ton and San Francisco disasters he took 
a leading part in securing funds for the 
relief of the sufferers. 

Heart, Hart, a muscular organ, whose 
function is to pump the blood through 
the body and keep up the circulation. It 
is about the size of a closed fist, and 
is in the shape of a flattened cone, with 
its base extending upward. From the 
base to the apex it measures five and 
one-half inches, three and _ one-half 
inches across its broad surface, and it 
is two and one-half inches in thickness. 
In men its average weight is 11 ounces; 
im women, nine ounces. It is situated 
in the chest cavity between the lungs 
and reaches upward to the second rib. 
About two-thirds of its mass lies to the 
left of the middle line of the body. The 
upper part points upward, backward and 
to the right; the lower end points down- 
ward, outward and to the left, the tilt 
being nearer horizontal than vertical. 

The heart ‘is made of muscular fibers 
and is enclosed in a sac of serous mem- 
brane, called the pericardium. It is di- 
vided into four cavities, or chambers, 


the right and the left auricle above, and 


the right. and the left. ventricle in’ the 
apex below. Separating the right from 
the left chambers is a muscular parti- 
tion, called the septum. The blood is 
forced by contracting muscles from the 
left ventricle into large arteries, which 
carry it to all parts of the body except 
the lungs. It returns through veins to 
the right auricle, which contracts upon 
it, emptying it into the right ventricle. 
From this chamber it is pumped into 
other arteries which carry it to the lungs, 
and thence through pulmonary veins to 
the left auricle, from which it passes into 
the left ventricle, the starting point of 
its journey. : 

The ventricles, because of their im- 
portant function as pumps for forcing 
the blood into the arteries, are con- 
structed of thicker and stronger muscles 


1291 


HEAT 


than the auricles. When the blood in 
its course passes from auricles to ven- 
tricles, valves at the opening, formed of 
a thin, strong membrane, prevent its re- 
turn when the ventricular muscles con- 
tract upon it to force it again into the 
arteries. The -valve between the left 
auricle and left ventricle is the bicuspid; 
that between the right auricle and right 
ventricle is the tricuspid. The openings 
into the arteries are similarly protected 
by valves in the shape of a half-moon, 
called semilunar valves. See CIRCULA- 
TION. 

Heat, a form of energy possessed by 
a body due to the vibratory motion of its 
molecules. Heat was once supposed to 
be a sort of fluid which permeated all 
bodies in different amounts, thus giving 
them different degrees of warmth. This 
fluid was called “caloric, and the name 
is still found in the term calorie. The 
temperature of a body, usually measured 
by a thermometer, refers to the degree 
of heat which it possesses and corre- 
sponds to the violence of the vibratory 
motion of its molecules. The quantity 
of heat refers to the total energy of 
the body due to this molecular motion 
and must not be confused with tempera- 
ture. Thus a gallon of moderately warm 
water possesses far more heat (energy) 
than a cupful of boiling water; and it 
requires much less heat to raise the tem- 
perature of a pound of lead than a pound 
of water the same number of degrees. 

TEMPERATURE. When heat passes 
from one body to another, the first body 
is said to be at the higher temperature; 
hot and cold are relative terms only. 
Thus a piece of cold iron gives us the 
sensation of cold because heat passes 
from our hand into the iron; a piece 
of wood at the same temperature as the 
iron does not feel nearly so cold to the 
hand because the heat of the hand does 
not so readily pass into the wood, which 
is a far poorer conductor of heat than 
the iron is. Again, a piece of iron may 
feel cold to one whose hand is warm, 
and warm to one whose hand is cold. 

There are two temperature scales in 
cammon use, the Centigrade and the 


HEAT 


Fahrenheit. In the Centigrade scale the 
temperature of freezing water is taken 
as O° C., and that of boiling water at 
standard atmospheric pressure, 760 mil- 
limeters of mercury, as 100° C.; the in- 
terval is divided into 100 equal steps 
called degrees, and these equal steps, or 
degrees, are continued both below the O° 
C. and above the 100° C. points. In the 
Fahrenheit scale, the two fixed points 
are taken as 32° F. and 212° F. respec- 
tively, the so-called 0° F. being 32° below 
the temperature of freezing water (See 
THERMOMETER). From the fact that the 
pressure exerted by a confined gas (most — 
accurately, hydrogen) decreases 1-273 of 
its value at 0° C. for each degree it falls 
in temperature, it is inferred that if’this 
decrease in pressure were continued in- 
definitely at the same rate, all pressure 
would cease at —273° C. At this tem- 
perature, then, there would be no molec- 
ular motion in the gas (which would 
become solid or liquid at that tempera- 
ture) and no heat energy, according to 
the conception of heat stated at the be- 
ginning of this article. This tempera- 
ture is called the absolute zero, and tem- 
peratures measured from this point are 
called absolute temperatures. The low- 
est temperature yet attained in scientific 
work is that of frozen helium at —270° 
C., or 3° C. on the absolute scale. 

TRANSMISSION OF Heat. Heat is 
communicated in three ways: by con- 
duction, by convection and by radiation. 

Conduction is the slow advance of heat 
in a body, as when one end of an iron 
bar is put in the fire, the other end, far 
from the source of heat, also becomes 
hot. Gold, silver, iron, steel and many 
other substances are good conductors, 
while wood, feathers, fur, woolens, air, 
etc., are poor ones. We wear woolen 
clothing and furs in winter because they 
keep the heat of the body from escap- 
ing’. 

Convection takes place in gases and 
liquids. It is the mechanical motion 


of the particles caused when the lower, ~ 


heated particles become lighter and rise, 
while the colder, heavier ones press 
down and help to displace them. This 


1292 


a 


: HEATH 


~ motion is constantly going on in the air 


of a room or in water being heated. 
Radiation is the transmission of heat 
through space by vibrations of the ether. 
These ether waves travel very swiftly, 
their velocity, 186,300 m. per second, 
being the same as that of light. Heat 
waves, like light waves, move in straight 
lines called rays; we feel the heat of 
the sun or of a fire by means of these 
waves, and to obstruct them we raise 
a-parasol or hold up a screen. Ether 
vibrations produce sensible heat only 
when they are stopped; thus the air be- 
tween the sun and ourselves is cool, and 
the glass through which the sunlight 
passes is cool though the window sill 
upon which it strikes is warm. Houses 
are warmed by radiant heat, whose 
source is a stove, a grate, a radiator, 
etc., and the radiating body tends to 


~ cool to the same extent that the sur- 


rounding bodies are warmed. The heat, 
unless renewed by the addition of fuel, 
is given off until the temperature of the 
radiating body is equal to that of its 
surroundings. Rough surfaces and dark 
colors generally radiate heat better than 
do others, for those substances which 
best absorb heat also radiate it best. 
EFFEcts OF HEAT. Besides the rise in 
temperature of a body when heated, the 
chief physical changes produced are ex- 
pansion, fusion and vaporization. For 
expansion of solids and liquids, see Ex- 
PANSION; and for expansion of gases, 
see GASES, LAws or. For fusion and 
vaporization, see CALORIMETRY; EvAPo- 
RATION, The chemical changes that re- 
sult from the application of heat gen- 
erally come about because many sub- 
stances chemically inactive at low tem- 
peratures, become active and unite at 


higher temperatures, as coal and the oxy- 


gen of the air in ordinary combustion. 
Heath, Heeth, or Heather, Heth’er, 
an Old World shrub of the Heath Fam- 
ily. It is low, with small blunt-pointed 
leaves that grow in clusters of four, and 
brilliantly-colored flowers of rose or rose 
and white. In Europe large tracts are 


covered with the shrub, and in the spring 


when the flowers are in bloom the hill- 


HEATING AND VENTILATION 


sides present a remarkably beautiful ap- 
pearance. The heather of Scotland has 
a tough stem and large flowers. A leg- 
end connected with it says that in early 
times the Picts promised life to captive 
Scots if they would reveal their secret 
for making a heather drink that was 
supposed to give them their hardiness 
and courage; this the Scots refused to 
do and so were put to death. The beauty 
of the blossoms and their profusion on 
Scottish moors have made it familiar in 
Scotch literature and song. Over 100 
varieties of heather grow in Europe and 
fully 300 more in Africa, but it does not 
grow in America even under cultivation, 
the climate being apparently unfavorable. 

-Heating and Ventilation, that branch 
of engineering which deals with the prac- 
tical application of heat and the move- 
ment of air, to the designing, making 
and installing of apparatus for the warm- 
ing and ventilation of buildings. <A 
heating system should be capable of 
maintaining an agreeable temperature in 
the rooms or space contracted for under 
all conditions of weather. The Euro- 
pean standard for temperature in living 
rooms is about 59° F., while the United 
States demands about 70° F. A practi- 
cal heating system must not only provide 


for the production of the necessary heat, 


but must furnish the means of trans- 
ferring and diffusing the heat econom- 
ically to those portions of a building it 
is desired to heat. Stoves and fireplaces 
are located in the rooms to be heated, 
and, therefore, require no means of 
transmitting heat. Steam and hot wa- 
ter, however, are conveyed in pipes to 
coils or radiators in the different parts 
of a pbuilding required to be heated, 
forming the direct-radiation system; or 
the radiators may be located at a cer- 
tain point and employed to heat the air 
as it passes over them into flues and 
into the rooms to be heated, forming the 
indirect-radiation system. 

Another indirect-radiation system is 
that of the common hot-air furnace, in 
which the air is heated by direct contact 
with the iron walls of the furnace, and 
then led through ducts or flues into dif- 


1293 


HEATING AND VENTILATION 


ferent rooms of the house. Indirect sys- 
tems depend for air movement and heat 
transmission either upon the tendency of 
heated air, on account of its lightness, 
to rise, or on some mechanical means 
like a’ fan or blower. In all large and 
successful indirect-radiation systems, 
fans or blowers coupled to a motor are 
necessary, since they give a positive 
movement of heated air and the means 
by which the ventilation can be accel- 
erated. 

The amount of heat produced and cir- 
culated depends largely upon the losses 
in transmission through the ducts and 
walls, the cooling influences of exposed 
window surfaces, and also on the heat re- 
quired to warm the fresh air continually 
required for ventilation. It is a difficult 
matter to figure exactly the amount of 
fresh air required. A common rule is to 
figure about 40 cu. ft. per minute for 
each occupant of a room, but in hospi- 
tals and churches this amount might be 
doubled. Dwellings and buildings not 
occupied by many persons may have suf- 
ficient fresh air supplied by natural ven- 
tilation, that is, by the ordinary drafts 
through doors and windows, but for 
buildings, such as schoolhouses, thea- 
ters, churches and hospitals, which are 
occupied by a large number of persons, 
a method of forced ventilation must be 
provided. This is sometimes accom- 
plished by drawing out the impure air, 
but it can be performed best by forc- 
ing in fresh air by means of a blower. 
This is known as the plenum system, 
and as it can be made also to transmit 
the heat by exhausting air from steam 
coils, it is the system most generally 
adopted for the heating and ventilation 
of large buildings, factories and school- 
houses. 

The hot-air furnace is less expensive 
to install than either a steam or a hot- 
water system, and the steam is cheaper 
than the hot water, but in economy of 
fuel the hot water is the least, with steam 
next, and hot air the most expensive in 
operation. The direct-radiation system 
is cheaper to operate than the indirect, 
but costs more for installation. Heat- 


HEBERT 


ing by the electric current is not in gen- 
eral use on account of its expense, as 
not more than five per cent of the heat 
of the fuel required to produce it is 
utilized, but owing to its convenience it 
is extensively employed on electric street 
cars. See STOVE; FURNACE; FAN; 
BOILER. 

He’be, in Greek myths, goddess of 
youth, daughter of Jupiter and Juno, 
and wife of Hercules after he was placed 
in the skies. She was divine cupbearer, 
an office which she either resigned on 
her marriage, or lost because of an awk- 
ward fall while serving nectar. Gany- 
mede was her successor. Hebe is rep- 
resented as very beautiful, flower-decked 
and bearing a goblet. 

He’ber, Reginald (1783-1826), an 
English bishop and hymn writer, born 
in Malpas, England. He studied at Ox- 
ford, was admitted to holy orders in 
1807 and was Bishop of Calcutta from 
1823 until his death. Aside from his 
active work in spreading the cause of 
Christianity throughout the East by es- 
tablishing churches and colleges, he be-— 
came known as a writer of some of the 
best hymns in the English language. 
They include Brightest and Best of the 
Sons of the Morning, By Cool Siloam’s 
Shady Rill, Holy, Holy, Holy! Lord 
God Almighty! From Greenland’s Icy 
Mountains and The Son of God Goes 
Forth to War. 

Hébert, A” bar,’ Louis Philippe (1850- - 

), a Canadian sculptor, born in the 
Province of Quebec. When 19 he went 
to Rome as a pontifical zouave, and he 
subsequently prepared for his profession 
in Montreal and in Paris. For some time 
he was professor of modeling, Associa- 
tion of Arts and Manufactures, Mon- 
treal, and he is the recipient of numer- 
ous prizes and honors, including admis- 
sion to the French Legion of Honor. His 
best-known works comprise the De Sala- 
berry Monument, Chambly, P. O., mon- 
uments of Cartier, Mackenzie, Macdon- 
ald and Queen Victoria, all of which are 
in Parliament Square, Ottawa, the Laval 
Monument, Quebec, and the Howe 
Statue, Halifax. 


1294 


HEBREWS 


He’brews. See JEws. 

Hebrews, Epistle to the. 
INE EPISTLES, 

Hebrides, Heb’ ri deez, or Western 
Isles, a group of islands off the western 
coast of Scotland. Of the 521 islands, 
about 120 are inhabited. The separate 
islands are noted for their lofty moun- 
tains, rugged peaks and hillsides, cav- 
erns, ruins and historical associations. 
The principal industries are fisheries, the 
manufacture of kelp and the rearing of 
cattle, ponies and sheep. The islands 
were colonized in the ninth century and 
Gaelic is the language principally spoken. 
Population in 1901, 95,739. 

He’bron, an ancient city of southern 
Palestine, 21 m. s.w. of Jerusalem. Its 
original name was Kirjath-Arba, its pres- 
ent one is El-Khalil. It is located in the 
hill country of Judea, about 2800 ft. 
above the Mediterranean; and on the 
eastern side of the plain of Mamre. 
Abraham sojourned here, and David was 
here crowned King of Israel. Absalom 
first set up his standard of revolt at 
Hebron. The present town contains the 
Mosque of El Haran, supposed to be 
built over the cave of Machpelah, the 
burial place of Abraham and his family. 
Since 1187, when the city fell into the 
hands of Mohammedans, the place has 
been considered a sacred spot by them. 
Population, about 20,000. 

Hecate, Hek’ a te, an evil-working 
deity of extensive powers, identified 
with Diana and Proserpine, being a rep- 
resentation of the terrors of night, as 
well as infernal goddess of witchcraft. 
Lonely, each night, she roamed the 
earth, seen only by dogs, which barked 
at her coming. Eggs and puppies were 
sacrificed to her on the 30th of each 
month. Statues of Hecate, dog-headed, 
were set up in market places and at cross- 
roads. 

Hectograph, Hek’ to graf. See Copy- 
ING Devices, subhead Hectograph. 

Hector, Hek’ter, according to Greek 
myths, the son of Priam and Hecuba, 
and the most valiant of all Trojan chiefs 
in the war against the Greeks, He was 
appointed commander of the entire Tro- 


See PAuL- 


HEDGEHOG 


jan force, and was long the bulwark of 
his native city, the Fates having decreed 
that Troy would not fall so long as Hec- 
tor lived. After the death of Patroclus, 
whom Hector had slain, the Greeks un- 
der Achilles made a powerful rally 
against that hero, and, aided by Minerva, 
they were successful. The body of the 
dead Trojan, killed by Achilles, was at- 
tached to the chariot of Achilles, and 
thus not only dragged to the Grecian 
fleet, but thrice each day, for 12 days, 
was hauled around the tomb of Patro- 
clus. During this time the corpse was 
preserved from corruption by Venus and 
Apollo, and was at last ransomed by 
Priam, who appealed to Achilles in per- 
son. Hector is one of the most attractive 
warriors of the Jliad. 

Hecuba, Hek’ u ba, a Phrygian, sec- 
ondeawite; ot Priam) s Kine rio roy: 
Among their 19 children were Hector, 
Paris, Troilus and Cassandra. When 
Troy fell, Hecuba became the sport of 
Ulysses. Crazed by the immolation of 
her daughter, Polyxena, and by the mur- 
der of her son, Polydorus, she threw her- 
self into the Hellespont. 


HEDGEHOG 


Hedgehog, Hej’ hog”, an Old World 
Mammal of the Hedgehog Family. It 
is an insect-eating animal, making its 
nest in thickets and wandering by night 
in search of its prey. Its nose is long 
and of use in rooting for the earth- 
dwelling insects upon which it feeds. 
The hair upon its back is stiffened and 
elongated into prickles; when terrified 
the hedgehog rolls itself into a compact 
ball with the prickles presented to the 
enemy, and the longer the attack from 
an enemy continues the tighter the ball 
is rolled. In the United States the por- 


1295 


HEDONISM 


cupine is frequently spoken of as a 
hedgehog because of its spiny quills. See 
PORCUPINE. 

He’donism (from Greek hedone, 
pleasure), the name applied to any eth- 
ical system which makes pleasure or 
happiness the highest human good. In 
ancient times many of the Sophists were 
hedonists, as were the Cyrenaics and the 
Epicureans. Modern hedonism differs 
from the ancient in that the latter was 


concerned chiefly with the happiness of * 


the individual, while the modern doc- 
trine concerns itself with the happiness 
of the community. See CyrENAIcsS; Ept- 
CUREANISM ; UTILITARIANISM. 

Hegel, Ha’ gel, Georg Wilhelm Fried- 
rich (1770-1831), a famous German 
philosopher, born at Stuttgart, and edu- 
cated in the University of Tubingen. 
After finishing his course in 1793 he 
was private tutor for eight years, first 
in Switzerland and afterwards at Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main. Resolving to devote 
himself to philosophy, he became pri- 
vat-docent in the University of Jena 
in 1801. Here he lectured until 1806, 
when he completed, in the confusion 
of the bombardment of Jena, his Phe- 
nomenology of Mind, which he after- 
wards refers to as his “voyage of dis- 
covery.” After editing a political paper 
for a year or two at Bamberg, he was 
rector of the gymnasium at Nuremberg 
from 1808 until 1816. During this time 
he married, and wrote his Logic. He 
became professor of philosophy at Hei- 
delberg in 1816, and the following year 
published his Encyclopedia of the Philo- 
sophical Sciences, in which he first devel- 
oped his complete system. But his fame 
more particularly dates from his call to 
the chair of philosophy at Berlin, where 
he succeeded Fichte in 1818. Here he 
gathered about him an enthusiastic com- 
pany of students and disciples, lectured 
upon almost every branch of knowledge 
and founded a widely influential school 
of philosophy. His manner as a lecturer 
was hesitating and unadorned, but char- 
acterized by profound thoughtfulness. 
In 1830 he became rector of the uni- 
versity. 


4 


HEGIRA 


Hegel’s philosophy can best be under- 
stood in the light of his relation to Kant. 
Kant had held that all knowledge is the 
product of two factors: the external 
world of “things in themselves” which 
furnishes the data of knowledge; and the 
knowing mind which provides the forms 


or categories that make this material in- 


telligible as experience. Hegel drops 
out Kant’s world of “things in them- 


selves,’ and makes the world of reason — 


inclusive of the whole of reality. “Dis- 
cover the secret of reason and you have 
discovered the secret of the universe.” 
Our ethical ideas, according to Kant, 
cannot be known but must be believed 
or postulated. This contrast of ideal 
and real disappears in Hegel. Faith, if 
brought to a clear self-consciousness, 
becomes a knowledge of the true self, 
that is, the Absolute. For Kant,. all 
knowledge is relative; for Hegel abso- 
lute knowledge is possible, because who- 
ever knows the true nature of mind finds 
therein the expression of the Absolute. 
Hegel’s philosophy may be character- 
ized, in another way, as absolute ideal- 
ism, in further development of the sub- 


jective idealism of Fichte and the ob- , 


jective idealism of Schelling. In its in- 
clusion of all life and its interpretation 
of history it was immensely suggestive 
and exerted a profound influence upon 
contemporary German thought. While 
its direct influence has largely passed, its 
indirect influence is still very great, 
especially in England and America. 
Hegel’s works, published in 19 volumes, 
include Phenomenology, Logic, Encyclo- 


pedia, Philosophy of Rights, Philosophy — 


of History, A:sthetics, Philosophy of Re- 
ligion and History of Philosophy. See 
Kant, IMMANUEL; FICHTE, JOHANN 
GOTTLIEB ; SCHELLING, FRIEDRICH WIL- 
HELM JOSEPH VON, 

Hegira, Hej’ i ra, the name given the 


flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Me- ~ 
dina to escape the persecution of his — 


kinsmen. This event marks the begin- 
ning of the Mohammedan Era. The 
Moslem calendar was instituted 17 years 


a 


later by Omar; the first day of the year — 


in which the flight took place (corre- © 
1296 


my 
é 
« y 


4 


HEIDELBERG 


sponding to July 16, 622, of the Chris- 
tian Era), is reckoned the first day of 
the Mohammedan year. 

Heidelberg, Hz’ del berk, a city of 
Germany situated in Baden on the left 
bank of the Neckar, 32 m. n.e. of Karls- 
ruhe. The city has a beautiful site and 
is surrounded by vineyards and wooded 
hills. It is divided into the old and new 
sections. The former is characterized 
by narrow streets and old buildings; the 
latter, which is the residential section, 


is a modern city. The ruins of the old 


castle formerly the residence of the 
electors of Palatine, surmount a height 
300 ft. above the town. Population, 
about 40,000. 

Heidelberg, University of, a univer- 
sity at Heidelberg, Germany, founded 
in 1386 by Rupert I. It is the oldest 
German university within the boundaries 
of the present empire. For the first 300 
years of its existence the university was 
presperous, but from 1630 to 1800 it 
suffered from religious and political dis- 
sensions and was several times compelled 
to suspend. In 1803 its endowment was 
restored and since then it has prospered. 
The university maintains departments of 
law, medicine and philosophy, which in- 
cludes arts and sciences. The library 
contains over 500,000 volumes. There 
are about 1500 students, among whom 
are a goodly number from the United 
States. 

Heine, Hi’ ne, Heinrich (1797-1856), 
a German poet, born in Dusseldorf. He 
entered the University of Bonn in 1819, 
studied in Berlin and Gottingen, and be- 
fore taking his degree in 1825 made a 
tour to the Harz Mountains, visiting 
Goethe at Weimar. 
he produced some of his finest work. 
He visited London and made an ex- 
tended tour through Italy. The Revolu- 
tion of 1830 found him writing ardent 
poems of democracy, and in 1831, fear- 
ful for his safety, he went to Paris, 
where he lived the rest of his life. 

Heine was a journalist and _ political 
writer of distinction, often indulging in 
brilliant, well-directed wit and _ satire. 
As a poet he was a lyricist, singing in 


From 1826 to 1831 ° 


‘HELEN 


tender strains of the passionate sorrows 
of his own heart, or of the charm and 
majesty of sea and coast. He broke 
away from the extremes to which Ro- 
manticism had been carried in Germany, 
his verse revealing greater spontaneity 
and deeper feeling. Best known are the 
collections Pictures of Travel, Book of 
Songs, Winter's Tales; also New Songs, 
The Newer Literature of Germany, Con- 
ditions in France and Last Poems and 
Thoughts. 

Heintzelman, Hine’ tsel mahn, Sam- 
uel Peter (1805-1880), an American 
soldier, born in Lancaster County, Pa., 
and educated at West Point. He served 
on the frontier, in various Indian cam- 
paigns and in the war with Mexico, fol- 
lowing which he commanded the South- 
ern District of California. He became- 
brigadier-general of volunteers at the 
outbreak of the Civil War. He was di- 
vision commander under McDowell at 
Bull Run, where he was_ severely 
wounded, was corps commander in the 
Peninsula Campaign, had charge of 
Pope’s right wing at the second engage- 
ment of Bull Run and later commanded 
the defenses of Washington. In 1864 he 
was in charge of the Department of the 
West, and in 1869 he retired as major- 
general. 

Heir, Air, in law, the one to whom 
the real estate of a deceased person 
passes. A legal heir is one to whom 
the property passes by descent, and in 
the United States this is the person near- 
est of kin to the deceased person. In 
most European countries it is customary 
for the estate to descend to the eldest 
son, but in the United States the prop- 
erty is equally divided among the chil- 
dren unless otherwise disposed of by 
will. 

Hel’en, in classical mythology the 
most beautiful woman of her time, 
daughter of Leda by Jupiter, and sister 
of Castor and Pollux. She was wooed 
by the bravest heroes of Greece, all of 
whom vowed, at the suggestion of 
Ulysses, to respect her free choice of a 
husband, and to champion her cause for- 
ever. Helen married Menelaus, with 


1297 


HELENA 


whom and their daughter Hermione, she 
lived happily until Paris came, and, aided 
by Venus, enticed her away. Paris was 
killed in the ninth year of the Trojan 
War, and Helen married his brother, 
Deiphobus, later betraying him to the 
Greeks. At the close of the war Helen 
was reunited to Menelaus. They re- 
turned to Sparta, ruling peacefully there 
until the King’s death, when Helen re- 
tired to Rhodes, where she was murdered. 
See TROJAN War. 

Hel’ena, Ark., a city and the county 
seat of Phillips Co., about 65 m. s.w. of 
Memphis, Tenn., on the Mississippi 
River and on the St. Louis, Iron Moun- 
tain & Southern, the Yazoo & Missis- 
sipp1 Valley, the Arkansas Midland and 
other railroads. The city occupies “made 
land” in the Mississippi bottoms, but is 
protected by levees. The chief economic 
interests are centered in the manufac- 
ture of cotton and lumber products and 
shipping. Helena was settled in 1821. 
It was a point of strategic importance 
during the Civil War. Population in 
£920 US. Census, 9.112; 

Helena, Mont., the capital of Mon- 
tana and the county seat of Lewis and 
Clark Co., situated in the west-central 
part of the state in Prickly Pear Val- 
ley, 80 m. n.e. of Butte and about 18 
m. w. of the Missouri River. It is 
entered by the Great Northern and the 
Northern Pacific railroads. The city it- 
self was originally a mining camp, and 
its streets, though now well cared for, 
are often irregular and uneven. There 
are many pleasing public buildings, 
among which are the capitol, the court- 
house, a United States assay office, the 
Cathedral of St. Helena, the Federal 
Building, a public library, the Montana 
State Library and a state law library. 
The homes of Helena and the business 
houses are modern and attractive, and 
the city is one of the wealthiest of the 
United States. The public school system 
of Helena has been well planned and is 
housed in excellent buildings. The city 
is also the seat of the Montana Wesleyan 
University, Mount St. Charles’ Catholic 
College and St. Vincent’s Academy. 


SIELIOS 


The country surrounding Helena is 
not only advantageous for agricultural 
pursuits, but abounds in minerals, espe- 
cially in copper, gold- and silver-bear- 
ing quartz and in phosphates, oil, mar- 
ble, slate and cement. Through the heart 
of the city runs the famous Last Chance 
Gulch, from which gold to the value 
of over $40,000,000 has been taken. 
Aside from this source of wealth the 
city also has extensive railway shops, 
smelters, quartz crushers and manufac- 
turing plants. The electric-lighting 
plant and street-railway system have 
their power plants on the Missouri River, 
18 m. distant, and another power plant 
is situated 20 m. north of the city. Ft. 
Harrison is a near-by military post. 

Helena was first the camp of four 
discouraged prospectors who had been 
unlucky in their search for gold and 
named this location Last Chance Gulch. 
It proved a rich field, and a placer min- 
ing camp was at once established. The 
town was platted in 1864, and when 
Montana Territory was organized Hel- 
ena became its capital. The city has 
been burned twice. Its present charter 
dates from 1881. Population in 1920, 
U. S. Census, 12,037. 

Heliopolis, He” li of’ o lis, (City of 
the Sun), one of the largest and most 
ancient cities of ancient Egypt, was sit- 
uated a little north of Memphis. It was 
noted as a religious center and for its 
school which Plato is said to have vis- . 
ited. The Pillar of On, 67% ft. high and 
6 ft. broad at the base, is near the city, 
and the obelisks known as Cleopatra’s 
Needles, one of which is now in New 
York, formerly stood there. On its site 
is the modern village of Matariah. 

He’lios, in Greek myths the sun god, 
offspring of Hyperion and Thea. He 
daily drove his flaming chariot across 
the sky from Oceanus in the east, to 
his western palace. His most celebrated 
children were Aétes, Phaethon and Circe. 
He was originally worshiped in Asia. - 
Rhodes .honored him with a yearly fes- 
tival, her Colossus being his representa- 
tion. Helios and Apollo are frequently 
confused. 


1298 


HELIOSTAT 


He’liostat”, an instrument for keep- 
ing a reflected beam of sunlight in the 
same position as the sun moves. It con- 
sists essentially of a mirror mounted so 
that it is gradually turned by clockwork 
and thus always reflects the sunlight in 
the desired direction. Some forms are 
made with two mirrors, the light being 
reflected from the first mirror in a direc- 
tion parallel to the earth’s axis and then 
reflected by the second mirror in the 
desired direction. The term siderostat 
is applied to a similar instrument for 
reflecting the light from a star in any 
desired direction. 

He’liotrope. See BLOODSTONE. | 

Heliotrope, a fragrant, old-fashioned 
flower of the Borage Family, grown in 
flower gardens. There are several spe- 
cies, the most of which are delicate 
herbs that grow from one to two feet 
high and bear a spike of small, white 
or purple flowers, having so pleasing a 
fragrance that they are used in prepar- 
ing perfumes and sachet powders. The 
flowers have a tiny, five-parted calyx 
and a five-lobed, tubular corolla; they 
generally grow upon but one side of the 
stalk. 

Wild heliotrope is found along the 
sandy shores of eastern United States. 
It has long, hairy stems and forked 
spikes of blossoms. The shrub _ helio- 
trope is a greenhouse plant introduced 
from Peru. The name heliotrope is ap- 
plied to the light purple shade common 
to heliotrope blossoms. 

Hell, the term used generally to 
designate the abode of devils and the 
souls of the wicked. In the Authorized 
Version of the Bible fell is used as an 
equivalent of the Greek Hades and of 
the Hebrew sheol and Gehenna. Sheol 
and Hades seem originally to have des- 
ignated the place of the dead, without 
reference to its character. In the Re- 
vised Version of the New Testament 
the word Hades is left untranslated, 
while Gehenna is translated hell. 

Hell-Diver, Dabchick or Pied-Billed 
Grebe, a diving bird of the Grebe Fam- 
ily, about 15 inches in length, with black- 
ish upper parts, mottled silvery breast, 


_It is one of the best of the divers. 


HELL GATE 


black chin and throat and a black band 
across the white bill. The nest is a 
mass of plant stems, either floating or 
anchored to rushes, and contains four 
to eight dirty-white eggs. The hell- 
diver is a familiar bird in the ponds of 
most parts of North and South America. 
The 
young are downy and the head and neck 
are marked with brown, black and white. 

Hel’le, daughter of mythical Atha- 
mas and Nephele, and sister of Phryxus. 
Athamas wearied of his wife and took 
another. Nephele, fearing for her chil- 
dren under a stepmother, then appealed 
to. Mercury, who gave her a golden- 
fleeced ram which would carry brother 
and sister to safety. In a wild flight 
east, Helle fell from the ram’s back into 
the sea, which was named for her, 
Hellespont; now the Dardanelles. 

Hel’lebore, a poisonous herb of the 
Buttercup, or Crowfoot, Family, having 
a colorless, bitter juice. It is native in 
European countries, but has been natu- 
ralized in the United States. The stem 
is thick, and grows to a height of two 
or three feet, bearing many large, di- 
vided leaves at the base of the stem and 
a few smaller ones above. The flowers 
are large and nod on slender stalks. 
They have five greenish sepals and eight 
or ten short, irregular petals. Black 
hellebore, a powerful poison, is derived 
from the roots. 

False hellebore, or Indian poke, and 
white hellebore are both members of the 
Lily Family. They are long-stemmed 
plants with stiff, deep-veined leaves 
which clasp the stems, and small, dull 
ereen flowers clustered upon a long 
spike. The blossoms have six petal-like 
sepals and six stamens, but are much less 
attractive than the foliage. White helle- 
bore is the source of the white powder 
of the same name, used as an insecticide. 

Hel’lespont. See DARDANELLES, Dahr” 
da nelz’. 

Hell Gate, a part of East River, New 
York, having Wards Island at its north- 
ern extremity and Blackwells Island at ’ 
its southern. The rocks and reefs, which 
rendered the passage dangerous and 


1299 


HELMET 


which made its name seemingly appro- 
priate, were removed by the Federal 
Government in 1885. Their removal also 
did away with the swift currents and 
eddies that had been a menace to navi- 
gation. See East River. 


Hel’met, a piece of armor for the 
head. Helmets have been in use from 
the earliest times and have differed 
greatly in shape, from the high-crested 
helmet of the Greeks to the skullcap of 
The basinet of the 14th 


the Assyrians. 


HELLEBORE 


century had a pointea visor perforated 
with many holes to admit the air. The 
visors were hinged at the sides near the 
ears and could be raised and lowered at 
will. Many helmets were highly deco- 
rated, especially those used in heraldry. 

Helmholtz, Helm’ holts, Hermann 
Ludwig Ferdinand von (1821-1894), a 
German physician and physiologist, born 


HEMANS 


at Potsdam, Germany. He received his 
early education in Potsdam and studied 
medicine in Berlin. From 1843 to 1847 
he served as surgeon in the army, after 
which he became assistant in the Ber- 
lin Anatomical Museum. He occupied 
positions as professor of physiology at 
Konigsberg from 1849 to 1855; at Bonn 
from 1855 to 1858; and at Heidelberg 
from 1858 to 1871, leaving Heidelberg 
to become professor of physics in the 
University of Berlin. Helmholtz was 
for several years president of the phys- 
ical section of the Academy of Sciences, 
and was honorary president of the Inter- 
national Congress of Electricians held 
in Chicago in 1893. Helmholtz invented 
‘the ophthalmoscope for examining the 
interior of the eye, and to him is attrib- 
uted the now generally accepted theory 
of color, as well as many valuable dis- 
coveries in physics and numerous prac- 
tical inventions. The: Emperor of Ger- 
many conferred the title of nobility. 
upon him in 1883. He visited the United 
States in 1893, and died in Berlin the 
following year. 

Helvetii, Hel ve’ shyi, an ancient Cel- 
tic people who lived in what is now west- 
ern Switzerland. As they were hard 
pressed by the Germans and felt they 
were too numerous for their narrow 
bounds, they tried to settle the region to 
the south while Cesar was governor of 
Gaul. He defeated them in battle and 
sent them back as a barrier against) am 
German invasion of Gaul. After the 
eastern frontier was extended, the coun- 
try was Romanized, roads were built, 
commerce developed and the Roman re- 
ligion supplanted the old Celtic faith. 
The Alemanni overran the country from 
260 to 268 A. D., and it never was as 
prosperous again while under Roman 
rule. 

Hem/ans, Felicia Dorothea (1793- 
1835), an English poet, born in Liver- 
pool. Her first volume of poems, enti- 
tled Juvenile Poems, appeared in 1808. 
She married in 1812, and six years later 
Captain Hemans removed to Italy, leav- 
ing Mrs, Hemans and their five children 
in the care of her mother. Through 


1300 


HEMATITE 


Bishop Heber and others she was influ- 
enced to continue her writing, and pro- 
duced the tragedy The Vespers of 
Palermo, which was presented success- 
fully in the Edinburgh theater. In 1829, 
on a visit to Scotland, she became ac- 
quainted with Sir Walter Scott at Ab- 
botsford, and met Wordsworth at Rydal 
Mount, in England, the following sum- 
mer. Both poets recognized in her verse 
its lyrical and imaginative qualities. She 
wrote Hymns for Childhood, Scenes 


‘and Hymns of Life, Lays of Many 


Lands,. Records of Woman and Songs 
of the Affections, Among single poems 
are Casabianca, The Better Land, The 
Homes of England, The Palm Tree, The 
Wreck and Landing of the Pilgrim Fa- 
thers in New England. 

Hem/atite, a common ore of iron, 
widely distributed and occurring in large 
quantities in massive and in crystallized 
form in igneous and stratified rocks. 
Red hematite has a brownish-red or 
black color, is an important mineral con- 
taining a large percentage of iron and 
constitutes the chief source of supply 
for iron and steel. Specular iron, an- 


other variety, characterized by lustrous 


crystals, is found in crystalline and meta- 
morphic rocks. The chief sources of 
hematite are in the Lake Superior. re- 
gion of North America. See [RON AND 
STEEL. 

Hemiptera, He mip’ tera, a group of 
Insecta, including the cicadas, water bugs 
and water scorpions. The members of 
the class have sucking mouth parts and 
do not in their life history pass through 
all the stages common to most insects. 
The name of the group means half wing 
and refers to the two different textures 
in the forewings of such representatives 
as the squash bug. There are two main 
divisions of the group, and together they 
include the most curious and destructive 
of the insects. _See CicADA; INSECTA; 
CHINCH Buc. - 

Hem/lock, a-dark, beautiful tree of 
the Pine Family, cultivated for ornament 
and found growing in groves and for- 
ests in eastern United States, princi- 
pally in the Alleghenies. The trunk is 


HEMP 


straight, with a buttressed base, and is 
covered with a furrowed red bark valu- 
able to tanneries. The wood is soft, 
coarse grained and light, and useful in 
general construction work. The branches 
are horizontal, but droop at the ends in 
a graceful manner. The flowers, which 
are inconspicuous, develop short, plump, 
cones, green or purple at first, but be- 
coming reddish-brown and opening in 
roselike form to discharge their tiny 
seeds. The most common hemlocks of 
the United States are the Canada, the 
Carolina and the mountain hemlocks, all 
of which occur in thick groves or in 
single specimens in company with oaks, 
hickories and other pines. 

Hemlock, Poison, a species of poi- 
sonous plants of the Parsley Family 
found in Europe, Asia and America. The 
name is the same as that given it by the 
ancient Greeks, who used it as a means 
of putting to death condemned crimi- 
nals; Socrates was probably the most 
illustrious of those who suffered by this 
means. All of the poison hemlocks re- 
semble the wild caraway in appearance 
and thus are particularly a source of 
danger. The stems are slender, and, 
unlike those of the caraway, are striped, 
or marked with reddish lines. The leaves 
are made up of palmlike leaflets which 
spread quite flat and have finely-toothed 
margins. The inconspicuous flowers 
grow in a branched, smooth-topped clus- 
ter of greenish blossoms almost identical 
with the caraway in appearance. The 
seeds are small, flat on one side and 
ribbed on the other, but not hooked as 
are those of the caraway. The seeds 
yield an oil which, though poisonous, 
is used in .small quantities in sedative 
medicines. In cases of hemlock poison- 
ing a doctor should be summoned, and 
emetics given or a stomach pump used. 

Hemp, a name given commonly to a 
number of fiber-producing plants, but 
botanically applied only to a coarse mem- 
ber of the Nettle Family. The plant 
itself is rough, with an erect stem, gen- 
erally growing from four to ten feet 
high, but under cultivation occasionally 
attaining a height of 20 feet. The leaves 


1301 


HEN 


are large and are made up of from five 
to nine, spreading leaflets which meet at 
the top of the stem and are finely-toothed. 
The flowers upon one plant are staminate, 
that is, they contain the stamens with 
the fertilizing dust, and those upon an- 
other plant are pistillate and will bear 
the fruit. The staminate flowers grow in 
large, yellowish clusters, but the pistillate 
are tiny and inconspicuous. Hemp is 
cultivated in India for its production of 
a narcotic drug called hashish (See 
HAsHISH), but it is raised chiefly for 
its long, soft fibers from which coarse 
cloth and rope are made. For this lat- 
ter purpose the fields of hemp are cut 
when the seeds ripen, which is about 
three and a half months after seeding. 
The stalks are first bundled and dried, 
then retted, or rotted, to remove any 
gum from the fibers. When the gum 
is entirely rotted away, they are again 
dried either by the sun or by artificial 
means and the external bark is removed. 
This leaves the fibrous inner bark ready 
for spinning. 

Hemp is raised in widely differing 
climates since it is hardy as long as it 
is not totiched by the frost. In the 
United States it is produced in quantity 
in Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky and Cali- 
fornia, and elsewhere, in Brazil, Russia, 
the Philippines and Italy; that of the 
fields of Italy is the softest and the fin- 
est. In some places in Europe the hemp 
is used as a hedge plant, for though it 
is rough, its form is regular and its 
leaves are pleasing to the eye. See 
S1sAL; MANILA. 

Hen. See Fowr, DOMESTIC. 

Hen’derson, Charles Richmond 
(1848-1915),an American sociologist and 
social worker, born at Covington, Ind. 
He graduated from Chicago University 
in 1870, from the Union Theological 
Seminary in 1873 and from the Univer- 
sity of Leipsic in 1901. From 1873 to 
1892 he was pastor of the Baptist 
churches at Terre Haute, Ind., and De- 
troit, Mich. In 1892 he was elected 
assistant professor of sociology at the 
University of Chicago, became full pro- 
fessor in 1897, and was made head of 


1302 


HENDRICKS 


the department of ecclesiastical sociology 
in 1904. Dr. Henderson was especially 
active in charitable and social reform 
movements and he served on many 
commissions organized for this purpose. 
His writings include An Introduction 
to the Study of the Dependent, Defec- 
tive and Delinquent Classes, Social Ele- 
ments, Social Settlements, Modern Prison 
Systems, The Social Spirit in America . 
and Modern Methods of Charity. 

Henderson, Ky., a city and the 
county seat of Henderson Co., about 
142 m, s.w. of Louisville, on the south 
bank of the Ohio River and on the 
Louisville & Nashville, the Illinois Cen- 
tral, the Louisville, Henderson & St. 
Louis and other railroads. It has steam- 
boat service to Louisville, Evansville, 
Ind., Cairo, Ill, Memphis, Tenn., and 
New Orleans, La. Indian corn and 
stemmed tobacco are shipped in large 
quantities. Bituminous coal is mined in 
the vicinity. The factory products in- 
clude cotton and woolen goods, soft 
drinks, furniture, flour, hominy, meal, ci- 
gars and tobacco, brick, ice and baskets. 
The city has a well-equipped sanatorium, 
a Carnegie library, fine school buildings, 
a magnificent bridge across the river, and 
Atkinson Park. County fairs are held 
in grounds near the city. On the site 
of Henderson the first permanent settle- ~ 
ment was made in 1784 and called Red 
Banks. The town was laid out in 1897 
and named in honor of Richard Hen- 
derson; the place was incorporated as 
a town in 1810 and first chartered in 
1854. In 1905 the adjoining towns, 
Edgewood and Audubon, the latter 
named for the naturalist who lived here 
for a time (See AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES), 
were annexed. Population in 1920, U. 
S. Census, 12,169. 

Hen’dricks, Thomas Andrews (1819- 
1885), a vice-president of the- United 
States, born near Zanesville, Ohio, but 
taken by his parents to Indiana when 
six months old. He graduated from 
South Hanover College in 1841; was 
admitted to the bar in 1843; was elected © 
to the State Legislature of Indiana in 
1845 ; and served in Congress from 1851 


HENGEST AND HORSA 


to 1855. During the next four years he 
was commissioner of the United States 
land office. He became a member of 
the United States Senate in 1863, and in 
1872 was elected governor of Indiana. 
In 1884 he was elected vice-president 
of the United States on the ticket with 
Grover Cleveland. He died during his 
first year in office. 

Hen’gest and Hor’sa, brothers who 
headed the first Saxon bands settling 
in England. Some time between 428 
and 455 they landed at Ebbsfleet, Kent, 
their aid against the Picts having been 
- sought by the British ruler, Vortigern, 
‘ and the Island of Thanet became their 
home. Through quarrels with their 
British allies, they came to possess the 
Kingdom of Kent. The Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle mentions a battle at A gels 
threp, 455, against Vortigern, wherein 
Horsa was slain. By two or three sub- 
sequent engagements the British were 
wholly expelled from Kent, Hengest 
ruling till 488, and his son, A*sc, who 
succeeded him, until 512. 

Hen Hawk. See Hawk. 

Hen/nepin, Louis (about 1640-1706), 
a Belgian missionary and explorer in 
America, born at’ Ath, in Hainault. At 
an early age he joined the Franciscan 
Order. In 1675 he came to Canada in 
the same ship with La Salle, whom, in 
1678, he accompanied on his last expe- 
dition to the upper Great Lakes. Leav- 
ing La Salle after Ft. Crévecceur had 
been founded on the Illinois River, Hen- 
nepin and a few followers pushed on to 
the Mississippi. Here he was captured 
by the Sioux, who carried him to the 
present site of Minneapolis, where he 
saw the Falls of St. Anthony. Return- 
ing to Quebec and subsequently to 
France, he was ordered back to America. 
Refusing to obey, he fled to Holland. 
He died in Utrecht. He was the first 
to give a written account of the exist- 
ence of coal in America. 

Hennepin Canal. See ILLINOIS AND 
Mississipp1 CANAL. 

Henry, the name of eight kings of 
England. Henry I (1068-1135), the 
youngest son of William the Conqueror, 


HENRY 


had himself proclaimed king in 1100, 
upon the death of William Rufus, in 
the absence of his older brother Robert. 
He conciliated the Scotch by marrying 
Matilda, the daughter of their ruler. He 
was successful in wars with Normandy 
and France. 

Henry II (1133-1189), the son of 
Geoffrey Plantagenet and Matilda, 
daughter of Henry I, became the first 
king of the Plantagenet line in 1154. 
His reign is noteworthy for the conflict 
with Thomas Becket over the relation 
of Church and State; for the first con- 
quest of Scotland by England; for an 
improved judicial system, including the 
revival of trial by jury; and for the 
subjugation of the lawless barons. He 
ranks among the great kings of Eng- 
land. 

Henry III (1207-1272), grandson of 
Henry II, succeeded his father, King 
john, in 1216, at the age of ten, and 
reigned for 56 years. He was not a 
strong king and the great barons took 
occasion to assert themselves. The mod- 
ern English Parliament of two houses 
had its beginning in this reign. 

Henry IV (1367-1413), son of John 
of Gaunt, who was the fourth son of 
Edward III, was the first king of the 
House of Lancaster. He succeeded to 
the throne in 1399 upon the abdication 
of Richard II. His reign was charac- 
terized by numerous insurrections, op- 
pressive taxation and the persecution of 
the Lollards, 

Henry V (1387-1422) succeeded his 
father Henry IV in 1413. The next year 
he laid formal claim to the French crown 
and invaded France with 30,000 men. - 
On Oct. 25, 1415, he routed the French 
at Agincourt (See AGINCoURT, BATTLE 
OF), and became Regent of France and 
heir to the throne. He made a second 
successful invasion of France in 1417, 
and while engaged in a third invasion 
died from sudden illness. 

Henry VI (1421-1471) succeeded his 
father Henry V at the age of nine 
months. His uncle, the Duke of Bed- 
ford, became governor of France, and 
his uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, pro- 


1303 


HENRY VIII 


tector of England. In 1429 he was 
crowned at Westminster and two years 
later at Paris. Immediately a war with 
France began, in which, under the in- 
‘spiration of Joan of Arc, England was 
deprived of all her possessions in France 
except Calais. The Wars of the Roses 
began in this reign. Henry was several 
times taken prisoner and was found dead 
in the Tower in 1471. See Roses, Wars 
OF THE, 

Henry VII (1457-1509), first sover- 
eign of the Tudor line, was descended 
from John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancas- 
ter. He defeated Richard III on Bos- 
worth field and succeeded him in 1485. 
By his marriage with Elizabeth of York 
he united the warring houses of Lan- 
caster and York. Henry inaugurated the 
Tudor policy of curbing the nobility in 
the interests of the Crown, which led 
to temporary loss of popular liberty. See 
Henry VIII. 3 

Henry VIII (1491-1547), King of 
England. Upon the death of his father, 
Henry VII, in 1509, he succeeded to the 
throne at the age of 18, an energetic, 
headstrong, handsome youth, immensely 
popular with his subjects, uniting in 
himself, through his mother, the rival 
lines of Lancaster and York. During 
the first 20 years of his reign his chief 
adviser was one of the greatest political 
geniuses of England, Thomas Wolsey, 
lord chancellor and cardinal. Their for- 
eign policy was for England to main- 
tain the balance of power between Fran- 
cis I of France and Charles V of Spain 
and Germany, the two great political 
factors at that time, on the Continent. 
The domestic policy of Henry and Wol- 
sey was to overcome the remnants of 
feudalism, the influence of the nobles 
and the liberties of Parliament, by cen- 
tralizing all power-in the throne. 

A further important development of 
Henry’s reign was the separation of the 
English Church from Rome. This did 
not take place 4s a religious movement, 
but in connection with Henry’s divorce 
from his first wife, Catharine of Aragon. 
The Pope refused to grant the decree, 
Wolsey was degraded because of luke- 


HENRY IV 


warmness in the matter and Henry iol- 
lowed the bold advice of his new coun- 
cilor, Thomas Cromwell, that he should 
break with the Pope and secure the di- 
vorce through his own courts. The sep- 
aration from Rome was accomplished 
by two acts of Parliament, one in 1534 
setting aside the papal authority, and 
another in 1535 declaring Henry head 


of the Church of England. The mar- — 


riage with Catharine was then annulled 
by a court formed by Thomas Cran- 
mer, who had been created Archbishop 
of Canterbury. Henry further weak- 
ened the power of Rome, at the same 
time strengthening his own power and 
establishing the new Church, by the sup- 
pression of the monasteries and the des- 
ecration of the sacred shrines, and by 
using the wealth thus acquired to found 
schools and colleges, to establish new 


bishoprics, and to divide estates among ~ 


his favorites. ? 
After his divorce from Catharine, 
Henry married Anne Boleyn, who be- 


came the mother of Elizabeth, the future — 


queen. After a few months Anne was 
sent to the block on a charge of infidel- 
ity, and Henry married Jane Seymour, 


who became the mother of Edward VI. — 


She soon died, and Henry married Anne 


of Cleves, whom he shortly divorced, at ~ 


the same time executing Cromwell, who 
had brought about the union: Catha- 
rine Howard, Henry’s fifth wife, was 
executed on a charge of infidelity, and 
he married Catharine Parr, who survived 
him. He reigned for 38 years and died 
unmourned by his people. 


Henry IV (1050-1106), Emperor of — 


the Holy Roman Empire from.1056 un- 
til 1105. He was crowned at Aix-la- 


Chapelle upon the death of his father © 
and ruled until 1066 under the regency © 


first of his mother and later of various 
advisers. 


After assuming the control of ~ 


the government, Henry aroused the en- © 
mity of Bavaria, Thuringia and Saxony ~ 


by his heavy taxes, and for several years 
gave his time to subduing those states. 


In the meantime papal authority and — 


royal authority had begun to conflict to 


such an extent that in 1076 the Emperor 
1304 : 


HENRY IV 


called a council which deposed the Pope. 
In reply the Pope excommunicated the 
Emperor. Finding his support gradu- 
ally dropping away by this move, Henry 
followed the Pope to Canossa and, as a 
penitent, sought absolution. Henry, 
however, did not regain his authority, 
and after the election of several anti- 
popes by one party and the appointment 
of several anti-kings by the other, 
Henry, through the revolt of his son, 
was forced to abdicate. He died the 
following year. 

Henry IV (1553- -1610), King of 
France from 1589 until his death. He 
was the son of Anthony of Bourbon, 
Duke of Vendome, and of Jeanne d’Al- 
bret, Queen of Navarre. Through the 
efforts of his mother he was educated as 
a Protestant in the College of Navarre 
at Paris. Henry became King of Na- 
varre upon the death of his mother in 
1572, and in that same year he married 
Margaret of Valois, the sister of Charles 
IX, the young King of France. Henry 
escaped the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew’s Day only by a hurried renuncia- 
tion of his religious beliefs. Four years 
later, after several ineffectual attempts to 
escape from court, Henry succeeded 
in getting to Tours, where he became the 
leader of the Huguenot forces in the re- 
ligious wars that followed. Through 
the death of Henry III he became King 
of France, although he was not fully 
acknowledged until nine years had 
elapsed. Through the battles of Arques 
and Ivry, the sieges of Paris and of 
Rouen, and the final conversion of Henry 
to Catholicism, France came wholly un- 
der his control. The same year, 1598, 
which marked his full accession, saw the 
promulgation of the Edict of Nantes, 
granting religious liberty to Protestants. 
See NANTES, EDICT OF. 

From that time on Henry labored for 
the prosperity of France. He encour- 
aged agriculture and manufactures and 
reformed civic affairs in the various 
provinces. He was a patron of arts 
and letters and built a great part of 
the Louvre, the Pont Neuf, the Hotel 
de Ville and the Place Royale, besides 

4E 


HENRY 


finishing the Tuileries. Through the 
advice of his minister Sully he divorced 
his first wife and later married Maria 
de’ Medici, who became the mother of 
Louis XIII. On the day after her coro- 
nation Henry was assassinated by 
Ravaillac. 

Henry was one of the most popular 
of French rulers. He was_ affable, 
kindly and always pleasing. His cour- 
age was unquestioned, which greatly en-. 
deared him to his people. He is vari- 
ously known as Henry the Great, Henry 
of Navarre and the Regenerator of 
France. 

Henry, Joseph (1799-1878), an Amer- 
ican scientist, educated at Albany Acad- 
emy. Professor Henry was one of the 
most celebrated electricians of his day. 
One of his greatest discoveries was the 
electromagnet, and the fact that such a 
magnet could be instantly made and un- 
made by making and breaking the elec- 
iric current, This discovery laid, the 
foundation for the telegraph. For 14 
years he was professor of natural his- 
tory in the College of New Jersey, when 
he became the first manager (of the 
Smithsonian Institution (See SMITH- 
SONIAN INSTITUTION). He organized 
the meteorological bureau, later the gov- 
ernment weather bureau, became presi- 
dent of the lighthouse board and founded 
our lighthouse system. Among Henry’s 
publications is Contributions to Elec- 
tricity and Magnetism, 

Henry, O. See Porter, SYDNEY. 

Henry, Patrick (1736-1799), an 
American Revolutionary patriot, born in 
Hanover County, Va. He studied law 
and began to practice in 1760, attain- 
ing success from the start. His marvel- 
ous powers as an orator first became 
manifest in the case known as the Par- 
son’s Cause in 1763, in which he boldly 
struck the keynote of the coming Revo- 
lution. He was elected to the Virginia 
House of Burgesses in 1765, and nine 
days after taking his seat moved a series 
of resolutions denouncing the Stamp 
Act and defining the rights of the col- 
ony; and he supported these in a speech 
of such eloquence that Thomas Jeffer- 


1305 


HENTY 


son said of it: “It was great indeed, 
such as I have never heard from any 
other man. He appeared to me to speak 
as Homer wrote.” It was this speech 
_that contained the words: “Czesar had 
his Brutus, Charles the First his Crom- 
well, and George the Third [cries of 
‘treason’] may profit by their example. 
If this be treason, make the most of it.” 
He was a delegate to the First Conti- 
nental Congress in 1774, and opened its 
deliberations with a speech that gained 
for him the reputation of being the fore- 
most orator in America. 

In the Virginia convention in March, 
1775, Henry moved to put the colony 
in a state of defense, and in support 
of the resolution delivered his famous 
speech closing with the words: “Give 
me liberty, or give me death.” In 1776, 
largely through his efforts, the Virginia 
convention voted unanimously for inde- 
pendence, and he was elected the first 
governor of the independent state, be- 
ing reelected four times. As governor 
he planned and sent out in 1777 the 
expedition under George Rogers Clark 
that conquered the vast territory north- 
west of the Ohio, and forced England 
to yield it in the treaty of peace, thus 
securing it to the United States. 

He was opposed to the ratification of 
the Federal Constitution because he 
thought it jeopardized the rights of the 
states, and it was largely through his 
efforts that the first ten amendments 
were adopted to further protect those 
rights. He declined Washington’s offer 
of the secretaryship of state and chief 
justiceship of the United States, and the 
appointment -by John Adams as special 
minister to France, and retired to pri- 
vate life in 1795. 

Hen’ty, George Alfred (1832-1902), 
an English author and war correspond- 
ent, born in Trumpington. He studied 
at Westminster and Cambridge, served 
as purveyor in Crimea during the war 
with Russia, and became war corre- 
spondent for the London Standard, re- 
porting the Austro-Italian, Franco-Ger- 
man, Turko-Servian, Abyssinian and 
Ashanti campaigns. As editor of the 


HERALDRY 


Union Jack, a magazine for boys, he 
made a success of juvenile fiction, writ- 
ing over 80 novels of adventure for boys. 
Among his works in various lines are 
A Woman of the Commune, Dorothy's 
Double, Under Drake's Flag, By Pike 
and Dyke, The Lion of the North, Out 
with Garibaldi, The Treasure of the In- 
cas, With Kitchener in the Soudan and 
With Roberts to Pretoria, 

Hepat’ica, or Liverleaf, from the 
shape of its leaf, a low plant of the 
Crowfoot, 
or Buttercup, 
Family. It is 
one of the 
earliest spring 
flowers in the 
states north 
of Georgia 
and often ap- 
pears before 
the snow is 
gone. -The 
thick leaves 
are evergreen 
and.) Tase 
through 
winter to 
shield the 
flower buds, 
whichare also 
protected by 
a woolly coat. 
The fragrant 
flowers are borne on slender stems pro- 
ceeding directly from the root, and are 
surrounded by five little leaflike cover- 
ings called bracts. The color of the 
flower may be white, pink, pale blue or 
lavender. There are two varieties, 
which differ mainly in the shape of 


HEPATICA 


their leaves, one often growing into the — 


other. One is called the round-leaved 
hepatica and has three lobes to the leaf; 
the other, acute-lobed hepatica, has five 
pointed lobes. The plant is used in med- 
icine. | | 
Her’aldry, formerly the science of 
herald’s duties, but at the present time, 
a knowledge of forms, terms and laws 
pertaining to the use of coats of arms 
and similar emblems. The origin of em- 


1306 


the ~ 


—-- 


. th 
+ay 


HERB 


blems to represent families, clans and 
military organizations is unknown, for 
they were common among the most an- 
cient nations. But the Crusades intro- 
duced them to the Middle Ages. As 
emblems were necessary to distinguish 
the leaders of the different troops in the 
motley assembly which made up the 
Christian army, the followers of each 
leader naturally adopted the badge of 
the one who led them and their badges 
_ became family coats of arms, which have 
been handed down to the present time. 
The coat of arms consists of a minia- 
ture shield so marked and colored as 
to bring out clearly the emblem of the 
individual family or clan to which it 
belongs. While considered of little im- 
portance in America, in Europe and Ori- 
ental countries coats of arms are given 
great consideration among the nobility, 
by whom an infraction of the rules of 
heraldry is considered a breach of eti- 
quette. 

Herb, Urb, a name applied to a class 
of plants which develop more or less 
fleshy shoots and live only the length of 
time necessary for the growth and ma- 
turing of their fruit. If these plants 
live but for a year they are called an- 
nuals; for two years, biennials; and even 
though they die down to the ground, if 
they are renewed each succeeding year 
from the old root or bulb, they are 
called perennials. Herbaceous plants 
may have erect, climbing, twining or 
prostrate stems which are often fibrous, 
but are never woody in structure. A 
familiar example of an herb is found in 
any of our common weeds, as the shep- 
-herd’s purse. Opposed to herbs are 
shrubs, which are bushy, slender, woody 
plants, and trees, which are the largest 
woody plants with erect stems. _ 

Her’bart, Johann Friedrich (1776- 
1841), a German philosopher and educa- 
tor, born at Oldenburg. He studied un- 
der Fichte at Jena, and became his ar- 
dent follower, although later he broke 
away from his system. After tutoring 
for several years in Switzerland, he be- 
came docent in philosophy and pedagogy 
at Gottingen in 1802, and was appointed 


HERBERT 


professor there three years later. From 
1809 to 1833 he was professor of phi- 
losophy and pedagogy at Konigsberg. He 
was recalled to Gottingen in 1833, where 
he continued to teach until his death. 

Herbart’s philosophy begins with 
Kant’s “world of experience,” the com- 
mon view of things. It is not further 
connected with Kant, however, but is 
more closely akin to the “monad” phi- 
losophy of Leibnitz, or to the earlier 
atomistic philosophy. He held that un- 
derlying the world of appearances are 
simple atoms of monads. which he calls 
reals. These reals disturb each other 
and react in self-defense. Such reac- 
tions are our ideas. Conscious life is 
the behavior of these ideas toward each 
other, in conflict when unlike, support- 
ing each other when alike. The cen- 
tral principle of his reasoning is the law 
of contradiction. What contradicts it- 
self cannot be truly real or actual. Ul-. 
timate reality therefore must.be unitary 
and without change. In this he is the 
opposite of Hegel. 

Herbart’s greatest influence was in the 
field of education. In his psychology 
the ideas already present are called ap- | 
perceiving ideas, by which new ideas, 
in turn, are apperceived. The problem 
of education is to present such new 
ideas as can be most easily apperceived 
and incorporated with the old ideas to 
form knowledge. The education of the 
individual is to be accomplished by ex- 
citing his interest and bringing him into 
contact with all knowledge as organized 
in groups of ideas. Apperception in- 
volves the twofold process of absorp- 
tion and reflection, and is to be brought 
about by observing four stages: clear- 
ness, association, system and method. 
Allowing for what is temporary in Her- 
bart’s system, many of its elements are 
of permanent value and make him the 
founder of modern pedagogics. His 
most important educational works have 
been translated into English. See Ap- 
PERCEPTION. 

Herbert, George (1593-1633), an 
English poet, born in Montgomery Cas- 
tle, Wales. He lived a saintly life at 


1307 


HERBERT 


Bemerton, Wiltshire, and in addition to 
his duties as a priest wrote exquisite 
sacred lyrics, sometimes artificial, but 
always full of the spirit of true Chris- 
tianity. They were published under the 
title of The Temple. An admirable life 
of Herbert was written by Izaak Walton. 

Herbert, Victor (1859- ) ean 
Irish-American composer and orchestra 
conductor, born in Dublin and educated 
in Germany. His first engagement was 
as cellist of the Court Orchestra at Stutt- 
gart, and later he held the same place 
in the Metropolitan Orchestra of New 
York. He was chosen successor to Gil- 
more as conductor of the New York 
Twenty-second Regiment Band, and was 
conductor of the Pittsburgh Orchestra 
from 1898 until 1904. Since 1904 he 
has conducted Victor Herbert's New 
York Orchestra. His most popularly 
known compositions are comic operas, 
among which are Prince Ananias, Babes 
in Toyland, Cyrano de Bergerac, The 
Idol's Eye and The Wizard of the Nile. 

Herculaneum, Hur" kula' ne um, an 
ancient city of Italy, situated 5. m. e. of 
Naples, at the northwestern base of Mt. 
_ Vesuvius. Along with Pompeii and Sta- 
bize it was completely buried by the erup- 
tion of Vesuvius, A. D. 79, and it now 
lies from 30 to 120 ft. below the earth’s 
surface. Modern villages have been con- 
structed on the site, and as a result ex- 
cavations are carried on only with ex- 
treme difficulty. The first traces of its 
original site were discovered in 1719. 
Since 1906 efforts have been made by 
the Italian Government to make of the 
buried city an underground museum, rich 
in remarkable examples of ancient art, 
and leave the modern village above in- 
tact. 

Hercules, Hur’ ku leez, (in Greek, Her- 
acles), a famous hero, son of Jupiter by 
the mortal, Alemena. Jealous Juno early 
determined to destroy Hercules, and 
when he was but eight months old she 
sent two serpents to his cradle. These 
he strangled. Shortly after his marriage, 
the queen of heaven afflicted him with 
madness, which led him to kill his three 
children. In atonement he agreed to 


HERCULES 


serve for 12 years his cousin, Eurystheus, 
who enjoined upon him 12 desperate ad- 
ventures. As an oracle had promised the 


a 
a 


hero that on completing his adventures 


he was to be transplanted to heaven, and 
as he had ‘divine aid in a sword from 
Mercury, a bow from Apollo, a golden 
breastplate from Vulcan, steeds from 
Neptune and a garment from Minerva, 
he was able to carry out the commands 
of his cousin successfully. These were: 
(1) to kill the ravaging Nemean lion, 
the skin of which he ever after wore; 
(2) to slay the Hydra (See Hypra) ; 
(3) to present to Eurystheus, alive and 
uninjured, a miraculously fleet stag with 
golden horns; (4) to take alive a certain 
wild boar, the sight of which was so 
appalling that, after beholding it, King 
Eurystheus locked himself in his brazen 
chamber for days; (5) to cleanse the 
Augean stables (See AUGEAS); (6) to 
kill the carnivorous birds ravaging about 
the Arcadian lake, Stymphalus; (7) to 
procure alive a monstrous wild bull dev- 
astating Crete; (8) to lead to his cousin 
the mares of Diomedes (See DIOMEDEs) ; 
(2) to capture for Admeta, daughter of 
his cousin, the girdle of ‘the Amazon 
queen ( See Hippotyta) ; (10) to kill the 
three-bodied monster, Geryon, capturing 
his oxen; (11) to get the golden apples 


of Juno from the Hesperides (See HEs- | 


PERIDES) ; and (12) last and most ardu- 
ous of all, to bring to earth Cerberus, 
three-headed dog of Pluto. 

After Hercules had conquered these 
trials, he had a recurring fit of mad- 
ness, in which he killed his friend, Iphi- 
tus. To expiate this crime he became a 
three-year slave to Omphale, Queen of 
Lydia, serving effeminately as her hand- 
maid, while she wore his lion skin and 
wielded his club. At the expiration of 
this service he married Dejanira, with 
whom he was most happy until the Cen- 
taur, Nessus, carrying her across a 
stream, one day, attempted to run away 
with her. Hercules shot the Centaur, 
who, dying, cautioned Dejanira to keep 
some of his blood as a philter for pre- 
serving her husband’s affection. When, 
sometime later, Dejanira became jealous 


1308 


HERCULES BEETLE 


of the captive of Hercules, fair Iole, she 
dipped one of his garments in the blood 
of Nessus, as directed. Barely had the 
tunic become warm on his body when 
the hero was seized with most violent 
agonies. His wife hanged herself in 
grief, while Hercules, unable to endure 
the torture, since he could not pull the 


garment from him, wrapped his lion skin . 


about him, and, lying on a funeral pile, 
with his trusty club beneath his head, 
ordered the torch to be applied. 

Only the mortal in Hercules was con- 
sumed. When his spirit was transported 
to heaven, Juno, at last reconciled, gave 


him her daughter Hebe for a wife. 


Hercules Beetle, or Rhinoceros 
Beetle, a large beetle of the Scarabeus 
Family. It is especially noted for being 
the largest and most oddly shaped of 
beetles. Its color is olive green, marked 
with darker spots; the male bears a large 
horn upon its head, and three of smaller 
size, but of unequal length, upon the first 
segment of the thorax. In place of horns 
the female has small protuberances only. 
The Hercules beetle is found in the 
South and West, and attains its greatest 
development in the West Indies, where 
it is commonly six inches in length. 

Hercules, Pillars of, a name given to 
the two rocks which guard the entrance 
to the Mediterranean Sea at the Strait 
of Gibraltar. The old legend runs that 
they were once united, but that Hercules 
wrested them apart in order to admit the 
waters of the ocean into the Mediter- 
ranean Sea; another version shows them 
temporarily joined by him to serve the 
purpose of a bridge. See GIBRALTAR, 
STRAIT OF. 

Herder, Johann Gottfried von (1744- 
1803), a German poet and critic, born 
in Mohrungen, East Prussia. As a stu- 
dent, and later an instructor, at Konigs- 
berg, he read widely along the lines of 
science, philosophy, philology and _ poli- 
tics, and came under the influence of 
Kant. He became assistant master in 
the Cathedral School at Riga, and after- 
wards assistant pastor at the same place. 
In 1776 he became court preacher at 
Weimar, and enjoyed the companionship 


HERKIMER 


of Goethe, Jean Paul and Wieland. Her- 
der was a Romanticist, waging war on 
the imitations of French literature and 
urging the German poets to express their 
personal and national individuality. His 
own poetry was skillful, nothing more. 
He laid the foundation for the science of 
comparative philology by his investiga- 
tions into the origin and development of 
language. In the Philosophy of the His- 
tory of Man, his masterpiece, he traces 
the evolution of human society and es- 
tablishes the science of primitive culture. 
Other works are Recent German Litera- 
ture, Spirit of Hebrew Poetry and the 
collection Poems, Songs and the Cid. 
Hered’ity, the transmission of phys- 
ical and mental characteristics from par- 
ents to children. It is supposed to have 
physical basis in the direct transmission 
to the offspring of minute particles, 
called chromatins, and is made evident in 
four ways: continuous inheritance where 
the children have characteristics of both 
parents; interrupted inheritance, where 
the children resemble grandparents; col- 
lateral inheritance, where they resemble 
indirect antecedents, as aunts, uncles, 
etc.; and atavism, where they revert in 
type to a remote ancestor. The laws of 
heredity are not rigid and are influenced 
by environments, else all members of one 
race would have the same characteristics. 
See MENDEL’s Law, | 
Her’kimer, Nicholas (1715-1777), an 
American soldier of the Revolution, born 
in Herkimer County, N. Y. He was lieu- 
tenant of militia during the French and 
Indian War and commanded Ft. Her- 
kimer during the French attack on Ger- 
man Flats, 1758. At the opening of the 
Revolution he became colonel of militia, 
was promoted in 1776 to the rank of 
brigadier-general and commanded the 


forces opposed to the Tories and their 


Indian allies in western New York. Early 
in the. Battle of Oriskany Herkimer’s 
horse was shot beneath him and _ his 
leg was shattered by a ball. Nothing 
daunted, he lighted his pipe and directed 
the battle from a seat under a tree. He 
died ten days later as the result of an 
unskillful operation. A monument was 


1309 


HERKOMER 


erected to his memory at Oriskany in 
1884, and on Aug. 6, 1907, one was un- 
veiled at Herkimer. See ORISKANY, 
BATTLE OF, 

Her’komer, Sir Hubert von (1849- 
1914), an English painter, etcher, enamel 
worker and mezzotint engraver, born in 
Bavaria. His family removed to Eng- 
land in 1857. After serious study at 
South Kensington, he exhibited at the 
Royal Academy. In 1881 he founded 
the Herkomer School, which afterwards 
became famous, and four years later was 
appointed Slade professor at Oxford. He 
has exercised a marked influence upon 
art study in England. 

Hermione, Hermione, in Greek 
myths, daughter of Menelaus and Helen. 
Ignorant of a private engagement to her 
cousin, Orestes, her father married her 
to Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus). On _ his 
death, however, she married Orestes, to 
whom she brought Sparta as her dowry. 

Hermit Crab. See Crap. 

Hermit Thrush. See THrRusH, sub- 
head Hermit Thrush. 

Her’mon, a mountain of Palestine, 
noted for its connection with events men- 
tioned in the Bible. It belongs to the 
Anti-Libanus Range and has an alti- 
tude of 9400 ft. Its slopes are covered 
with vegetation, but the summit is usu- 
ally capped with snow. Hermon is sur- 
rounded by the ruins of ancient temples, 
and it is supposed to be the scene of the 
Transfiguration. 

Her’nia, or Rupture, a Hisense caused 
by the protruding of any organ or part 
of an organ of the body through an 
abnormal or accidental opening beyond 
its natural cavity. Such displacement 
usually causes the formation of tumors. 
Although the lungs, heart and other or- 
gans may be displaced by rupture, such 
a lesion usually occurs in the abdominal 
cavity, and is commonly caused by vio- 
lent straining. Men are more frequently 
affected than women, the percentage be- 
ing four to one. Permanent cure is ob- 
tained only through a surgical operation. 

He’ro, a beautiful priestess of Venus, 
at Sestos, in Thrace. She was beloved 
by Leander, of Abydos, who nightly 


HEROD 


swam the Hellespont to visit her. Hero, 
meanwhile, directed his course by plac- 
ing a flaming torch on her high tower. 
When Leander was drowned, one stormy 
night, Hero cast herself into the sea. 

Her’od, the family name of a group 
of rulers of Palestine. 
derived from that of Herod the Great, 
its most famous member. 

HEROD THE GREAT, son of Antipater, 
governor of Idumea, reigned as King of 
Judea from 37 B. C. to 4 B. C. Until 
25 B. C. he was obliged to contend 
against the hostility of the Sadducees and 
Pharisees and the surviving members of 
a rival house, but for 12 years there- 
after his rule was prosperous. He did 
not scruple to gain his ends by means 
of murder, confiscation of property and 
political intrigue. During this period he 
rebuilt and beautified many cities, not 
only in’ Palestine, but in) Syria,e Asia 
Minor and Greece. He rebuilt the Tem- 
ple at Jerusalem with lavish expendi- 
ture. Shortly before his death Jesus 
was born in Bethlehem. 

Herop ANTIPAS, son of Herod the 
Great, ruled as tetrarch of Galilee from 
4° B.'C.: to 37. A: DD. Antipas ie) tree 
quently mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment, being especially remembered for 
his imprisonment and execution of John 
the Baptist. It was this ruler, also, ‘to 
whom Pilate sent Jesus (Luke xxii, 
7-15): 

Herrop AcrippA (Agrippa I), grand- 
son of Herod the Great, ruled in Pales- 
tine from 37 A. D. to 44. Shortly after 
the accession of Caligula, as Emperor of 


Rome (37 A. D.), that monarch gave — 


Agrippa the tetrarchies of Philip and 


Lysanias, with the title of King, while © 


the Senate gave him the honorary rank 
of pretor. In the year 40 he obtained 
the fortified tetrarchy of Antipas. A. year 
later, on the accession of Claudius, he 
was given the additional territory of 
Judea and Samaria. He showed much 
favor toward his Jewish subjects, which 
probably accounts for his persecution of 
the Christians. His death is related in 
Acts xu, 20-23. 

Herop Acrippa (Agrippa II), son of 


1310 


The name is — 


HERODOTUS 


Agrippa I, ruled from 50 A. D. to about 
100. On account of his extreme youth, 
Palestine was directly under Roman rule 
for six years after his father’s death. In 
the year 50 he received the kingdom, but 
surrendered it in 53, receiving in return 
the former tetrarchy of Philip, the tet- 
rarchy of Lysanias and the domains of 
Varus. Nero in 56 A. D. added to this 
the cities of Tiberias and Julias in Gali- 
lee, and Tarichea in Perea, including 
surrounding lands and villages. His rule 
was a weak one. This was the Agrippa 
before whom Paul was brought by Fes- 
tus in Cesarea, as related in Acts xxv, 
I3-4%XV1, 32. 

Herod’otus (about 484-about 425 B. 
C.), historian of ancient Greece, born at 
Halicarnassus, and often called the fa- 
ther of Greek history. He traveled 
through the East, visited Athens in the 
boyhood of Thucydides and came in con- 
tact with the noted men there. He then 
went to Thurii, Italy, where he spent the 
rest of his days, according to Pliny, writ- 
ing his immortal history. His work is 
divided into nine books, each named after 
a Muse. The style is graceful, simple 
and flowing. 

Heron, a family of wading birds hav- 
ing long necks, long legs and toes, and 

long bills. They 
live about ponds 
and swamps 
where they feed 
upon _ Crusta- 
ceans. Many 
species live in 
North America, 
where they are 
known by a va- 
riety of names. 
Their length is 
HERON from 22 to 50 
inches; the green heron, a heron with 
ereenish back and chestnut neck, is the 
smallest and the great blue heron is the 
largest. 

GREAT BLUE Heron. This is the best 
known as well as the largest of the fam- 
ily. It is 50 inches long, has bluish 
upper parts, black and white streaked un- 
der parts and shoulders and brownish 


FOOT AND HEAD OF A 


HERRICK 


thighs. The edges of the wings are 
brownish and the top of the head is white. 
These birds nest in colonies, placing their 
huge, platformlike nests, made of sticks, 
rather high up in the trees. Three to 
six greenish-blue eggs are laid. Great 
blue herons are also called blue cranes 
and are a common sight in North Amer- 
ica, where solitary birds are often seen 
sitting in an exposed situation. The 
flight of this heron is heavy; its huge 
wings flap slowly, its neck is doubled 
upon its breast and its long legs stick 
straight out behind. See Ecretr; Birt- 
TERN ; NiGHT HERON. 

Her’rick, Robert (1591-1674), an 
English poet, born in London. He was 
apprenticed to his uncle, William Her- 
rick, a wealthy goldsmith, studied law 
and theology at Cambridge, and after 
taking orders became vicar of Dean Prior 
in Devonshire. The village ceremonies 
and superstitions fascinated him, and in 
his verse he recorded sympathetically the 
quaint customs of Christmas mummers 
and Twelfth Night revelers. On his re- 
turn to London in 1648, he published his 
poems under the title Hesperides, Four- 
teen years later he returned to his charge 
at Dean Prior. He wrote over 1300 
poems, all short, hundreds of them mere 
couplets. His verse in general reveals 
a careless joy of living; his love poems 
are tender and sweet. He emphasized 
perfection of form even at the sacrifice 
of subject matter. The first stanza of 
one of his songs, beginning “Gather ye 
rosebuds while ye may,” is often quoted. 
Among his religious poems, The Litany 
is his masterpiece. 

Herrick, Robert (1868- y, an 
American novelist, born in Cambridge, 
Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1890, 
and was appointed professor of English 
in the University of Chicago in 1905. His 
writings are characterized by an earnest 
and fearless sincerity of purpose, and 
deal with some of the most vital prob- 
lems of American industrial and moral 
life. Together with Harrison Rhodes he 
produced the drama, The Maternal In- 
stinct, which was staged in Chicago by 
the Chicago Drama League in 1912. His 


1311 


HERRING 


other works include, The Common Lot; 
The Web of Life; The Man Who Wins; 
Their Child; Together; The Master of 
the Inn; A Life for a Life; The Healer; 
Memoirs of an American Citizen; One 
Woman's Life; His Great Adventure ; 
Clark’s Field; World Decision. 
Herring, a family of important food 
fishes. Ten species are of commercial 
importance. All have graceful, tapering 
bodies, and forked tail. 
are large, rounding and glistening, with- 
out any noticeable median line. It is 
estimated that over 3,000,000,000 herring 
are taken from the Atlantic annually. 
They are taken chiefly by weirs and 
gill nets, though the old method of “torch- 
ing,” or fishing by torchlight, is still occa- 
sionally practiced. They are shipped 
smoked, salted or pickled, and the young 
of one species are packed in oil and 


HERRING 


called sardinés. A favorite canned prep- 
aration in England is called kippered her- 
ring. 

The lake herring, an inhabitant of the 
Great Lakes region, is a member of the 
Salmon Family. It is found in large 
quantities in lakes Erie and Michigan, 
and is a popular food fish. It has a long, 
slender body which is of dull blue or 
green color above and light below. The 
fins differ greatly in color. Lake herring 
come toward shore in the spring, the 
spawning season, and are then caught 
in large quantities. Their ordinary 
weight rarely exceeds one pound and 
the maximum weight is two and one- 
half pounds. Cleveland is one of the chief 
ports of the lake herring fisheries. See 
SARDINE. 

Herschel, Hur’ shel, Caroline Lucre- 
tia (1750-1848), a German-English as- 
tronomer, sister of Sir William Her- 
schel, born in Hanover, Germany. In 


The scales 


HERSCHEL 


early life she was not allowed the ad- 
vantages of an education, her mother 
claiming her attention and time for 
household duties. In 1772 her brother 
took her with him to England. There 
she assisted him in his work as a mu- 
sician, being the principal singer in his 
oratorios. Her real work was in con- 
nection with that of her brother in his 
astronomical researches. She took his 
observations, made his calculations and 


even fed him when his hands were oc- 


cupied with the poor telescope that he 
was compelled to use in his earliest ob- 
servations. She was, however, an as- 
tronomer in her own right, discovering 
several nebule and seven comets, of 
which five were first discovered by her. 
In 1822 she returned to Hanover and 
spent the remaining years of her life 
in astronomical work. In 1828 the As- 
tronomical Society awarded her its gold 
medal, and in 1835 elected*her an hon- 
orary member of the society. In 1846 
the King of Prussia gave her a gold 
medal. See HerscHet, Str WILLIAM. 

Herschel, Sir John Frederick Wil- 
liam (1792-1871), a distinguished math- 
ematician, chemist and astronomer. He 
was born in Slough, England, the only 
son of Sir William Herschel. He be- 
gan his education at Eton, but continued 
it under a private tutor and later at 
St. John’s College, Cambridge. While 
here he began a work on differential cal- 
ctlus which was revolutionary in the 
mathematical world. In 1826 the As- 
tronomical Society awarded him its gold 
medal in recognition of his work in the 
reexamination of his 
stars, and for his original investigations. 
He was knighted in 1831, and in 1833 
he was awarded a medal of the Royal 
Society in recognition of his paper On 
the Investigation of the Orbits of Re- 
volving Double Stars. His father’s work 
and his own up to 1833 had been con- 
fined largely ‘to northern skies. He 
moved to Table Bay, Cape of Good 
Hope, in that year, in order to study 
the southern heavens. His Cape Obser- 
vations record the wonderful results of 
his work. Herschel was an accomplished 


1312 


father’s binary — 


— rere Fins ta. 


HERSCHEL 


chemist and did much to lay the foun- 
dations of modern photography. He 
died at Hawkhurst, England, and is 
buried in Westminster Abbey. See 
HERSCHEL, SIR WILLIAM; TELESCOPE. 
Herschel, Sir William (1738-1822), 
an English musician and astronomer, 
born in Hanover, Germany. His early 
education was limited. His father was 
a player of the hautboy in the Hano- 
varian Guards, and William joined the 
same band in his 17th year. He went 
to England in 1757 to try his fortunes. 
In 1772 he visited Hanover, and upon 
his return to England brought his sis- 
ter Caroline with him. For several years 


he had been giving as much time as 


possible to the study of astronomy, and, 
by the aid of his sister, in 1774, he 
completed a Newtonian telescope hav- 
ing a focal length of six feet. In 1780 
he gave some of the records of his ob- 
servations to the Royal Society. In 1781 
he discovered Uranus and its satellites. 
In recognition of his work he received 
the Copley medal from the Royal So- 
ciety the same year. About this time 
he applied the principles of gravitation 
to the movements of the stars, his the- 
ory being fully justified a few years 
later, after patient observation for an 
extended period of binary stars and their 
orbits. In 1782 he became private as- 
tronomer to George III and removed to 


Slough. At this place in 1789 he com- 


pleted his great telescope, 40 feet long 
and having a four-foot aperture, with 
which he discovered the sixth and sev- 
enth satellites of Saturn. In 1816 he 
was made a Hanovarian knight. See 
HERSCHEL, CAROLINE LUCRETIA. 
He’siod, one of the oldest poets of 
Greece. He lived a century or so after 
Homer, probably in the eighth century 
B. C., and about all that is known of 
his life is that he was a wandering 
singer. His principal works are the 
Theogony, a collection of fables on the 
creation of the world and the birth of 
the gods, interesting as being the oldest 
systematic compilation on Greek myths, 


and the Works and Days. In this poem 


the poet treats of agriculture and the 


HESSIAN FLY 


choice of days suitable for the perform- 
ance of certain acts. He also lays down 
precepts on such subjects as education 
and domestic economy. One other re- 
maining work of the many ascribed to 
Hesiod is the fragmentary poem, the 
Shield of Hercules. 

Hesperides, Hes per’ i deez, (Western 
Maidens), in Greek myths three daugh- 
ters of Atlas, commissioned by Juno to 
guard the golden apples which she had 
received as a wedding gift from the god- 
dess of the Earth. They were aided by 
a hundred-headed serpent and were sup- 
posed to keep their watch in a garden 
in farthest Libya. The 11th labor of 
Hercules was to bring to Eurystheus 
some of these apples. See HERCULES. 

Hesse, Hes,.one of the states of the 
German Republic, the eighth in size. 
The northern division, known as the 
Province of Upper Hesse, is in the 
Province of Hesse-Nassau; the south- 
ern lies between Prussia, Baden, Ba- 
varia and the Bavarian Palatinate. The 
surface is generally hilly and moun- 
tainous, and the industry of the inhab- 
itants is about equally represented by 
agriculture and mining. The mineral 
products are coal, iron and salt, and the . 
agricultural products consist of rye, 
wheat, oats, barley, hay and potatoes. 
Fruit growing and the cultivation of 
the vine are actively promoted. The 
principal towns are Darmstadt (the capi- 
tal), Worms, Mainz, Bingen and Gies- 
sen. In 1806 Hesse became a grand 
duchy, and following the Congress of 
Vienna it became a member of the Ger- 
man Confederation. Its present limits 
were placed on it in 1866, during the 
war between Austria and Prussia, when 
it was forced to cede to Prussia some 
of its northern territory. Population, 
about 1,210,000. 

Hessian, Hesh'an, Fly, a family of 
Insecta of the order Diptera. The mem- 
bers of this family have been known 
in the United States since 1778, when 
they were supposed to have been brought 
here in the straw of the Hessian troop- 
ers. In the adult stage, C, these in- 
sects are only about one-eighth of an 


1313 


HESSIAN FLY 


inch in length, and are black, with 
lighter-colored abdomens. They lay their 
eggs in the furrows on the upper sur- 
faces of wheat leaves, where the larve, 
B, when hatched, can creep to the sheath- 
ing bases of the leaves, enter the tender 
stalk, D, and feed upon the sap. In a 
few weeks the larva changes to the 
pupa, or “flaxseed,” stage, A. It is then 
a tiny brown object resembling the seed 
of the flax. In a few more days the 
adult appears, and its life 1s of such 
short duration as to enable it only to 
lay its eggs before it dies. These eggs 
also develop rapidly and there are often 


HESSIAN FLY 


from two to five broods annually. Those 
insects which survive the winter are the 
ones which are in the flaxseed stage 
when the cold weather sets in. Wheat, 
rye and barley attacked by the Hessian 
fly are weakened and produce little seed. 
It is estimated that these insects cause 
annually in the United States alone a 
loss of $10,000,000 in grains. They are 
found everywhere in wheat regions. 
Stubble of infected grain should be 
burned or plowed under, and winter 
wheat should be sown as late as pos- 
sible in order to offer no place for the 


1314 


HIAWATHA 
reception of the eggs. See DIPTERA; 
INSECTICIDE. 

Hessians, mercenary troops hired by 
Great Britain from the Landgrave of 
Hesse-Cassel and other German princes 
to subjugate the American colonies. 
Eager for the hire, six of these petty 
princes between them furnished England 
with about 30,000 soldiers. These Ger- 
mans had not voluntarily offered their 
services. They had been let to England 
without their consent. According to 
agreement, George III was to pay a cer- 
tain stipulated sum for each dead Hes- 
sian. Three wounded men were equal 
to one who had been killed. The hiring 
of these auxiliaries caused the greatest 
indignation in America. Some 2200 Hes- 
sians lost their lives in the war, about 
5000 surrendered at Saratoga, Trenton 
and Bennington, while many deserted 
the British, upon offers of land from 
Congress, and became American citizens. 

Hewlett, Maurice Henry (1861- 


), an English novelist, born in Lon- — 


don. His work reveals an intimate 
knowledge of medieval life in England 
and Italy, and is a successful combina- 
tion of fiction and history. He has writ- 
ten New Canterbury Tales, Pan and the 
Young Shepherd, Little Novels of Italy, 
The Forest Lovers, The Fool Errant, 
The Half-way House, Idylls and Songs 
and The Agonists. . 

Hez’eki’ah, King of Judah, son and 
successor of Ahaz. He reigned from 
about 720 to 691 B. C. On his acces- 
sion he immediately entered upon the 
work of reforming the nation, which 
had become idolatrous and corrupt. The 
second book of Kings chronicles the in- 
vasion of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, 
during Hezekiah’s reign, and the de- 
struction of the invader’s army by a 
pestilence. 

Hiawatha, Hi” awah’' thah, generally 
supposed to be a legendary personage of 
the American Indians and the hero of 
Longfellow’s poem Hiawatha, was in re- 
ality a chief of the Iroquois confederacy 
of the Five Nations. 
lawgiver and is considered by the Iro- 
quois the greatest chief that ever lived. 


He was a wise 


ea 
‘ eee oe 


s 
: 
om 


HIBBEN 


Longfellow’s poem, however, is based 
upon the legendary character who was 
known among different tribes by differ- 
ent names, as Chiado and Manabozho, 
and among the Ojibways as Hiawatha. 
Hib’ben, John Grier (1861- ), an 
American scholar, author and university 
president, born at Peoria, Ill., and edu- 
cated at Princeton. After graduation 
from the Princeton Theological Semi- 
nary, he spent a year in study at the 
University of Berlin; and then served as 
pastor of a church at Chambersburg, 
Pa., from 1887 to 1891, when he was 
appointed an instructor in logic and psy- 
chology in his alma mater. As professor 
of logic since 1896, he has won recog- 
nition at home and abroad by various 
scholarly publications, while gaining the 
esteem of his associates and the devoted 
and enthusiastic affection of the student 
body. In January, 1912, he was elected 
president of the university, to succeed 
Wocdrow Wilson, who had become gov- 
ernor of New Jersey in 1910. Dr. Hib- 
ben is the author of Inductive Logic, 
Hegel's Logic, Deductive Logic, The 
Problems of Philosophy, The Philosophy 
of the Enlightenment and the editor of 
Epochs of Philosophy (12 vols.). 
Hib’bing, Minn., a city of St. Louis 
Co., 80 m. n.w. of Duluth, on the Great 
Northern, the Duluth, Missabe & North- 
ern and other railroads. It is situated 
in the Mesaba iron-ore region, and there 
are 40 or more mines in operation in 
the vicinity. Other important industries 
are lumbering and farming. Hibbing 
was settled in 1892 and incorporated in 
1893. Population in 1920, 15,089. 
Hi”’berna’tion, a state of stupor in 
which many animals pass the winter. The 
term has been broadened in its usage 
until it now also includes the same state 
when brought on by heat, cold, scarcity 
of food or other causes not originating 
in disease. If the same condition is 
brought on in summer, it is called @sti- 
vation. Naturally hibernation occurs 
only among animals which do not mi- 
grate, and seems to be a provision of 
nature which renders migration unnec- 
essary.. True hibernation’ is generally 


HIBISCUS 


preceded by a period during which the 
animal acquires a great deal of fat, evi- 
dently to furnish its sustenance dur- 
ing its inactive months. The animal 
then seeks a burrow, hollow tree or 
other sheltered spot and enters a state 
very akin to death. The temperature 
of the body lowers until it becomes 
nearly that of the surrounding atmos- 
phere, and in many cases breathing is 
almost stopped. Female bears, Rodents 
and almost all wood animals seek win- 
ter quarters probably because food is 
scarce; those, however, which have 
stored food in their burrows and there 
feed upon it during the winter cannot 
be said to hibernate. 

Many species of Reptilia, as alliga- 
tors, serpents and turtles, go into a stu- 
por upon the approach of cold weather 
or when their marshy haunts dry out, 
and during early, cool spring mornings 
it is not at all unusual to find a serpent, 
stiffened to inactivity by the cold, later 
becoming active when the sun’s rays 
warm the air. Hibernation does not, 
however, mean freezing, which may be 
said to be a pathological, or diseased, 
condition. Snails and many small aquat- 
ic animals are similarly affected by heat 
or drought. 

Hibiscus, Hi bis’ kus, a class of herbs 
or shrubs of the Mallow Family, having 
beautiful, large, purple, white or rose- 
colored flowers. The marsh hibiscus is 
a tall perennial with sharp-pointed, gray- 
green leaves, slightly woolly underneath. 
The flowers have five widespreading pet- 
als, generally veined with pink. These 
blossoms in form greatly resemble those 
of the weed mallow, but are much larger 
and more showy. A fleshy column stands 
at the center of the flower and bears 
upon its surface many stamens extend- 
ing laterally, and, upon its summit, the 
pistil. Species of the hibiscus eTow 
throughout eastern and central United 
States, and all, like other mallows, con- 
tain a thick, mucilaginous substance 
used in making mucilage, confectioners’ 
paste, etc. Cultivated varieties are found 
in parks and greenhouses. See HoLty- 
HOCK; MALLOw. 


1315 


HICCOUGH 


Hiccough, Hik’ up, or Hiccup, a con- 
vulsive movement of the diaphragm 
which interferes with the inspiration of 
the air. These movements occur at 
brief, regular intervals, and the attack 
usually lasts a few moments, though in 
some cases it may continue for hours 
and give rise to complete exhaustion, or 
result, as in rare cases, in death. The 


disturbance is caused by indigestion or 


by a fit of laughing, and may be cured 
by holding the breath or by taking sips 
of water in rapid succession. Hiccough 
is a serious symptom of appendicitis, 
peritonitis and pneumonia. 

Hick’ory, a name given to a number 
of large and valuable trees of the Wal- 
nut Family, growing in the United States 
from the St. Lawrence to Mexico. There 
are 12 species, 11 of which are native 
in the Western world. The cylindrical 
trunk is usually rather large and has 
a smooth or shaggy, gray bark that 
varies in different species and serves as 
a means of distinguishing them. The 
wood of the hickory is tough, hard and 
brown and valuable for fuel, tool han- 
dles and agricultural implements. The 
branches are flexible and of use for 
withes. The leaves are made up of 
many narrow leaflets, which have finely- 
toothed margins; they are glandular-dot- 
ted and turn a bright yellow in the 
autumn; when they fall it is often only 
the blade that drops, leaving the leaf 
stem on the tree through the winter. 
If this stem does fall; it leaves a promi- 
nent leaf scar much lighter in color than 
the twig. The flowers are of two kinds, 
in drooping catkins and in erect spikes, 
the latter of which produce the com- 
mon shuck-covered hickory nut. 

The commonest hickories of the 
United States are: the water hickory, 
which is commercially unimportant; the 
butternut hickory, whose fruit is not 
edible; the shagbark and the shellbark, 
whose bark hangs in long, loose scales; 
the mockernut, whose bark is gray; and 
the pignut, whose fruit is sometimes bit- 
ter and sometimes sweet. See PECAN. 

Hicks, Thomas Holliday (1798- 
1865), an American statesman, born in 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


Dorchester County, Md. He was sher- 
iff, member of the State Legislature, of 
the State Electoral College and of the 
governor’s council, and, from 1858 to 
1862, governor of the State of Mary- 
land. By prompt and vigorous action, 
he succeeded in preventing the-*seces- 
sion of his state, although he was the 
only prominent state official who took a 
decided stand for the Lincoln admin- 
istration. The wisdom of his course be- 
came apparent, however, to the people 
of Maryland, and at the close of his 
administration the Legislature passed 
resolutions thanking him for his action. 
In 1862 he accepted a seat in the Sen- 
ate, which he continued to occupy until 
his death. 

Hieroglyphics. Hz1” ero glif' iks, the 
name commonly given picture writing, 
such as that used by the ancient Egyp- 
tians, the Aztecs and the North Ameri- 
can Indians. The name is derived from 
two Greek words and means sacred en- 
graving. The oldest inscriptions were 
sculptured on the buildings and monu- 
ments of Egypt, and were at first sup- 
posed to relate to sacred subjects which 
only the priests understood. From this 
supposition the name originated. The 
hieroglyphics of the Aztecs and Indians 
are not as perfect as those of the an- 
cient Egyptians, who brought their sys- 
tem of writing to a high degree of per- 
fection. It is impossible to trace the 


Egyptian system to its origin, since it 
is well developed on the most ancient 
monuments and tombs that have been 


discovered. The system consists of 
symbols of natural objects and arbitrary 


signs so arranged in the writing as to 


make the desired record. Some of the 
symbols, such as that for man, woman, 


soldier and child, are easily recognized. 


Others, however, are more difficult to 


interpret. 
resented by the eye with flowing tears; 
going, by a pair of legs; returning,. by 


: 


To illustrate, weeping is rep- 


the pair of legs going in the opposite 


direction; water, by horizontal wavy 


lines; and rain, by vertical wavy lines. 
Sometimes the same picture is used for 


two or three words and its meaning can 
1316 / 


HIEROGLYPHICS 


{ 
be determined only by the pictures and 
symbols preceding and _ following it. 
Thus many signs came to pass from mere 
signs of words to signs of syllables or 
sounds; that is, they passed from the 
ideographic class to the phonetic class. 
It is supposed that in this way the al- 
phabet was developed, though there is 
no evidence that the alphabet invented 
by the Phcenicians, and from which our 
alphabet is derived, sustains any relation 
to the alphabet developed from Egyp- 
tian hieroglyphics. Some of the pecu- 
liarities of this alphabet are here shown. 


| 


EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS 


The Egyptian sign alphabet soon 
changed to one of symbols, and these 
were employed in all the later writing, 
which is called demotic to distinguish 
it from the earlier, which was known as 
hieratic. In both systems the writing 
was, with rare exceptions, from right to 
left. 

For centuries scholars were unable to 
translate Egyptian hieroglyphics, but in 
1799 Captain Boussard discovered the 
Rosetta Stone, which gave a key to the 
writings and language (See ROSETTA 
STONE). This stone contained the same 
inscription in hieroglyphics, demotic and 
Greek. By working from the Greek to 


. EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS 


the demotic and from that to the hiero- 
elyphic, a key was discovered after much 
study, and Champollion and, in 1822, Dr. 
Thomas Young, independent of each 
other, discovered a method of reading the 
characters which could be applied to 
other inscriptions. Since then many rec- 
ords have been translated and dictionaries 
and grammars written. The picture writ- 


-ing of the American Indians, as shown 


by the following symbols, was crude 
and simple. The Indians used no pho- 
netic symbols and each symbol repre- 
sented a word. 


HIGH PRIEST 


Hig’ginson, Thomas Wentworth 
(1823-1911), an American writer and 
soldier, born in Cambridge, Mass. He 
was educated at Harvard, where he be- 
came the friend of Edward Everett Hale 
and Thoreau, studied under Longfellow, 
whose niece he married, and lived next 
door to Oliver Wendell Holmes. After 


_Higginson’s graduation he studied theol- 


ogy, then entered the ministry. In 1850 
he was the candidate for Congress on the 
Free-Soil ticket. A zealous anti-slavery 
advocate, he took part in the Kansas 
struggles and also served in the Civil 
War, becoming colonel of the first regi- 
ment of freed slaves. After the war he 
devoted himself to literature, education, 
and the political rights of women. 


Among the more noteworthy of his many 
writings, are, Outdoor Papers; Atlantic 
Essays; Oldport Days; Young Folks’ 
History of United States; Common Sense 
about Woman; Life of Margaret Fuller 
Ossoli; Cheerful Yesterdays. 


(2. AD.) 


INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS 


High-Hole. See FLICKER. 

High Point, N. C., a city of Guilford 
Co., 78 m. n.e. of Charlotte, on the South- 
ern and other railroads. The chief 
sources of revenue are farming and man- 
ufacturing. The city contains several 
woodworking mills and furniture facto- 
ries. Brick, buggies and _ shuttles 
are also made. High Point was settled 
in 1840 and incorporated in 1858; it is 
administered under a revised charter of 
1901. Population in 1920, 14,302. 

High Priest, the chief of the Jewish 
priests, the representative’ of the entire 
priesthood and of the whole nation. The 
age of 20 is commonly assumed by Jew- 
ish tradition to be the earliest for en- 
trance into this office. The special func- 
tion of the high priest related to the 
great Day of Atonement, on which he 
entered the Holy of Holies to sprinkle 
the blood of the sin offering on the mercy 


1317 


HIGH SCHOOL 


seat and to burn incense. He also had 
charge of the whole public worship and 
of the treasures of the Temple, and in 
later times was the president of the San- 
hedrin. His garments were costly and 
beautiful, but were laid aside when he 
entered the Holy of Holies, on which 
occasion he wore only a white robe. The 
history of the high priests covers a period 
of 1370 years, beginning with Aaron. 
The office originally descended from 
father to son and was for life, but in 
the time of Christ civil rulers removed 
and appointed high priests as they chose. 

High School, in the United States a 
secondary school, public or private, 
which provides instruction beyond the 
curriculum of the elementary grades, but 
of less advanced character than that 
which the college affords (See AcAp- 
EMY). The boys’ English High Schoo! 
of Boston, established in 1821, was the 
first of such institutions in America; but 
other cities soon began to make similar 
provisions for both sexes. Horace Mann, 
Henry Barnard and other prominent 
educators rendered an inestimable serv- 
ice by emphasizing in their day the im- 
portance of providing secondary schools, 
and both the justice and necessity for 
arranging to support these with public 
funds, thereby making them directly re- 
sponsive to the will of the people. 

Free high schools now form a part of 
the public school system of every state in 
the Union, though in most states they are 
open only to the pupils of the district in 
which they are located. From necessity 
these schools are located in cities and 
towns, leaving the youth of rural com- 
munities without high-school privileges. 
In several states this condition has been 
remedied by establishing township high 
schools, as in Illinois, and by the con- 
solidation of school districts, as in Ohio. 
In some states, as Minnesota and Wis- 
consin, the high schools are affiliated 
with the state university. High schools 
usually have buildings constructed on the 
most approved plans and are equipped 
with laboratories for the study of phys- 
ical science and with libraries of refer- 
ence works and maps. Many of them 


HILL 


are also equipped for teaching domes- 
tic science. See COMMON SCHOOLS. 

High Seas, the ocean or open sea. 
The general principle of international 
law now accepted is that the jurisdiction 
of maritime nations extends only for 
three miles, or within cannon range of 
their own coasts, the remainder of the 
seas being high seas, accessible on equal 
terms to all nations. 
estuaries are excepted. 

Highway. See Roap. 

Hil’dreth, Richard (1807-1865), an 
American historian, born in Deerfield, 
Mass., and educated at Harvard. Later 
he studied and practiced law until 1832, 
when he began to edit the Boston Atlas, 
an influential political paper. In 1834 he 
removed to a plantation in Florida, 
where, as a result of observations, he 
published an anti-slavery novel, bearing, 
on its publication, the title The White 
Slave. His principal work is a History 
of the United States. In six volumes, it 
deals accurately with events up to Mon- 
roe’s administration. In 1861 Lincoln 
appointed him consul at Trieste. 

Hill, Ambrose Powell (1825-1865), 
an American soldier, born in Culpeper 
County, Va., and educated at West 
Point. He served in the Mexican and 
Seminole wars, and at the outbreak of 
the Civil War entered the Confederate 
service as colonel of the 13th Virginia 
Volunteers. A most efficient officer, he 
fought at the first Battle of Bull Run, at 
Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellors- 
ville and Gettysburg, becoming major- 
general, and distinguished himself in the 


Inland seas and 


defense of Petersburg and Richmond. — 


He was killed during the final struggle 
at Petersburg. 

Hill, Benjamin Harvey (1823-1882), 
an American legislator, born in Georgia. 
He graduated from the Georgia State 
University in 1844, studied law and was 
admitted to the bar. He was a member 
of the State Legislature in 1851, and 
ten years later was a member of the State 
Secession Congress. He was a Unionist, 
and endeavored to prevent the secession 
of his state. Later he sat in the Con- 
federate Senate. Hill was opposed to 


1318 


HILL 


the acts of Congress regarding recon- 
struction and wrote Notes on the Situ- 
ation, which was widely read. In 1875 
he was sent as a representative to Con- 
_ gress, and from 1876 until his death he 
occupied a seat in the United States 
Senate. 

Hill, Daniel Harvey (1821-1889), an 
American soldier, born in South Caro- 
lina... He graduated at West Point in 
1842, served in the Mexican War and 
was brevetted major for gallant conduct. 
In 1849 he became professor of mathe- 
matics in Washington College, and six 
years later accepted a similar position 
in Davidson College, North Carolina. 
He entered the Confederate army in 
1861, was in active service throughout 


_ the war and rose steadily in rank until 


he became lieutenant-general. 

Hill, David Jayne (1850- van 
American scholar and diplomat, born at 
Plainfield, N. J., and a graduate of Buck- 
- nel] University. He served Bucknell as 
professor of rhetoric for three years and 
as president for eleven years. From 
1888 to 1896 he was president of the 
University of Rochester, resigning to 
spend three years in Europe in the study 
of international law and _ diplomacy. 
. After five years in Washington as first 
assistant secretary of state, he became 
the representative of the United States 
to Switzerland and later to Netherlands. 
From 1908 to 1911 he was ambassador 
to Germany. He edited Jevons’ Logic 
and is European editor of The Amert- 
can Journal of International Law. His 
writings include The Science of Rhetoric 
and The Elements of Rhetoric and Com- 
position, Americanism, What it is? The 
rebuilding of Europe. 

Hill, James Jerome (1838-1916), an 
American financier and railway mana- 
ger, born in Guelph, Ontario. At the age 
of 19 he left his father’s farm and went 
to St. Paul, Minn. In 1865 he became 
agent for the Northwestern Packet Com- 
pany, and later engaged in a fuel and 
transportation business: for himself. In 
1870 he established the Red River 
Transportation Company, which was the 
first to open communication between St. 


HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 


Paul and Winnipeg. Later, Mr. Hill or- 
ganized a company which secured con- 
trol of the St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, 
and reorganized it as the St. Paul, Min- 
neapolis & Manitoba Railway, of which 
he became general manager, and later 
president. Under his management this 
road was extended from a few local 
lines until it became the Great Northern 
System, joining Lake Superior to Puget 
Sound and having a line of steamers 
connecting with China and Japan. Under 
Mr. Hill’s direction the Northern Pa- . 
cific and Burlington systems were made 
cooperative with the Great Northern 
System. In 1907 he retired from the 
presidency of the Great Northern lines. 

As a man of foresight, courage, finan- 
cial and executive ability, Mr’ Hill has 
had few equals in his generation, and he 
has been the leader in the development 
of the new states through which his rail- 
ways extend. He is a man of fine cul- 
ture, and is a fluent public speaker and 
clear and vigorous writer. 

Hill’is, Newell Dwight (1858- yi 
Presbyterian clergyman and author, born 
at Magnolia, Iowa. He studied in Iowa 
College, graduated from Lake Forest 
University in 1884 and from McCormick 
Theological Seminary in 1887. He was 
pastor at Peoria, Ill., from 1886 to 1889; 
Evanston, Ill., 1889 to 1895; Central 
Church (Independent), Chicago, from 
1895 to 1899. In 1899 he accepted a 
call to Plymouth Congregational Church, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. Dr. Hillis is noted as 
a preacher and lecturer, and as an inter- 
esting and profitable writer. Among his 
books may be mentioned The Invest- 
ment of Influence, Quest of Happiness, 
Foretokens of Immortality, How the 
Inner Light Failed, A Man’s Value to 
Society, Great Books as Life Teachers 
and Success Through Self-Help. 

Himalaya, Him ah’ lah yah, Moun- 
tains, the highest mountains of the 
globe, lying in an irregular curve separat- 
ing the northern boundary of India from 
Tibet. They consist of many rugged 
peaks forming a great mass nearly 
1500 m. in extent and varying in width 
from 100 to 150 m. They are inter- 


1319 


HINDUISM 


sected by great canyons, rapid rivers 
formed by the melting snows, and vast 
plateaus or fertile valleys. 

The general height of the mountains 
is 18,000 ft., but more than 40 rise above 
24,000 ft. and Mt. Everest, believed to be 
the highest mountain of the world, is 
over 29,000 ft. On the southern slopes 
the snow line is at an elevation of 16,300 
ft., while on the north it is extremely 
varied. Toward India vegetation is trop- 
ical to a comparatively great height, 
though above 7000 ft. there are few trees 
other than pine; flowers are found as 
high as 19,000 ft.; and grain is culti- 
vated at 15,000 ft. The huge glaciers 
upon the summits of the Himalayas and 
the great avalanches that sweep down 
the slopes are unsurpassed in majesty 
and beauty. Many explorers have vis- 
ited these mountains and brought home 
interesting and scientific reports of the 
region which they explored. Among the 
most interesting are those of Dr. and 
Mrs. Workman, who, in 1903, ascended 
the mountains 23,294 ft. in the interest 
of missionary work. 

Hin’duism, the general term used to 
include the various social institutions and 
numerous religions and sects that have 
grown out of the Brahmanical writings, 
particularly Brahmanism, Jainism and 
Buddhism. See BRAHMANISM; JAINISM; 
BupDHISM. 

Hin’du Kush’ Mountains, a range of 
mountains of central Asia forming for 
some distance the border between India 
and Afghanistan. It extends from the 
source of the Indus River westward to 
the Bamian Pass; nearly the whole of 
the range is contained in Afghanistan. 
At the north lies the great Pamir Pla- 
teau, known as the “roof of the world.” 
The mean height of the mountains is 
20,000 ft., but the Tirach Mir is prob- 
ably over 25,000 ft. The mountains are 
crossed by many easily accessible passes, 
and many rivers. have their source upon 
their slopes. 

Hins’dale, Burke Aaron (1837-1900), 
an American educator and author, born 
in Ohio, and educated at Hiram College. 
He was ordained to the ministry in the 


HIPPOLYTA 


Christian denomination in 1861. After 
preaching in Cleveland and elsewhere he 
became assistant editor of the Christian 
Standard, and three years later profes- 
sor of history and English literature in 
Hiram College, serving as president of 
that institution from 1870 to 1882. He 
was superintendent of schools in Cleve- 
land, Ohio, and in 1886 was made pro- 
fessor of the science and art of teach- 
ing in the University of Michigan. He 
was the author of several works, each 
considered standard authority. Among 
them are Teaching the Language Arts, 
How to Study and Teach History and 
American Government, National and 
State. 

Hipparchus, Hip par’ kus, the first 
systematic astronomer on record. Ac- 
cording to Strabo, he was born at Nicza, 
in Bithynia, early in the second century 
B. C. Nothing is known of his personal 
history. He is supposed to have writ- 
ten nine works, of which only the last 
and least important, Commentary on 
Aratus, has been preserved. The others 
treated of astronomy and geography. 

Hip’”pocam’pus. See SEA Horse. 

Hippocrates, Hip pok' ra teez, (about 
460-357 B. C.), the most famous of 
Greek physicians, born on the Island of 
Cos. Having traveled throughout Greece, 
he became highly esteemed in his native 
island as a physician and author. He 
raised the medical school of Cos to a 
high standard, and Plato studied and 
quoted from his works. The works bear- 
ing the name of Hippocrates, and known 
as the Hippocratic Collection, contain 
some 60 volumes, only one-tenth of 
which were undeniably written by him. 
As a physician, Hippocrates divided the 
causes of disease into two classes: change 
of climate and environment and _ per- 
sonal or individual causes. His treat- 
ment of disease was cautious, often con- 
sisting merely of attention to diet and 
regimen, and he was frequently accused 
of letting patients die because he took 
no means of keeping them alive. 

Hippol’yta, a valorous Amazon 
queen, mistress of the belt of Mars which 
Eurystheus ordered Hercules to get for 


1320 


a 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


his daughter, Admeta. When Hercules 


_ with his volunteer band, including The- 


seus, Castor and Pollux, was met at 
Themiscyra by Hippolyta, she promised 
to give up her girdle. But Juno, dis- 
guised as one of them, persuaded the 
other Amazons that the great hero had 
come to steal their Queen; whereupon, 
armed for battle, they charged down to 
the ships. Thinking that they were act- 


ing faithlessly, Hercules slew Hippolyta: 


and sailed away with her girdle. Other 
accounts say that she married Theseus, 
becoming the mother of Hippolytus. 
Hip” popot’amus, a huge, ungainly 
animal of the Swine Family, found in 
the thick, marshy jungles and near the 
great rivercourses of Africa. In size 
it probably ranks next to the elephant. 


It has a broad, flattened head with an 


immense protruding muzzle, and the 
mouth, which is like an enormous slit, 
ean open to a spread of three feet. The 
eyes and ears are piglike and the body, 
though large, is also in shape somewhat 
like that of a pig. The flesh is tender 
and much relished by the Africans, who 
hunt it not only because it supplies food, 
but also because it is a nuisance, stop- 
ping up river channels, doing damage to 
navigation and destroying many acres of 
cultivated crops during a single night. 
In the daytime the hippopotamus likes 
to lie in the cool current of a shady 
stream or dive beneath its surface. In 
spite of its having enormous teeth the 
chief food of the hippopotamus is grass. 


The ivory of the hippopotamus obtained 


from the teeth is valued because it does 


not turn yellow, but its quality is not 


in Luxemburg. 


so good as that of the elephant. 
Hirsch, Hursh, Emil Gustav (1851- 
), an American clergyman, born 
He came to the 
United States in 1866. After graduat- 
ing from the University of Pennsylvania 


in 1872, he took postgraduate courses 


at Leipsic and Berlin, 1872-1876. The 


_ following year he returned to America 


Louisville, Ky., and in 1880 became rabbi 
a 1321 


and became rabbi of the Sinai Congre- 
gation at Baltimore. In 1878 he took 
charge of a similar congregation in 


HISTORY 


of the Sinai Congregation, Chicago, and 
has been professor of rabbinical litera- 
ture in the University of Chicago since 
1892. He is the author of Truths of 
Fiction from a Jewish Point of View, 
and was editor of the Zeitgeist in Mil- 
waukee from 1880 to 1887, and of the 
Reformer, New York, 1886. He has 
been editor of the Reform Advocate, 
since 1894; and also edited the Biblical 
department of the Jewish Encyclopedia 
from 1903 to 1906. He was presidential 
elector-at-large in 1896. He is an emi- 
nent authority on public charities and 
social settlement work. 

Histol’ogy, the study of microscopic 
anatomy, generally of the animal body, 
although the term is broadened to in- 
clude the corresponding study of vege- 
table tissue. The primary object is 
knowledge of the minute structure of the 
tissues in their normal condition. The 
study of histology has been possible only 
since the invention of the microscope, 
and has brought with it a much better 
understanding of both animal and vege- 
table life. This branch of science is 
responsible for the knowledge of the cel- 
lular structure of tissues and is of great 
assistance in the study of bacterial dis- 
ease. See MIcroSCOPE; BACTERIA. 

History, in its broadest sense, a rec- 
ord of human progress. History began 
with the advent of man upon the earth, . 
but it was a long time before man 
reached that stage of civilization in which 
he began to record his achievements. It 
was at this time that history is generally 
considered to have begun. The ages pre- 
vious to this are known as prehistoric 
time. Since the time when man first ap- 
peared has not been determined, we do 
not know the duration of prehistoric 
time, but that it is much longer thar his- 
toric time all students affirm. History 
of savage tribes, such as the natives in 


_ the interior of Africa, or the American 


Indians as they were first known to white 
men, is not considered. It is only as the 
various tribes developed into nations hav- 
ing organized government and construct- 
ing works which marked their progress, 
such as permanent dwellings and imple- 


HISTORY 


ments of warfare and of agriculture and 
the mechanic arts, that they have ap- 
peared in the field of history. From this 
we can see that the dividing line between 
historic and prehistoric time cannot al- 
ways be sharply drawn. 

Sources. The chief sources of his- 
tory are written documents, architectural 
remains, medals, coins, implements and 
whatever is authentic evidence of the life 
and customs of a people at the time. An- 
other important source consists of tra- 
ditions, which before the art of writing 
was known, were handed down by nar- 
ration from one generation to another. 
Most of these traditions now form a 
part of the literature of the people 
among whom they originated. Since lit- 
erature connects the present with the 
past, there 1s an unbroken connection 
between the earliest recorded history 
and that of the present time. 

LimitaTIons, Since civilization is con- 
stantly advancing, history can never be 
an exact or a complete science. True his- 
tory not only narrates events, but also 
attempts to show the relation of these 
events to those that follow, and the 
statement of these relations is limited to 
the historian’s ability to grasp and solve 
the problem before him. Again, his- 
tory, as written and studied by the na- 
tions of Europe and America, is the his- 
tory only of those nations which have 
influenced the civilization upon these 
continents. Beginning with the nations 
of antiquity, which clustered around the 
Mediterranean, Egypt, Babylonia, As- 
syria and Persia, and connecting their 
history with that of Greece and Rome, 
it omits entirely the history of the na- 
tions of the Orient, India, China and 
Japan. 

Divisions. Historians generally agree 
in dividing history into three periods, an- 
cient, medieval and modern, but there is 
no distinct dividing line between these 
periods. Ancient history gradually 
merges into medieval, and medieval into 
modern. According to most historians, 
ancient history embraces the period from 
the beginning of historic time to the fall 
of the Western Empire, 476 A. D., but 


HISTORY 


some authorities extend the period to the 
death of Charlemagne, 814 A. D. Me~- 
dieval history extends from ancient his~ 
tory to the discovery of America in 1492, 
and modern history from that date to the 
present time. 

VaLuE. Civilization is the evolution | 
of society. It includes all lines of activ- 
ity, and the great political and military 
movements which may characterize 2 
given period, and upon which too fre- 
quently undue emphasis is placed, mark 
the turning points of a larger movement; 
by which progress along social, educa- 
tional, economic and religious lines ig 
measured. A knowledge of history is, 
therefore, essential to all who would 
understand the institutions of society in 
their own and in other countries. The 
study of history reveals the centuries of 
struggle through which the race has 
passed to attain its present stage of free- 
dom. It also shows us that the rapidity 
of this progress has increased with the 
centuries and that this progress has been 
towards a kindlier spirit and a broader 
humanity. The great transformations of 
the 19th century have been brought about 
through a broader democracy in politics 
and industry, and through inventions 
which, by bringing the nations into closer 
touch with each other and by freeing 
man from drudgery, have given him op- 
portunity for broader intellectual culture. 

THE ComMpENDIUM. It is often diffi- 
cult for the general reader and the inex- 
perienced student to follow the complex 
thread of events through medieval and 
modern history. The Compendium of 
the History of the World on the follow- 
ing pages enables one to get, at a glance, 
a comprehensive idea of any period and 
also to study chronologically the his- 
tory of any nation. . 

The following works will be found 
helpful to those desiring a more ex- 
tended knowledge of the science of his- 
tory: Emerson, Essay on History; Har- 
rison, The Meaning of History; Lam- 
precht, What is History; Adams, Man- 
ual of Historical Literature. Also con- 
sult the publications of the American 
Historical Association. 


1322 


COMPENDIUM 


OF THE 


HISTORY OF THE WORLD 


ANCIENT TO MODERN TIMES 


BY 


CONRAD E. PATZER 


HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISION, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 


MILWAUKEE, WIS. 


Concise but comprehensive. 


Gives at a glance the chronological history of any nation and the contemporaneous his- 
tory of all nations. 


Prevents confusion in chronology of events. 


Shows in the order of their succession the great steps in civilization from the dawn 
of history to the present day. 


EXPLANATION. The history of the nations is arranged in parallel columns, the same 
dates coming opposite each other in these columns. To trace the history of any nation, read 
the events set forth in the column with the name of that nation as its heading. To trace the 
history of Rome, read the column Rome from the beginning until this nation disappears. 
To trace contemporaneous history, read across the columns of both pages if the history of 
all nations is required. If not, read as far as necessary to meet the requirements, To ‘obtain 
the contemporaneous history of Greece and Rome, read across the first page only. To ob- 
tain a like history of these nations, the East and Egypt, read across both pages. 


The blank spaces indicate the absence of any important event during the period they 
cover. Rome had no history previous to 753 B. C. | 

The relative width of the columns gives an idea of the relative importance of the 
nations. When Rome has become mniistress of the world, the entire page is devoted to her 
history. At the beginning only a small part of the page is devoted to it. 


CopyricuT 1913 sy H. M. Dixon. 
1323 


THE EAST 


3800 B. C.—Sargon the Elder 
There were many great cities in Chaldea, the 
most ancient of which was Ur. 


2400 B; C.—Babylon a Growing Power 
Babylon had brought Chaldea under her 
sway. 


2000 B. C.—Chaldean Rule Extends Over 
Syria 

Babylon extended her power over Syria. 
About this time Abraham emigrated from 
Chaldea. 


| 1600 B. C.—The Pheenicians 
The Phoenicians occupied a little strip of 
country along the Mediterranean. They were 
| a commercial people and founded many cities, 
the most important being Carthage. They in- 
i vented the alphabet. They taught the Greeks 
the civilization of the East, which the Greeks 

in turn were to teach Europe. 


1000 B, C.—Solomon, King of Judea 
Solomon with Jerusalem as a center built up 
a Jewish empire. The history of the Jews is 
a record of the spiritual growth of a nation. 
Christianity developed out of the Jewish re- 
ligion. 
1000 B. C.—Tiglath-Pileser I 
This Assyrian king extended his empire to 
the Mediterranean. 


Chaldean Civilization 

Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations com- 
pared favorably with that of Egypt, and in 
some respects excelled it. In the industrial 
iand the applied arts these people made use of 
their knowledge of the sciences. The principle 
1of the lever and the pulley was known to them. 
Their looms produced the finest silk and 
woolen cloths. Though the Babylonians were 
limited to sun-dried brick they constructed 
wonderful edifices. In Assyria, where access 
was had to stone, the palaces were marvels of 
architectural beauty. They studied geometry 
and astronomy, and their general literature, 
including books in history, geography, novels 
and stories, was so abundant that in the ruins 
of the cities have been found whole libraries 
of clay tablets covered with “cuneiform” writ- 
ing. pee had codes of laws as early as 


745 B, C.—Tiglath-Pileser III 

This king established the most powerful 
empire the world had yet seen. He appointed 
Assyrian satraps, or governors, to rule the 
subject kingdoms. 


EGYPT 


5000 B. C.—Memphis 

At this date, Egypt appears as an already 
highly developed power. Menes of Thenif 
founded the First or Old Egyptian Empire 
with its capital city at Memphis, 


3800 B. C.—The Pyramids “" 

The Great Pyramids at Gizeh were built | 
by the pharaohs of the 4th dynasty be- 
tween 3800 and 3500 B. C. 


2800 B. C.—Thebes 

The formation of the Second or Middle 
Egyptian Empire with Thebes as the royal 
city. | 


1600 B. C.—Expulsion of the Hyksos 

By 1600 B. C. the Hyksos kings were driven 
out of Egypt. Egypt now entered tipon the 
most brilliant period of its history. 


1350 B, C.—Rameses II 
The reign of Rameses II closed this brilliant 
period of nearly 300 years. 


1320 B. C.—The Hebrew Exodus 

The Hebrews, a desert people, had settled in 
Egypt during the Hyksos period. But, though 
in bondage, they grew into a nation, and in 
1320 B. C. they escaped from Egypt and 
founded the Hebrew Kingdom in Palestine. 


Egyptian Civilization 

The Egypt of history is comprised by the 
narrow valley and delta of the Nile. The fer- 
tility of this region depends on the Nile, Rain 
rarely falls in Egypt, but during August and 
September of each year the river rises and its 
muddy waters cover all the valley except the 
raised roads and the towns and cities. Thus] 
each year the receding waters give to the land 
a layer of rich vegetable mold. Egypt has 
rightfully been called “the gift of the Nile,” | 
but irrigation, introduced in prehistoric times, 
has helped to make it a productive region, 

About 5,000,000 people occupied this narrow 
valley of less than 6000 sq. m. The Pyramids, 
built about 3500 B. C., prove that the Egyptians 
even at that early time must have reached a 
high state of civilization. These structures are 
among the great wonders of the world. 

The Egyptians at an early time developed a 
wonderful literature. There were books on 
religion, history, geography, travel and various 
scientific subjects. The books were written in 
hieroglyphics, a kind of picture writing. 

Ancestor worship constituted one form of) 
religion, but joined to this was the revolting 
worship of animals. The worship of the person- 
ified powers was the highest form of religion. 

About 1600 B. C., when Egypt began her 
great conquests, the Egyptian civilization first 
came into contact with the Chaldean. This 
opened a new era, and for many centuries trade 
flourished between the cities on the Euphrates 
and Tigris rivers and those on the Nile. 


} 


ROME 


753 B. C.—Rome Founded 


Legendary history declares that 
in 753 B. C. Rome was built by 
Romulus, the son of Mars, god of 
war, and Rhea Silvia, a Latin 
princess. Seven successive kings 
ruled Rome during the next 250 
years, but little is known of the 


history of this period. 


GREECE 


i on lasesannedenninnieninniemeanimmemenentiaenammenieae od 


2500 B. C.—The “First” Civilization 

Excavations made in recent years seem to prove that this 
ancient civilization was not borrowed but native. . These 
early Greeks worked in bronze, and had developed a high 
civilization. 


1300 B. C.—The “Second” Civilization 


The older civilization was partly overthrown by bar- 
barians from the North. These people were mostly small 
farmers, though they lived in villages. The government 
was made up of a king, a council of chiefs and an assembly 
of freemen. The city was the political unit. 


1000 B. C.—The Iliad and Odyssey 

The Greeks believed that these poems were composed 
about 1000 B. C. by a blind minstrel named Homer. The 
Iliad describes the siege of Troy by the Greeks, and the 
Odyssey the wanderings of Ulysses, a Greek hero, who 
took part in the war. 


1000 B. C.—Dorian Migration 

About 1000 B. C. the Dorians, a barbarous people from 
the North, invaded Greece. Many Greeks, fleeing before 
the Dorians, crossed the sea and established themselves on 
the coast of Asia. They were known as Ionian Greeks, 
and they founded Miletus, Ephesus and other cities. 


900 B. C.—Lycurgus, Lawgiver of Sparta 


About 900 B. C., while kings were being overthrown in 
most of Greece and oligarchies established, Lycurgus de- 
vised a system of military training for the Spartans. 


800 B. C.—A Period of Wider Colonization 

From 800 to 600 B. C. the Greeks established trading sta- 
tions on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black seas. 
776 B. C.—The First Olympian Games 


Each fourth year the Olympian games were celebrated at 
Olympia in honor of Zeus, “‘the father of the gods.” Here 
athletic and intellectual contests took place. It was a meet- 
ing place for all Hellas, and here treaties were proclaimed. 
During the month of the games all wars were suspended. 


725 B, C.—The Ephors of Sparta 

In 725 B. C. a step was taken toward democracy in 
Sparta. At that time the assembly elected ephors, who 
became the chief rulers. Spartan civilization was essen- 
tially military. 


1510 B. C.—Kings Ex- 


pelled 

There were two par- 
ties in Rome, patricians 
ijand plebeians. In 510 

B. C. the patricians 
drove out the King 
and set up an oligar- 
chy. 


493 B. C.—The Tri- 


bunes 

When the kings were 
overthrown, the nobles 
gained power but the 
people were reduced to 
a kind of slavery. In 
493 B. C. the plebeians 
revolted and secured 
tribunes to protect 
them. 


451 B. C.—The De- 


cemvirs 
The plebeians had 
long clamored to have 
Ithe laws. published. 
|| Finally in 451 B. C. the 
Decemvirs had them 
engraved on 12 stone 
tablets and set up in 
the market place. They 
were now known to all 

the Romans. 


GREECE 


621 B. C.—Draco’s Laws 

The nobles were forced to allow Draco to draw up a written code 
of laws. They were so harsh that it was said they were “written 
in blood.” 


594 B. C.—Solon’s Constitution 

In 594 B. C. Solon made a new constitution. This freed’ the 
debtors, limited the amount of land each citizen could hold and 
foreshadowed a democracy. 


560-527 B. C.—Pisistratus, Tyrant of Athens 
In 560 B. C. Pisistratus made himself tyrant. His rule was mild 
and wise. He beautified Athens and invited learned men, poets, 


painters and sculptors to come to the city. 


509 B. C.—Constitution of Cleisthenes 

In 509 B. C. Cleisthenes made a new constitution which changed 
Athens into a democracy, enlarged the powers of the assembly and 
increased the number of citizens. 


500 B. C.—Greek and Oriental Civilizations Join Battle 
The revolt of the Ionian Greeks and their subjection by Darius post- 
poned the inevitable struggle between Greece and Persia for ten years. 


496 B. C.—Battle of Marathon 
A great Persian army was defeated by the Athenians under 
Miltiades. 


480 B. C.—Battle of Thermopyle 
After a gallant resistance the Spartans under Leonidas were de- 
feated by the Persians under Xerxes. 


480 B. C.—Battle of Salamis 
Themistocles had made Athens a great naval power. At Salamis 
the allied Greeks won an overwhelming victory over the Persian fleet. 


479 B. C.—Battle of Platza 
Under the leadership of Sparta the Persians were defeated at 
Platzea and compelled to withdraw from Greece. 


477 B. C.—Confederacy of Delos 
Aristides organized the Ionian cities and Athens into the Con- 
federacy of Delos, which later became the Athenian Empire. 


461-404 B. C-——The Athenian Empire, Age of Pericles 

Athens was the capital of a great island empire whose cities were 
powerful, wealthy and possessed of much culture. The empire was 
governed under the constitution of Cleisthenes. The assembly was 
supreme and Athens was a pure democracy. Any citizen, whether a 
member of the assembly or not, could propose laws and urge their 
adoption. The “leaders of the people” were often not members at all. 

As “leader of the people” Pericles came to exercise great power in 
the assembly. His great purpose was to secure both the material and 
the intellectual greatness of Athens. He encouraged learning and 
made the city one of the most beautiful in the world. Great poets, 
artists, scientists, historians and philosophers made their home in 
Athens. The great men of the period include the sculptor Phidias, 
the dramatists A‘schylus, Euripides and Sophocles, the historian 
Herodotus and the philosophers Anaxagoras, Socrates and Plato. 
Though stripped of her physical power at the end of this glorious 
period, Athens continued for centuries to shape the literature, art 
and thought of Europe. 


THE EAST 


558-529 B, C.—Cyrus the Great, Founder of the Persian Empire 

The Medes and the Persians by 625 B. C. had established a monarchy, and in 606 B. C. they 
conquered Assyria. In 606 B. C, the Oriental world comprised Babylon, Egypt, Lydia and 
Media. In 559 B. C, Cyrus, a Persian prince, revolted and established the Persian Kingdom. | 
By 539 he had conquered Media, Lydia and Babylon. He allowed the Jews, who had been con- 
quered by Nebuchadnezzar, to return to Palestine. His son Cambyses conquered Egypt and 
united the Oriental world into one great monarchy. 

Zoroaster founded the religion of the Persians. He taught that there were always two 
opposing powers in conflict, the one good and the other evil, and that man should be guided 
by good impulses and should fight for what is good and right. 


522-485 B. C.—Darius, the Organizer of the Persian Empire 

Darius was the organizer and consolidator of the Persian Empire. Though a great gen- 
eral, he is best known for his legislative and financial abilities. He divided his vast domin- 
ions into provinces. Over each province he placed a satrap, or governor. Military power 
was given to a separate officer so that the chances of revolt were lessened. He regulated the 
taxes and decided what each satrapy was to pay. The tribute collected yearly amounted to 
over $22,000,000. Darius issued a new coinage of great purity. He built splendid roads con- | 
necting the satrapies, and at frequent intervals he built posting-stations and inns, where relays 
of horses were kept. Dispatches were often carried from Susa to Sardis, a distance of 1500 m., 
in six days. To each satrapy he sent a secretary, known as the “King’s Ear,” who reported 
to him. At frequent intervals he sent out a royal representative, known as the “King’s Eye.” 
This officer had power to arrest a satrap and bring him to trial. In 500 B. C. this powerful 
and well-organized imperial monarchy came into conflict with Greece. 


470 B, C.—Themistocles, a Persian Tyrant : 

About 470 B. C. when Athens was just entering upon the most glorious years of her exist- 
ence, Themistocles, the hero of Salamis, was ostracized largely through Spartan influence at 
Athens. He sought refuge in various parts of Greece, but he was finally compelled to leave 
his country. He appealed to Artaxerxes, ruler of Persia, for aid, and the son of Xerxes treated 
him with marked respect, and appointed him tyrant of a city in Asia Minor. 


ROME 


ao me 
a ciechaeshtidhatbeaistemmasninasl oe 


wrens ae: 


The Great Empire of Carthage 
Carthage was located on the north coast of 
Africa near what is now the city of Tunis. It 
was founded by the Pheenicians about 850 B. C. 
Due to its fine harbor it soon ranked as one of 
the most important cities on the Mediterranean. 
Carthage gradually re ts her hasta pit 
it included all of North Africa, the islands in 
dg 300 RC. the Gants Sache meme yiar) the western part of the Mediterranean, and 
(jeans ba eines ete NE Dar OPH) 9 NR BO coe heat br eR scs hl 
367 B. C.—The Licinian Rogations In 480 B. C., while Greece was engaged in the 


390 B. C.—The Tnvasion of the Gauls 


withdrew on the payment of a ransom. 


Licinius, the tribune, secured a law whereby | great struggle with Persia, Carthage attacked 
one of the consuls was to be a plebeian. the Greeks in Sicily. A great battle was fought 
—___________—. | at Himera, near Syracuse, in which the Cartha- 

338 B. C.—The Latin War ginians were defeated. This was one of the 


In 338 B. C. the Latin allies revolted. They | decisive battles of the world. Together with 
were defeated by the Romans. The Latin | that of Salamis it decided that the Semitic 
cities were now allowed to trade only with | nations were not to rule the West. The goy- 
Rome. Rome won over the Latins by promis- | ernment of Carthage was much like that of 
ing them Roman citizenship in time. Rome. The Carthaginian constitution gave the 
TL nen F people a stable governnient tinder semen 

lived in peace raph senna sie By ee re 
BAe DAA IN UM . Qa geen mim. a lore ta tery | Cartha oe: ora etait cn 
326-290 B. C.—The Samnite War fondle of the Mediterranean. However, she 
treated her subject states badly, and hired 
soldiers to fight for her. This was to prove 
an element of weakness in the irrepressible 


In several wars the Romans defeated the 
Samnites and so gained control of all of Italy 
except the Greek cities of the South, 


conflict with Rome, 


275 B. C.—War With Pyrrhus 


Tarentum, a Greek city, called on Pyrrhus, In 264 B. C. Rome was one of five great 
King of Epirus, for help against the Romans. | powers, the others being Carthage, Macedonia, 
This great general was finally defeated at Ben- | Syria and Egypt. In the struggle for suprem- 
eventum. Rome was now mistress of Italy. acy Rome was to absorb them all. | 


ROME AND CARTHAGE JOIN BATTLE 


| 264-241 B, C.—The First Punic War 

The war between Rome and Carthage began in Sicily. The Romans 
built a fleet and defeated Carthage on the sea. Carthage ceded Sicily 
to Rome, and after a time Corsica and Sardinia were also added. 


218-202 B. C_—Hannibal’s Invasion of Italy 

Hannibal conquered southern Spain, attacked Saguntum, led his army 
across the Alps and defeated the Romans at the Trebia and at Canne, but 
failed to capture Rome. Finally the Romans carried the war into Africa. 


202 B. C.—Battle of Zama 

Hannibal left Italy to defend Carthage, but in the Battle of Zama he 
was defeated by Scipio, his first and only defeat, and Carthage. became 
a dependent ally of Rome. 


190 B. C—The Romans Invade Asia 

Antiochus, the “Great King” of Asia, had sheltered Hannibal and had 
seized parts of Greece. At Magnesia the Romans shattered the power 
of Syria, and this country became a dependent ally of Rome. 


146 B, C.—Carthage and Macedonia, Provinces of Rome 

The Romans defeated Philip V of Macedonia in 197 B. C. at Cynos- 
cephale, In 146 B, C., after the Battle of Pydna, Macedonia became a 
Roman province. In 146 B. C, Rome destroyed Carthage and the terri- 
tory became a Roman province. 


et 


In the long wars 


mea 


f 


between Carthage and 
Rome, Carthage lost 
her empire and was 
reduced to a Roman 
province. 


GREECE 


431-404 B. C.—-The Peloponnesian War 

In 431 B, C, began the long war between Athens and her 
allies and Sparta and her allies. For years, under the guid- 
ance of Pericles, Athens held out against her rival, but a great 
plague which broke out at Athens, and the assistance which 
Persia rendered Sparta, finally turned the scale. The Athen- 
ians were defeated in a great sea fight at A®gospotami. 


404-371 B. C.—Spartan Supremacy 
Sparta was now mistress of Greece and oligarchies were set 
up in place of the democracies. 


371 B, C.—Battle of Leuctra and Theban Supremacy 

In 371 B. C. the Spartans were defeated by Epaminondas, a 
Theban general. Thebes was head of Greece until 362 B. C,, 
when Epaminondas was killed at Mantinea, 


338 B. C.—Battle of Chzronea 

A new power had developed in the North. Philip of Mace- 
don in 338 B. C. defeated the combined Greek forces at 
Cheronea. Macedonia was now head of Greece. 


PERSIA 


Persia 

Persia aided Sparta in the} 
Peloponnesian War by furnish- 
ing ships and money to the} 
Spartans. 


The Ten Thousand 

Cyrus,-a younger brother of 
Artaxerxes, ruler of the Per- 
sian Empire, tried to win the 
crown for himself. Besides a 
large army of Persians he 
had 10,000 Greek mercenaries, 
mostly Spartans. Cyrus was 
killed in battle. Though in the 
heart of Persia this handful of | 
Greeks under the leadership of 
Xenophon, the Athenian, in 
401 C., fought their way 
back to the coast. The Retreat | 
of the Ten Thousand showed 


—— time fl 


the weakness and cowardice of 
the Persians. 


331 B. C.—Alexander, Master of the Grzco-Oriental World 

Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, crossed the Hellespont in 334 B. C, with 35,000 men 
and defeated the great armies of Persia at Granicus, Issus and Arbela. He was now master | 
of the Greco-Oriental world. He made Babylon his capital, built many Greek cities and 
introduced Greek culture into Asia and Egypt. He died at the age of 32 and his vast empire 
fell into fragments. 


323-280 B, C.—The Wars of Succession and Division of the Empire 

Upon the death of Alexander the Great his generals fought for different parts of the empire. | 
By 280 B. C. Ptolemy controlled Egypt; Seleucus, Syria; and another geveral, Macedonia. | 
Many Greek cities were built and Greek culture was extended. 


GREEK CULTURE WORLD-WIDE 


The century and a half from 300 to 150 B. C. constituted a period in which the new Hellenism 
became the prominent factor in the intellectual development of the world. Athens was still in 
many respects the center of learning, but other cities like Antioch, Rhodes, Pergamos and par- | 
ticularly the new city of Alexandria shared with Athens her reputation for culture and| 
refinement. 

PAINTING AND ScuLprure. During this period much attention was devoted to painting, sculp- 
ture, oratory, science and philosophy. The Apollo Belvedere, the Venus of Milo, the Dying 
Gaul and the Laocoon group are a few of the great pieces of statuary that have come down 
to us from that early time. 

Lrprartes AND Museums. Books on all subjects of learning multiplied rapidly. Libraries 
sprang up in every large city. The museum of Alexandria contained upwards of 500,000 
volumes in manuscript form. The museum was really a great university with hundreds of 
students from all parts of the world. There were botanical and zoological gardens contain- 
ing collections of rare plants and animals. : 


ADVANCE IN SCIENCE AND Matuematics. Great progress had been made in the sciences and 
mathematics. Every city had its group of scientists carrying on research work. Aristotle 
wrote a natural history of 50 volumes, based largely on a study of the many collections of 
animals his great pupil, Alexander, sent to him, Aristotle discussed the theory of the rotundity 
of the earth, advancing every proof of sphericity now recognized except that of actual cir-] 
cumnavigation. Euclid wrote his textbook in geometry, which, until recently, was considered 
a valuable text on that subject. The Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek. Truly, | 
this period was a wonderfully progressive and fruitful age. 


na oe 


ROME MISTRESS OF THE WORLD 


1133-121 B. C.—Attempts at Reform by the Gracchi ; 

After the Battle of Magnesia Rome was ruler of Italy, Macedonia, Asia, Spain and Africa. 

These conquests changed the character of the Romans. The citizens at Rome were fast be-|j 
/coming a rabble led by the nobles, and slave labor took the place of free labor. 

Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune, introduced reforms by passing an agrarian law which tended to}} 
re-create the class of small landowners, Tiberius also tried to give citizenship to the Latins, but 
the Romans turned against him and he was assassinated. - 

Gaius Gracchus in 123 B. C. passed an agrarian law and founded colonies of poor people in 
Italy and the provinces. He, too, was killed in a riot by the nobles. 


|] 106-78 B. C.—Civil War. Marius and Sulla 

In 102 B. C. the Cimbri and Teutones invaded Italy, but the consul, Marius, annihilated them. 
Marius now became leader of the people. A civil war followed in which Sulla restored the sen- 
atorial rule. 


|78-48 B. C.—Civil War. Pompey and Cesar | 

A revolt of the gladiators took place in 71 B. C., but they were defeated by Crassus and 
|Pompey. Pompey extended the Roman control to the Euphrates. Czsar, Pompey and Crassus 
| divided the Roman world among themselves. Crassus soon after was killed in the East. Cesar 
conquered Gaul and Britain. Then Czsar and Pompey quarreled and Cesar became master of 
li Italy. In 48 B. C. he defeated Pompey at Pharsalia, made Cleopatra Queen of Egypt and 
brought Asia Minor and Africa under his sway. 


48-44 B. C.—Czsar Master of the Roman World 

Cesar felt that the only way to save Rome was to change the government from a republic 
1to a monarchy resting on the people. He equalized and reduced taxation, organized a land com- 
imission like that of the Gracchi, rebuilt Carthage, ordered a census taken, had the laws codi- 
l!fied and introduced a new system of provincial government. Public buildings were introduced 
in all parts of the empire and citizenship was enormously increased. In the midst of these 
li reforms Czasar was assassinated by a band of nobles, 


31 B. C.-14 A. D—Establishment of the Empire 

Cesar’s heir was his nephew Octavius, known to history as Augustus. Octavius, Antonius and]]} 
Lepidus defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 42 B. C. Civil war broke out between} 
!Octavius and Antonius and the latter was defeated. Octavius, now sole ruler of the Roman 
world, carried out the plans of Cesar. He established a postal system, revised the list of 
senators and admitted members from the provinces. 


284-337—Diocletian and Constantine 
A long period of peace followed the reign of Augustus, but grave disorders appeared during |] 
the third’ century. In 284 Diocletian established a system whereby there were two Augusti 
and two Cesars, who ruled different parts of the empire. 
Constantine became emperor in 312. He changed the form of government, and transferred ]} 
lithe capital to Byzantium (Constantinople). Constantine publicly identified himself with Chris- 
| tianity and by the end of the century it had become the State religion. 


THE GOOD ROMAN PEACE OF NEARLY 400 YEARS 


Beginning with 27 B. C. and continuing for nearly 400 years the Roman Empire, comprising |} 
i] the civilized world and having an area equal to that of the United States and a population of 
over 100,000,000 people, enjoyed the “good Roman peace.” | 
GovERNMENT. The government was directed from Rome. The lawmaking body was the Sen-]| 
fate, which as a rule was composed of distinguished men whom the emperors invited to Romejj 
|from all parts of the world. The Senate gave the empire a stable government and made many]| 
ljreforms, Taxes were equalized, a uniform system of coinage was introduced and a postal}] 
i| system was organized. The laws were administered with impartiality and justice. The rightst} 
of women were recognized in law. The cities enjoyed a large degree of self-government. | 
InpustRY AND ComMMeERcE. While agriculture was the chief industry, manufacturing also}} 
flourished. Parts of the African desert were reclaimed by irrigation. Good roads ramified}} 
in all directions from every city in the empire. Communication between distant parts of the]] 
ijrealm was rapid and safe. Trade flourished everywhere. 
ARCHITECTURE was the chief art, and beautiful buildings, some of them of colossal size, were}} 
erected in every city. The two most famous buildings were the Pantheon and the Colosseum. ]} 
_EpUCATION was common among the higher classes. In the larger cities colleges and universi-}] 
ties were established by the government. In the smaller cities elementary schools were or-}} 
}ganized. All branches of learning flourished as never before. 
CHRISTIANITY slowly gained ground among the masses in spite of the frequent persecutions, The|} 
1} Church was organized upon the basis of the political divisions of the Empire and finally the entire|} 
| West came under the general jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, who assumed the title of Pope. : 


Li) om 


* 


¢ : 4 


THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 


AND THE 


FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE OF THE WEST 


376—The West Goths Enter the Empire 

The West Goths, fleeing before the terrible Huns, were allowed by Valens, Emperor of the }} 
East, to settle south of the Danube. Valens also agreed to furnish provisions to the Goths. | 
The Roman officials, however, failed to deliver the food supplies, and so the Goths marched | 
on Constantinople. At Adrianople Valens was defeated and killed. Theodosius, his successor, 
who finally restored order, was the last emperor who ruled over the united empire. Upon his] 
ee in 395 the empire was divided between his sons, Arcadius taking the East and Honorius]| 
the est. 


410—Alaric Sacks Rome. West Goths Settle in Spain at 
Alaric, leader of the Goths, sacked many Greek cities. He was finally driven out of Greece by | 

Stilicho, the great general of Honorius. After the death of Stilicho in 410 Alaric sacked Rome. | 

Ataulf, his successor, led the Goths into Spain, where he founded the first Gothic kingdom. 


451—The Vandals in Africa. Genseric Sacks Rome 
_The Vandals, forced out of Spain by the West Goths, crossed into Africa and set up a Teutonic 
kingdom with Carthage as its capital. In 455 under Genseric, their ruler, they sacked Rome. 


455—Attila Defeated at Chalons 
Attila led his terrible Huns into Gaul. Aétius, leader of the Goths and the Romans, defeated 
the Huns at Chalons in 451. 


476—Fall of the Western Roman Empire 
In 476 Odoacer, a German general employed by Romulus Augustus the Little, dethroned the | 
Emperor and brought the Roman Empire of the West to an end. 


400-800—THE DARK AGES 


Tue INsTITUTION oF SLAVERY. Each great victory before the peace era had stripped the| 
Roman Republic of many of its best citizens and increased the number of slaves. During the 
empire the institution of slavery became firmly established. Many Roman citizens, either un- 
willing or unable to compete with slave labor, left their small farms to go to the cities, where |} 
they lived on supplies issued to them by the government and were amused by public games. | 
Large landed estates took the place of the small farms, the peasants became serfs and in the} 
course of time most forms of labor fell into the hands of slaves. 


Epucation. The splendid system of education introduced into all parts of the empire was} 
limited almost wholly to the rich. One of the grave weaknesses of the empire was this lack; 
of popular education. 


Tue GovERNMENT AN AxssoLtute Monarcuy, In the course of time the government became aj} 
centralized despotism with the Senate reduced to a city council and the emperors supreme. | 
Oriental ideas of government were introduced which made necessary a vast increase in the} 
imperial taxes, and industry sank under the burden. 


|| Decrease 1n Poputation., The effects of slave labor and the constantly increasing taxation }) 
made poverty and distress common, and the population declined. 


RETURN “To Primitive Conpitions. Both money and men were lacking to repel the hordes|| 
of Goths, Vandals, Franks, Burgundians and other Germanic tribes that poured over the West- 
ern world, breaking up the empire and disorganizing civilized society to its very foundations. 
These peoples destroyed the libraries, great buildings and works of art, and this part of Europe 
reverted to conditions that prevailed in these regions before their conquest by the Romans. }} 
The period from 400 to 800 very properly deserves the name Dark Ages. 


Bectnnincs oF Mopern Civitization. After the period of confusion and violence that nat- 
urally followed the invasions came a time when the Teutons began, gradually, to construct a 
new society, and the ruins of the older civilization served as a foundation on which to build 
the modern structure. 


Roman Cuurcu. The invaders, though not immediately willing to accept Christianity as | 
their religion, rarely interfered with the Church and its government. Through the numerous 
officials of the Church, who mingled freely with the people, much of Roman law and civiliza- | 
tion was made to react on the conquerors. But it was to take many centuries for the new] 
race to develop ideas of government, industrial arts, literature and science to take the place} 
of those which it had destroyed. ) 


ENGLAND 


55 B. C.-597 A. D.— 


Early England 


Cesar began the con- 
quest of Britain in 55 
B. C. After a time all 
| of Britain was _ con- 
quered by the Romans. 
| The Romans built cities, 

introduced laws, en- 
couraged trade and 
| compelled the Britons 
to live in peace. 

About 418 A. D. the 
| barbarian invasions 
compelled Rome to 
withdraw her soldiers 
| from Britain to defend 
| her frontiers on the 
Danube and the Rhine. 
i About 30 years later 
| bands of Angles and 
Saxons, barbarians from 
| Germany, invaded Bri- 
tain. The invaders 
gradually conquered the 
| island. They destroyed 
the cities, and Roman 
civilization died out. 

Pope Gregory sent 
Augustine in 596 with 

!a number of monks on 

if a mission of love to 
ij England. He urged the 
English to become 
| Christians. Gradually 
these Germanic people 
li were converted to 
| Christianity, 


lates * a ANTE 


THE FRANKISH KINGDOM 


481-511 A. D.—Clovis, the Founder of the Frankish Kingdom 
The Franks lived along the lower Rhine, Clovis, their king, de- | 
feated the Romans in northern Gaul, and then conquered the various |} 
Germanic tribes in western Europe until his power extended over | 
the territory now included in modern France, Belgium, Netherlands jf 
and western Germany. He was a brutal conqueror, but he stands 
out in history as the founder of the modern French nation. “He and 
his followers became orthodox Christians. Clovis supported the } 


Pope in stamping out Arianism among the conquered Germans. 


During }] 


asty. They ruled the Frankish Kingdom for two centuries. | 
the latter part of their rule the control of the state gradually passed }j 


into the hands of officials known as mayors of the palace. In 687 1] 
Pippin gained control of the two kingdoms into which the Frankish 


state had been divided but ruled them as mayor of the palace. 


732—Charles Martel and the Battle of Tours | 
Charles Martel, son of Pippin, while mayor of the palace, defeated 
rebellious kings and nobles and preserved the kingdom his father | 
had won for the phantom Merovingian ruler. In 732 at the Battle }} 
of Tours he defeated the Mohammedan host and thus set a limit } 
to the advance of Asiatics in Europe. | 


750—Pippin, the First Carolingian King 
Upon the death of Charles Martel, his son Pippin ‘deposed the | 
useless shadow ruler, and, with the assistance of the Pope, assumed |] 
the crown himself, thus establishing the new Carolingian line. 
DonaTION oF Pippin. In 568 the Lombards, a German tribe, }j 
entered Italy and appropriated the Valley of the Po. They founded 
the Kingdom of Lombardy. About 750 the Lombards attacked ]} 
Rome. In 756 Pippin marched into Italy, defeated the Lombards, }} 
and gave to the Pope a strip of territory extending across Italy from jj 
Rome to Ravenna. This “Donation of Pippin” constituted the founda- |} 
tion of the temporal power of the Papacy. ! 


768-814—Charlemagne % 

CONQUESTS OF CHARLEMAGNE. In 772 Charlemagne, King of the 
Franks, began the conquest and conversion of the Saxons of north 
Germany. After 30 years of fighting they finally submitted to his — 
rule and became Christians. The King of Lombardy and the Pope 
quarreled. Thereupon Charles marched into Italy, defeated the i 
King and placed the iron crown of the Lombards on his own head. — 
Charlemagne then subdued the Saracens, who threatened his do- 
minions from the South, and the Avars, a robber Mongolian nation, — 
who threatened them from the East. ee ‘a 

CHARLEMAGNE, RoMAN EMPEROR OF THE WEstT. Charlemagne ~ 
united all the Germanic peoples into one great state. On Christmas 
day 800 he was crowned Emperor of Rome by the Pope, In 801 an — 
embassy arrived at Aix-la-Chapelle, bearing costly presents from the — 
great Mohammedan Caliph, Harun-al-Raschid, who was as supreme 


_ ; st 


Ga 


THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND THE EAST 


488-526—Theodoric the Great ; 

In 488 Theodoric the Great, as he was called, was commissioned by Zeno, the Emperor | 
of the Roman Empire of the East, to reconquer Italy from Odoacer. Theodoric defeated and] 
killed Odoacer, The East Gothic power extended over Italy and the region north of the 
Adriatic, The long reign of Theodoric (493-526) brought peace, prosperity and happiness to Italy. 
Theodoric drained marshes, built harbors and improved agriculture. He lightened taxation, and, 
though an Arian, respected the religion of his Catholic subjects. The weakness in his reign 
was that the Goths and Romans dwelt side by side in Italy as two distinct nations governed 
by their own laws. When Theodoric died in 526 there was no one strong enough to carry| 
on the work he had begun, and the empire fell apart. 


527-565—The Eastern Roman Empire 

Emperor Justinian was the great legislator and codifier of the Roman law. The law con- 
sisted of three kinds; namely, the old laws passed in the time of the republic, the laws 
passed by the Senate during the first two centuries of the empire, and the ordinances of 
the emperor. To this body of laws must be added the vast number of writings by the 
jurists. Justinian appointed a commission of able lawyers with instructions to go through 
this huge and confused accumulation of material, select the laws that were of permanent 
value, codify them, and make the comments on them clear and concise. This new code 
became the law of the empire. After Belisarius and Narses, two of Justinian’s generals, had 
conquered Italy, the code was used there also. From Italy it spread over the West and be- 
came the foundation of all law in modern Europe. 


596-750—The Mohammedan Empire 

Before the time of Mohammed, Arabia played no part in the world’s history. It was in- 
habited largely by nomadic tribes. There was no national government and there was no culture, 
except near the Red Sea. Suddenly these poor, ignorant, idolatrous people sprang into his-| 
toric importance by conquering the ancient empires of the East, and the Byzantine Empire 
of the Greeks and the Romans. : 

In 596 Mohammed began to preach his new religion. He drew on Jewish and Christian 
sources for material and recognized Moses and Christ as true prophets. He put much em- 


‘|| phasis on the doctrine that “God is one God.” He wrote the Koran, the sacred book.of the 


Mohammedans. In 622 Mohammed was compelled to flee from Mecca to Medina. This event 
is known as the Hegira, and it is the date from which the Mohammedans reckon time. 

After the Hegira, Mohammed made many converts. He captured Mecca and entered that 
city in triumph. He spread his religion by means of the sword. His soldiers were fierce 
fanatics who believed that the time of a man’s death is fixed, and that the joys of paradise 
come at once to him who dies in battle. Within ten years after the Hegira all Arabia had 
come under the sway of Mohammed. Syria, Persia and Egypt were conquered by the suc- 
cessor of Mohammed within 15 years after Mohammed’s death, which occurred in 632, In] 
711 the Mohammedans crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and conquered the Visigothic King- 
dom of Spain. However, their advance was checked by Charles Martel, who defeated them 
at hours in. 732. 

In 750 Spain became independent and was known as the Caliphate of Cordova. 


Mohammedan Civiliz- 

NACL eS Rel ation | 

in the Eastern world as Charlemagne was in the Western world. Mohammed set up 
CHARLEMAGNES CHARACTER AND Work. Charlemagne was not | high standards of mor- 
only a great conqueror but also a great statesman. He divided his | ality and forced his fol- 
empire into administrative districts. At the head of each he placed | lowers to live up to 
an officer called a count. Missi dominici, or king’s messengers, kept | them. He favored ed- 
him informed in regard to the actions of the counts. He gave his | ucation and culture, 
empire a strong central government. He encouraged manufacture | The Arabs absorbed 
and commerce, He favored education and collected libraries. He | what they could learn] 
called learned men from all parts of the world to his capital, and | from every civilization 
began the organization of a system of education. He failed to | with which they came] 
Romanize his great Germanic empire because one lifetime was too | in contact. They devel- 
short to change the manners and customs of the different peoples | oped law, science and 
under his rule. Upon his death his empire fell to pieces, but endur- | literature, They trans- 
ing traces of his great work remained which influenced the later de- | lated books from the 


e ee bnent of Europe. Greek and became ac-| 


one 


ENGLAND 


830—Egbert 

Egbert, King of the 
West Saxons, con- 
quered all the other 
kings of England and 
thus made himself 
overlord of the whole 
country. 


878—King Alfred and 
the Danes 

During Egbert’s time 
the Danes began to in- 
vade England. In 878 
the Danes, or North- 
men, entered into the 
Treaty of Wedmore 
with Alfred, King of 
England, according to 
which the Danes were 
to have the northeast- 
ern part of England 
and the English the 
southwestern. 3 ; 

Alfred was a good and wise king. He built a navy, 
introduced military reforms and issued a code of laws. 
He loved learning, translated books into English and built 
schools. He was called the “Morning Star of Civiliza- 
tion.” At his death the English part of England was 
closely united. By 954 the descendants of Alfred had won 
northern England from the Danes and thus reunited 
England. 


1017-1035—Canute 

During the latter part of the tenth century there were 
new invasions of the Northmen. Finally Sweyn, King of 
Denmark, conquered England, and in 1017 Canute, his 
son, was crowned king. He was a good ruler and became 
popular in England. He issued a new body of laws, 
restored order and kept peace. 

Twice he visited his Kingdom of Denmark. He made 
a pilgrimage to Rome, and his letters to his English sub- 
jects show a deep interest in their welfare. His sons 
were cruel and incapable rulers. In 1042 the English line 
was restored by electing Edward as king, Edward, better 
known as the Confessor, lacked the statesmanship of 
Canute. In 1066 Harold was chosen king, 


843—The Treaty of Verdun 


sons. 


Feudalism 


refuge for the people. 


1066-1087—-The Norman Conquest and William I 

In 1066 William of Normandy landed in England with 
a large army. England was not united, and in the Battle 
of Hastings the English were defeated, and Harold, their 
king, was killed. The Witan, an assembly of the great 
men of England, then chose William king. William gave 
large English estates to his Norman followers on condi- 
tion that they took an oath to be faithful to him and to 
perform military service for him. The English and the 
Normans early began to blend, and the English language 
was modified by the Norman-French. William refused to 
swear allegiance to Pope Hildebrand but he remained his 
friend. Though cruel at times he was a great ruler. He 
made travel safe and preserved order. He directed com- 
missioners to prepare a Domesday book, which contained 
a record of all the lands in England, and the amount of 
taxes the owners had to pay the king. 


BFRANCE 


Charlemagne was followed by his only son Louis. 
weak king and at his death the empire was divided among his three © 
The brothers quarreled, and after a brief but bloody civil war — 

the disputes were settled by the famous Treaty of Verdun. “Lothair — 
secured Italy and a strip of land extending from the Mediterranean © 


Louis was a 


The Carolingian kings were weak and unable to hold what Charle- © 
magne had gained. .Under them centralized government gave way — 
just when it was most needed to withstand the new barbarian inva- 
sions of the Norsemen, Slavs and Hungarians. 
the imperial government an institution sprang up known as feudalism, 
This protected life and property for a time and then degenerated into 
“feudal” violence and warfare, thus increasing the anarchy prevailing 
during the tenth and eleventh centuries. 

Feudalism was a form of social and political organization based 
on the ownership of land. The state was broken up into many small 
fragments, each controlled by a rich and powerful lord who was the 
protector of the people living in his territory. The lord lived in a 
castle which was virtually a fort, 


After the collapse of 


and in times of danger it became a _ 


From it there issued mailed horsemen who 


987—Hugh Capet 

Hugh Capet was the founder of } 
a new dynasty, which was to rule] 
France until the monarchy was 
overthrown by the French Revolu- 
tion. The Capetians held the Duchy 
of France which was to become the 
nucleus of the new French kingdom | 
and nation. For. several centuries }] 
no apparent progress was made in 
uniting the many feudal states. But ]] 
the fact that the succession to the 
throne was made hereditary enabled | 
the kings to hold to one policy and 
thus prepare the way for the ulti- | 
mate organization of a strong cen- ] 
tral power. 1 


The “Truce of God” i| 

For nearly a century after the |] 
death of Hugh Capet central au-]} 
thority was almost wholly lacking }] 
in France, and the country was rent 
by civil and private wars. Famine} 
and misery desolated the land. Fi-}] 
nally the Pope intervened. In 1041 |} 
the Truce of God was proclaimed, 
according to which all fighting was 
forbidden from Wednesday evening }} 
to Monday morning, and also on all} 
feast days in Advent and in Lent. | 
While the Church did not succeed jf 
in her laudable effort to abolish] 
private war, she did succeed in les- }] 
sening its evils. 


GERMANY AND ITALY THE EAST 


; Mohammedan Civiliz- 
to the North Sea, along the Rhone and the Rhine rivers. Charles ation—Continued 

received the part west of this region which later became France, | quainted with the phil- 
and Louis that east of the central region which after many centuries | osophy and learning of 
was to grow into the German Empire. Thus the empire of Charles | those ancient people. 
the Great came to an end and in its place were found the outlines | They distinguished 
of modern France, Germany and Italy. themselves in geogra- 
phy, history, astronomy 


repelled the attacks of the Norsemen, Slavs, Hungarians and neigh- and Patrice: Ee penn 
poring feudal lords. Gradually the lord gained the ownership of the ee cy medi 
land and the farmers became serfs. The serfs had few rights. While ae dtl 5 th ih ha 
they were not slaves the law bound them to the soil. They were | “1° becaieh “di Lie 
bought and sold with the land. In theory each lord was the vassal ligion forbade dissec- 
of the king. In practice, however, the lords were quite independent tion. Their industries 
of any central authority. As a result there were innumerable petty | "4 cert i ciaeee ee RE 
wars which destroyed every vestige of peace and order. Many of | VeTY extensive. 1 hey 
the nobles became “robber barons.” SG colonies. 

The intolerable conditions incident to perpetual warfare and brig- | ; panei peroes 
andage were gradually changed with the development of industry and ee agdad to the At- 
commerce. The invention of gunpowder and the necessity for | @@™US and to the con- 


: : fines of Asia, From 
eer poate governments gradually resulted in the decline os CAE ines anaes 


silks, from India rare 
936-973—-Otto I, Emperor of Germany and Italy woods, spices and steel, 
The Franks, Saxons, Suabians, Bavarians and Lothairingians, called | 2d from Africa ivory. 
the five great German “stems,” prided themselves on preserving their | But their own manu- 
independence, but in 936 Otto I, a great general and organizer, suc- | factured products, such 
ceeded in uniting many duchies and making himself master of the | 25. carpets, silks, glass, 
German state. He was a great ruler, but ambition dictated a fatal | Sugar, satin and other | 
mistake. He joined Italy to his kingdom and in 962 he was crowned | Cloths, steel tools and | 
‘}femperor at Rome. For centuries the German kings strove to rule | armor, jewelry and pa- 
j} over Germany and Italy and to control the Papacy. But in pursuing | Pet, scon rivaled, if they | 
the phantom power as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire they were | did not surpass, those 
compelled to spend much time in Italy to put down insurrections | Of the Byzantine Em- 
or subdue the popes. Thus they lost the opportunity of establishing | P!Te- 
a stable government in Germany and uniting the German people into 
a nation. 


1039-1056—Henry III 

Henry III was a great ruler. He reduced the Magyars, Slavs and Bohemians to submis- 
sion. He organized a strong central government and forced the nobles to maintain peace. 
He put down simony and favored reforms of the Papacy. Under the popes he appointed, a 
new and better era was introduced for the Church and the Papacy. 


1056-1106—Henry IV and Pope Hildebrand (Gregory VII) | 
Henry IV was but a child when his father died. The nobles revolted and feudalism gained 


Hildebrand issued a decree forbidding the clergy to p 
marry and denying the right of kings and princes 
|jto have a voice in choosing abbots and bishops. 
| Hildebrand also declared that the papal power ex- 
ceeded that of the kings, and that a pope had the 
right to remove unjust rulers. Henry refused to 
relinquish his right to invest bishops and abbots, 
and a synod of German bishops voted to depose the § 
Pope. Hildebrand answered by excommunicating 
|the King. The princes then associated themselves 
jiwith the Pope. To win back his crown, Henry ap- 
peared, in the depth of winter, barefoot and clad 
in a penitent’s shirt, before the Pope’s castle at 
Canossa, and abjectly apologized for his conduct. 
|The Pope, in a way, forgave him, and Henry re- 
jjturned home humiliated but determined on revenge. 


MT a SBA 


ENGLAND 


1087-1100—William IT 

William’ II had his father’s ability, but not his love of 
justice. With the assistance of the English he put down 
the rebellious Norman barons and restored order. While ill 
he appointed Anselm, a gentle, learned, holy man, archbishop, 
but when he was well he quarreled with him because the 
Bishop persisted in doing what he thought was right in regard 
to Church matters. 


1100-1135—Henry I 


Henry I, the “Lion of Justice,” kept the barons in order, 
and took Normandy from his brother Robert. 


1154-1189—Henry II, the Lawgiver 


During the reign of Stephen, which preceded that of Henry, 
anarchy prevailed in England. The nobles had built strong 
castles from which they issued to rob and plunder. Henry II 
was an energetic and fearless man. He destroyed the castles 
of the barons and restored order. He sent out judges to 
decide land disputes and cases of robbery and murder. Even 
the nobles were subjected to the authority of his courts. 
The modern jury system had its origin in connection with 
these courts. 

The clergy included not only Churchmen, but all men who 
had learned to read and write and who wanted to work with 
their brains. Henry insisted that if a clergyman committed 
a crime he was to be tried by a State court and not by a 
Church court. He made his chancellor and friend, Thomas 
Becket, archbishop, to help him carry out his plans. But 
Becket declared that Churchmen should be tried by Church 
courts. This resulted in a quarrel between the King and the 
Archbishop, and Becket was murdered by overzealous friends 
of the King. Becket’s death gained the victory over Henry. 
The people considered Becket a saint, and the King found 
it necessary to relinquish his claim over the clergy and to do 
penance at Becket’s tomb in order to win back his popularity. 
Henry’s dominions comprised England and western France. 
Henry’s government and reforms paved the way for a united 
English nation. 


1189-1199—Richard I 


Richard I spent but little time in England. He preferred 
to live in Normandy. He was a brave soldier and took part 
in a crusade to the Holy Land. He was known as Ceur de 
Lion, or the Lion-Hearted. 


1199-1216—-John I and the Magna Charta 

John was tyrannical and enriched himself by imposing heavy 
taxes on rich and poor alike. He quarreled with the clergy 
and’ refused to accept Stephen Langton, who had been ap- 
pointed archbishop by the Pope. John seized the lands of the 
Church and the Pope excommunicated him. The King then 
agreed to accept Langton as archbishop and made his peace 
with the Pope. But the nobles and clergy so disliked his 
arbitrary rule that they forced him in 1215 to sign the Magna 
Charta, which declared that the king could not take money 
from his subjects at his will, and that he could not punish a 
subject except through the process of law and upon a verdict 
of a jury. This was a great step in the direction of govern- 
ment by the people. 


1265—Simon de Montfort’s Parliament 

Henry III was a weak and extravagant ruler. He squan- 
dered vast sums of money. In an uprising Simon de Mont- 
fort defeated the King. In 1265 Earl Simon called a Parlia- 
ment composed not only of nobles and Churchmen but also 
of representatives of the counties and towns. This was 
‘janother great advance in representative government. 


Se 


Henry’s French Dominions 


In 1152 Henry of Anjou mar- 
ried Eleanor, divorced. wife of 
Louis VII of France, thus add-}} 
ing Aquitaine to his dominions, 
which then comprised territory 
seven times that controlled by 
Louis VII, 


1180-1223—Philip Augustus 
Philip Augustus became king 
in 1180. In 1204 he began a war 
against John, King of England, 
who had his capital at Rouen, 
France. John fled to England 
and Philip conquered Normandy 
and some other minor posses- |} 
sions of John’s in France. This 
was the first great gain in terri- 
tory made by the Capetian kings. 


i 


E 
il 


; 
, 


i 1}Germany and of the empire by Pope Innocent III. 


GERMANY AND ITALY 


Henry IV and Pope Hildebrand—Continued 

The King was determined to maintain what he considered 
his rights. Then began the great struggle between the Ger- 
man.emperors and the Papacy, which was to last 200 years. 


The cities of Germany were loyal to Henry. After defeating 
a rival king he led an army into Italy, drove Hildebrand into 


jexile and had himself crowned emperor by his own anti-pope. 

Henry V continued the struggle against the Papacy. In 
1122 the Concordat of Worms ended the controversy in regard 
to investitures by a compromise which, however, was really 
a victory for the Papacy. 


1152-1190—Frederick Barbarossa 


The German kings continued to lose power in their struggle 
with the princes of Germany. But under Frederick I, better 
known as Barbarossa, monarchy again stood high. Frederick 
was a great ruler and won back the prestige of Germany 
by compelling Poland and Denmark to do homage to him. 
He kept the robber nobles in subjection and granted privileges 
to the cities. \ 

Frederick renewed the quarrel with the popes. He strove 
to organize a strong central government in Italy. In this 
the Pope opposed him, and the powerful Lombard cities made 
common cause with the Pope against the Emperor. Fred- 
erick’s army was defeated and he was compelled to recognize 
the independence of the Lombard cities, Toward the close 
of the reign the Emperor and the Pope became friends. 

In 1187 Barbarossa left on a crusade to the Holy Land, 
where he was drowned. The German people consider him 
their greatest popular hero. 


% 


—{41190-1197—Henry VI 


Henry VI secured an immense ransom from Richard of 
England, whom he had held as prisoner. This money enabled 
him to crush an uprising against him. He was a powerful 
king and the Papacy became subject to him. By marriage, 
Henry acquired the Kingdom of Sicily. 


1215-1250—Frederick II 

Frederick II was supported in his claim to the throne of 
But after 
he became emperor Frederick also continued the struggle 
against the Papacy. He was a great king and statesman, but 
he devoted but little time to Germany. He finally lost his 
Italian possessions, and Germany was cut up into many frag- 
ments. Thus in the long struggle between the emperors and the 
popes, the Papacy won its independence, prevented the politi- 
cal unity of Italy and became the head of Christendom. 
Germany, which had for three centuries been considered the 
strongest European kingdom, had, meanwhile, lost its central 
government and in its place were over 300 independent cities 
and states. 


THE EAST 


1095-1300—The Crusades 


During the 12th and 13th een- 
turies expeditions were under- 
taken to deliver the Holy Land 
from the infidel Turks. These 
wars were known as Crusades. 
The popes urged knights and 
soldiers to go to Palestine and 
fight for the rights of the Chris- 
tians in the East. In 1095 Peter |; 
the Hermit passed through Eu-| 
rope and roused the people to}} 
a high pitch of indignatior }| 
against the unbelievers. He led 
a great crowd of peasants and || 
other people, most of whom were j] 
unarmed, tothe Holy Land. But}} 
few ever reached Jerusalein, for }} 
they were slaughtered on the 
road by the Hungarians and the || 
Turks. 

In 1096 a great army of French 
and Normans marched in four 
divisions to the Holy Land. 
They captured Antioch, and in 
1099 recovered Jerusalem and 
organized the Kingdom of Jeru- | 
salem. Tl 

In 1187 Jerusalem was cap- 
tured by the Turks under Sala- }} 
din. Soon after this Frederick 
Barbarossa of Germany, Philip 
II of France and Richard I of 
England led a crusade to the} 
Holy Land. In 1192 the lead-| 
ers made a truce with Saladin 
whereby pilgrims were allowed || 
to visit the Holy Land in safety. | 
Several crusades were under- 
taken after this, but Jerusalem | 
remained in the hands of the 
infidels. 

The Crusaders came into con- |} 
tact with the superior civilization 
of the East, and this hastened 
the development of Europe. The 
Crusades stimulated manufactur- 
ing in Europe, and trade between 
the East and the West became}] 
more general. This demanded 
the ust of money and thus barter 
was done away with. Feudal 
lords also accepted money in lieu 
of services. The kings intro- 
duced systems of taxation which] 
helped to make them independ- 
ent of the lords and barons. Fi- 
nally all of these things resulted 
in undermining feudalism and in]] 
preparing for a new and better 


system of government. 


ENGLAND 


1274-1307—Edward I, the Reformer 

Edward favored reforms in the government which were 
begun by Simon de Montfort. In 1295 the King called what 
later became known as the Model Parliament, in which all 
the people were represented. After a time the nobles and 
clergy acted together and were called the House of Lords, 
while all the other members constituted the House of Com- 
mons. Edward was a wise, firm and just ruler, and Eng- 
land prospered and was peaceful. The King conquered Wales 
and subdued Scotland. Under Edward II, however, Robert 
Bruce, King of Scotland, defeated the English at Bannock- 
burn in 1314, and Scotland again became free. 


1338-1453—The Hundred Years’ War: 


FRANCE 


1285—1314—Philip IV 

Under Philip IV the barons 
were subdued, courts were or- 
ganized, a system of national 
taxation was introduced..and a 
national legislature known as the 
States-General was created. 
Then France felt ready for the 
great trial of strength with Eng- 


land, which was bound to come. 


A conflict between England and France was inevitable so long as the English held a large 


portion of French territory. In 1338 Edward II began what is called the Hundred Years’ 
War, because the King of France was trying to gain possession of Flanders, which con- 
tained cities that used English wool in manufacturing woolen cloth. But in reality Edward 
fought to add all of France to his domain, and the French fought to drive the English from 
their country. The English, with their small but well-organized army, using the terrible long 
bow, won the glorious victories of Crécy and Poitiers and captured Calais. 

During the latter part of the war the English under Henry V won the Battle of Agin- 
court. But after this great victory the tide slowly turned against the English. Joan of 
Arc, a peasant girl, pure and simple and without learning, believing that she was called by 
God to save her country, placed herself at the head of the French troops, aroused their 
enthusiasm and confidence and defeated the English who were besieging Orleans.’ The Eng- 
lish finally captured her and burned her as a witch. But Joan of Arc was a martyr then, 
and nothing could stay the French forces. 

In 1453 the long war came to a close and all that was left of the English possessions in 
France was Calais. However, as a result of the war England gained in trade with Conti- 
nental Europe and Parliament grew in power. France annexed the territories the English 
lost and thus became a powerful monarchy. 


1455-1485—The War of the Roses 
At the close of the Hundred Years’ War, civil war broke 


out in England, which was known as the War of the Roses. 
Two groups of nobles, the House of Lancaster and the 
House of York, strove for power. In the series of battles 
that were fought sometimes one side won, and sometimes 
ithe other. Finally in 1485 Henry Tudor defeated Richard III 
at Bosworth. The King was killed and his battered crown 
was placed on Henry’s head, who from that time on ruled 
as Henry VII. The War of the Roses ruined the barons 
and thus made possible a stronger central government. 


1461-1483—Louis XI 

Louis used his power in crush- 
ing feudalism and in consolidat- 
ing and enlarging France. He 
imposed heavy taxes, which the 
people, however, were able to 
pay because agriculture, indus- 
try and commerce flourished 
during his reign. He. favored 
learning. He was a great king 


and a terrible, for he established 
that absolutism that was to con- 
tinue to the Revolution. 


The Growth of Cities 

_ DISAPPEARANCE OF Cities. The result of the barbarian invasions was the disappearance of 
cities which had sprung up in western Europe during the period of the Roman Empire. 
European society for nearly 500 years was again rural. 

CLASsES OF SocreTy. There were three classes of society, the lords, the priests and the 
serfs, The serf worked for the lord, or paid him for the use of the land in “kind.” Farm- 
ing was conducted in a primitive way because there was no incentive to make the land yield 
greater returns. Life for the serf had few pleasures. Misery and squalor fell to his lot. 
There were no schools and the densest ignorance prevailed. 

INFLUENCE OF A GREATER PopuLATION. With the increase in population came the necessity 
for using better methods of farming. Private ownership of land was gradually introduced and 
this reacted favorably on agriculture. 
_ INFLUENCE OF CRUSADES ON CITIES. 
increase in trade and commerce. 
The crude industries were 
increased. 

ORGANIZATION oF Guitps. In the cities guilds sprang up. Men who did the same kind of 
skilled labor organized unions for mutual helpfulness. These trade unions were composed of 
both employers and employees. 


The Crusades and the introduction of money led to an 
Gradually villages were transformed into populous cities. 
perfected and became more diversified, and material prosperity 


GERMANY SPAIN 


Rise of Spain 
Charles Martel in 
732, at Tours, stopped 
the farther advance of 
the Mohammedan 
power in Europe, but |} 
Spain remained in the 
hands of the Saracens 
for centuries. All the 
inhabitants except a 
small number of moun- ]| 
tain people were con- 
verted to Mohammed- 
anism. By the tenth 
century the Moham- 
medan-Spanish civiliz- | 
ation rivaled that of 
the East. Agriculture, 
The Hussite Ware industry, commerce, the 
John Huss, a Bohemian reformer, wrote and spoke against clerical cobeabaorith fiona os 
abuses and openly sympathized with the English reformer Wiclif. NSE oe Ave a 
The Pope excommunicated Huss, but the people stood by him. In Ae eee cae 
1415 he appeared before the General Council of Constance under a ae ae see du ae 
“safe conduct” froni Emperor Sigismund to defend his religious Gastowe th y aa 1 
views. But, arrived at Constance, he was thrown into prison. He hadvarne slate ae 
was, however, granted a public hearing and urged to make a general | p.1¢ a aiok people, 


| recantation. This he refused to do and he was burned at the stake. | 7 ‘ . 
“sek i ts university attracted 
Religious wars ensued but the Hussites were defeated. | fhausande ‘oto student 


from all parts of the 
world, But this civiliz- 
ation was not destined | 
to last. 

Gradually the caliphs 
allowed power to slip 
into the hands of their 
ministers and a decline 
set in. By the begin- 
ning of the 11th century |] 


COMMERCIAL TOW 5 er ae 7 
AND TRADE ROUTES ee eoe 0 0 NN 

13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES Sita, > SAS pBEYROUT 
LAND ROUTES Sener ATID! : fas ea JAFFA} } 


Amy 


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BUY 
ALEXAND Nae 


The Growth of Cities—-Continued 

THe Tuirp Estate, or BurcHEerR Crass. In the cities a rich burgher class developed. The 
burghers compelled the lords to grant charters to cities, defining the powers and privileges of 
the citizens. The town hall and the cathedral came to be the two greatest buildings in every 
city. Schools were organized and gradually culture was introduced. 

INDEPENDENT Cities AND City Lracuges. Many cities became independent and were organ- 


}1zed into city republics. Cities combined into leagues for protection against feudal barons, 


robbers and pirates and to secure better trade conditions. The Hanseatic League comprised }| 
50 of the cities in Germany. 


LUE Riana, ACLS RR, A FH Ae saat sae yy eee 


Wiatlhen — 3 we OTB MRI  e 


1485-150S—-Henry VII, the First Tudor King 

Henry VII created an absolute monarchy. There was no one to 
oppose him, for many of the nobles were killed in the Wars of the 
1 Roses and the people of the middle classes were not in the habit of 
acting independently of the nobles. Most of the people were tired 
| of the long wars and were satisfied to have a ruler who could intro- 
duce peace and order. By means of old sources of income the King 
made himself quite independent of Parliament. When Parliament 
1 did meet, it was usually subservient ‘to the King. During Henry’s 
reign representative government received a check from which it did 
| not recover for two centuries. On the other hand, agriculture and 
| manufacturing increased, trade flourished and great interest was taken 
iin the reading of Greek and Roman books. / 


1509-1547—Henry VIII 
| CarpinaL Wotsey. During the early part of Henry’s reign Cardi- 
inal Wolsey had the management of the affairs of State. “Wolsey 
| dreamed of the popedom, while his master dreamed of the universal 
| empire.” Because Wolsey failed in getting the Pope to divorce 
| Henry from Catherine, Henry turned Wolsey out of office, seized 
his immense properties and charged him with high treason. Wolsey 
i died before he could be brought to trial. 

Tue Rerormation. Henry induced Parliament to pass laws ac- 
cording to which all matters relating to the Church were to be settled 
in England. His marriage to Catherine was declared illegal and he 
'married Anne Boleyn. In 1535 Parliament passed an act making 
Henry “Supreme Head of the Church of England.” Henry sup- 
pressed the monasteries and used the property thus obtained for 
himself. Upon Henry’s orders the Bible was translated into English. 
The religion in England was now Catholicism without the pope. 

ABSOLUTE POWER. Henry VIII exercised absolute power. Any man 
| who opposed him was likely to be charged with treason and executed. 
Neither the courts nor Parliament resisted him. 


1547—1553—-Edward V 


| tant in doctrine, and all people who refused to conform to the change 
were persecuted. 


| 1553-1558—Mary 

| Mary was as absolute a ruler as her father. She induced Parlia- 
ment to undo the work of Edward and Henry in regard to religion, 
and the authority of the pope again became supreme. Under Henry 
VIII both Catholics and Protestants were persecuted. Under Mary 
1 all who did not profess the Catholic belief were liable to be punished 
as heretics. 


| 1558-1603—Elizabeth 
| Tue RerorMation. During Elizabeth’s reign Protestantism was 
| again established in England. The Catholics opposed this action, as 
' did also the Puritans. Catholics and Puritans alike were persecuted. 

Mary, QuEEN oF Scots. Mary, Queen of Scotland and cousin of 
Elizabeth, was expelled from Scotland because of her private behavior 
and crimes. She fled to England for protection. The government, 
fearing an uprising in favor of Mary, kept her a prisoner for 19 
iyears. Finally Mary plotted against the life of Elizabeth and in 
| 1587 she was tried and executed. 

1588—Tue Armapa. Philip II, King of Spain, sent a great fleet 
of war vessels, carrying a large army, to conquer England for himself 
and the Pope. But the “Invincible Armada” was defeated by the 
English fleet and England was saved. During the war Catholics and 
Protestants vied with each other in fighting for their countyy. 

ENGLAND AT THE CLOSE OF ELIZABETH’S REIGN. Many skilled work- 
; nen left the Continent during the religious troubles and settled in 
England. Manufacturing increased rapidly and manufactured goods 
| were carried by English vessels to all parts of the world. Wealth 
{was rapidly increasing. It was an age, also, that produced many 
j writers. Shakespeare brought the drama to its highest stage of 
§ perfection and national life took on its modern form. 


I 
In 1553 under Edward VI the Church of England was made Protes- 


pee 


1562-1595—Civil Wars 


1498-1515—Louis XII 


Louis XII conquered . 
Milan and in 1500 sold 
to Ferdinand of Ara- 
gon his share of the 
Kingdom of Naples. 
In 1512 the French lost } 
Milan and were ex- 
pelled from Italy. 


1515-1547—Francis I 


Francis carried on 
many wars with his 
great rival, Charles V 
of Spain, in which he jf 
wasted the resources }j © 
and strength of his jj 
country. He was no 
match for the Spanish 
monarch, the ablest 
statesman of his age. 
But though the reign 
of Francis was a great 
misfortune to France, 
the people adored him } 
in spite of his defeats 
in war and his moral 
weaknesses, and were 
content to live under a 
master who allowed 
them no constitutional 
rights. 


From 1562 to 1595 
France was rent by || 
religious wars between 
the Catholics’ and the 
Protestants. The 
French Protestants be- 
came known as Hugue- 
nots. Francis I and 
Henry II had perse- 
cuted them. Catherine 
de Medici, the mother 
of the three successors 
of Henry II, induced 
the King to sign an or- 
der according to which 
2000 Huguenots were 
put to death in Paris 
on St. Bartholomew’s 
Day in 1572. 


CO Oe SESS ek eRe Re ea eT we Tee Pe he ar ene ee 


GERMANY 


ees 


The House of Hapsburg 

In Germany the Miatie of Hapsburg, which 
controlled the Duchy of Austria, steadily grew 
in power. In 1438 the imperial title was made 
hereditary in the Hapsburg line. By marriage, 
Maximilian, Emperor of Germany from 1493 
ta 1519, joined Netherlands to lis-possessions 
in southern Germany. Maximilian tried to_or- 
|ganize a strong central government in Ger- 
imany but he failed because of the opposition 
of selfish nobles. 


1517-1555—The Protestant Reformation 

Martin LutHer, Luther was a monk who 
adopted the doctrine of “justification by faith.” 
This led him to oppose the abuse of indul- 
gences issued by the Church. In 1517 he 
nailed on the door of the church in Witten- 
berg his 95 theses in which he attacked the 
sale of indulgences. 

At tHE Diet oF Worms. In 1521 Charles V 
!summoned him to appear before the Diet of 
Worms. Here he reafirmed his doctrines. The 
Diet placed him under the ban of the empire 
‘and ordered his books to be burned. Safely 
hidden in the Wartburg castle Luther trans- 
lated the Bible into German. 
| LutTHeran Docrrines Spreap. The many 
|wars of Charles, in which he needed the sup- 
port of his German subjects, prevented him 
from taking steps to stamp out the growing 
heresy, and thus the new teachings spread. 
| Protestants. Because the Lutheran princes 
iprotested against the action of the Diet of 
Speyer, which declared that the Edict of 
;Worms should be enforced at once, Luther’s 
supporters were called Protestants. 
|} 1555. Peace or AucssurG. In 1555 the Prot- 
estant princes of Germany compelled Charles 
to accept the Peace of Augsburg, which au- 
thorized each prince and each city to choose 
between Lutheranism and Catholicism. 


1556-1564—Ferdinand 

In 1556 Charles V bequeathed the Archduke- 
dom of Austria to his brother Ferdinand. 
There were now two branches of the House 
of Hapsburg, that of Spain and that of Aus- 
tria. Ferdinand added Bohemia and Hungary 
to his dominions. 


The Counter Reformation . 

Soon after the Protestant Reformation be- 
gan many practices of the Church which had 
jirritated the people were abolished by the 
Church, and only leaders of religious thought 
could hope to bécome cardinals. Ignatius 
Loyola in 1540 founded the Order of Jesuits, 
{the members of which pledged themselves to 
lead pure, upright lives, to be devoted to the 
cause of the Church. These movements in- 
fused a new life into the Church, 


the Gulf of Lepanto off the coast of Greece. 


SPAIN 


Rise of Spain—Continued 
the Christians had established several small} 
states which held out against the Saracens. | 
In 1469 Castile and Aragon, which had grown} 
into strong states, were united under Ferdinand 
and Isabella. The union of these two states | 
created the Kingdom of Spain. 
In 1482 Ferdinand and Isabella began the} 
conquest of Granada, the last and most power- 
ful of the Mohammedan states. One city after | 
another was captured by the Christians, and 
finally in 1492 Granada, the capital, was forced 
to surrender, and the Mohammedan power in| 
Spain came to an end. 


1516-1556—Charles V 

Charles V inherited an enormous amount of 
territory. From his father he received Nether- 
lands, from his grandfather Ferdinand, Spain} 
and Naples, and from his grandfather Maxi- 
milian, Austria. This great inheritance was} 
increased by Cortez, who conquered Mexico, } 
and by Pizarro, who conquered Peru. In 1519 
Charles was elected Emperor of Germany. 
During his reign Spain was the greatest power 
in Europe. He had several wars with his | 
rival, Francis I of France, in most of which} 
he was successful. In 1532 he led the united 
forces of his empire against the Turks, who} 
threatened Germany, and compelled them to 
withdraw. In 1539 he chastised the city of} 
Ghent, where he was born, because it had} 
refused to pay the exorbitant taxes he hadj 
levied. He was unable to put down the Ref-} 
ormation in Germany, and in 1555 he entered 
into the Peace of Augsburg. In 1556 he abdi- 
cated in favor of his son Philip. In his will} 
he urged Philip to root out heresy in his} 
dominions. 


1556-1598—Philip II 
Philip II introduced the most crushing des- 
potism in Spain, using the Inquisition for both] 
religious and secular purposes. 
NETHERLANDS. Before the time of Charles 
V the people of Netherlands, through ingenuity 
and hard work, had reached the highest state | 


"of industrial development attained by any peo- | 


ple in Europe. Protestantism had been intro- | 
duced into the northern provinces and Philip 
was determined to stamp it out. He used the} 
Spanish Inquisition in a merciless way, but a 
national hero arose, William, Prince of Orange, f 
who freed the northern provinces from Spain. 
Spain, however, was too proud to acknowledge 
the independence of Holland until 1648. 

1571. Lepanto. In 1571 Philip rendered a 
service to the civilized world by totally de-| 
stroying the great Turkish fleet in a fight in| 


Fae ARSE ee Nt 


ENGLAND 


1603-1625—James I 

JAMES AND THE CATHOoLICS—1604. Under James I the crowns of 
England and Scotland were united. The King at first treated the 
Catholics with less severity than they had been treated in the previous 
reigns, but soon reimposed the severe penalties. This resulted in 
the Gunpowder Plot, which was a conspiracy to blow up the Houses 
of Parliament. After the failure of the plot the persecutions were 
carried on sharper than ever. 

1604—JAMES AND THE Puritans, The Puritans presented to the 
King a great petition favoring certain changes in religion which were 
discussed at the Hampden Court Conference, but the King opposed 
every change. In 1611 a new translation of the Bible was completed. 

JAMES AND PARLIAMENT. The absolute rule introduced by Henry 
VII and exercised by all the Tudors became more autocratic under 
James. The House of Commons favored leniency toward the Puri- 
tans but James was obdurate. The King imposed duties on imports 
and exports without the consent of Parliament, which resulted in a 
quarrel in which Parliament more than held its own. i 

1607-1620. CoLtonization. In 1607 the first permanent English 
settlement in America was made at Jamestown. In 1620 a group of 
English Separatists, who had left England and had lived in Holland 
for a time, made a settlement at Plymouth. The Separatists be- 


| lieved that every church should be allowed religious independence. 


| 1625-1649—Charles I 
| 1625. Tue Petition or Ricut. Charles I quarreled constantly 
| with his Parliaments over money matters. Finally Parliament de- 
clared that before voting him money he would have to accept the 
| “Petition of Right,’ which called for a redress of their grievances. 
| Charles yielded and the Petition of Right became a law. Then 
| Charles decided to rule without Parliament. 
1629-1640. Cartes Rutes WitHout ParLIAMENT. Charles used 
the Court of the Star Chamber to punish all who dared find fault 
with his autocratic government. He levied duties on goods without 
the consent of Parliament, and ordered the counties to pay ship 
| money in place of furnishing him ships. John Hampden resisted 
but the judges decided he had to pay the tax. 

1640-1649. THe Long PARLIAMENT AND THE CiviL War. Charles 
interfered with the Scotch Church and led an army into Scotland, 
but a Scotch army soon forced him to retreat. In his extremity 
Charles called another Parliament in 1640, which restricted his powers 
and declared that it could not be dissolved without its consent. 
| Crivir War. Then the King and Parliament each raised an army 
|} and civil war began. Charles was finally defeated by Cromwell. 
| Cromwell belonged to the Independents, who believed that every 
i man should be allowed to worship God as he liked. Most of the 
Parliamentary army was made up of these religious enthusiasts. 
Charles was imprisoned, and, after Cromwell had driven many of 
the Presbyterian members out of Parliament, the “Rump” Parlia- 
ment brought the King to trial and he was beheaded. 


1649-1653—The Commonwealth and the Protectorate 

The government was now administered by a council appointed by 
Parliament. Cromwell suppressed a rebellion in Ireland with great 
cruelty, and conquered Scotland. The government by the council 
proved a failure. Cromwell expelled the 80 members of Parliament, 
and the Long Parliament, which had kept the government in its own 
hands for 13 years, came to an end. 


1653-1658—Cromwell 

Cromwell was now dictator. He entered into treaties with Nether- 
lands, Sweden, Denmark and France. He preserved peace at home 
and sustained the power of England abroad. He failed to establish a 
constitutional government because his government rested on the army. 


| In 1660 a new Parliament asked the son of Charles I to rule as 
Charles IT. 


FRANCE 


1589-1610—Henry IV 

Henry of Navarre, 
leader of the Hugue- 
nots, became king in 
1589. In 1593 he turned 
Catholic, and in-»1598 
he issued his famous 
Edict of Nantes, which 
granted freedom of 
worship to the Hugue- 
nots. Trade and indus- 
tries revived during his 
reign. In 1610, in the 
midst of preparations 
to assist the Protestant 
princes in a war against 
Austria, he was assas- 
sinated, 


1610-1643—Louis 
XIII 


Louis XIII was ten 
years old when he be- 
came king. Anarchy 
again threatened 
France, but this was 
averted by the strong 
and wise rule of Rich- 
elieu, the famous min- 
ister of the King. He 
madethe King supreme 
in France by crushing 
the power of the no- 
bles, and by destroying 
the political power of 
the Huguenots. He sup- 
ported the Protestant 
princes of Germany in 
their struggle for re- 
ligious freedom because 
the success of the 
princes meant the hu- 
miliation of Austria. 


1645-1715—Louis XIV 


During the first part 
of the reign of Louis 
XIV Cardinal Mazarin 
continued the policy of 
Richelieu, France hum- 
bled both branches of 
the House of Austria 
and became a great 
power in foreign af- 
fairs. France continued 
to be a pronounced des- 
notism, the people hav- 
ing virtually no politi- | 
cal rights. 

1648. PrAcEor WEST- 
PHALIA. The interfer- 
ence of France brought 
the Thirty Years’ War 
to a close. The Peace 
of Westphalia recog- 
nized France as st- 
preme in Europe. 


ior Protestant. 


GERMANY 


1618-1648—The Thirty Years’ War 


In 1618 a terrible and devastating religious civil war began in 
Germany, which exceeded in brutality the civil wars of Rome. The 
Treaty of Augsburg, 1555, declared that each potentate and city 
should decide whether the religion of the people should be Catholic 
Quarrels naturally arose. The Protestant states 
formed a union under the Elector of the Palatinate and the Catholics 


| formed “The League,” with Maximilian of Bavaria at the head. The 


war was carried on in Germany, but most of the nations of Europe 
took part in it at various times. 

Tue DanisH Periop. Tilly and Wallenstein, the famous gen- 
erals of the Emperor, defeated the Protestant princes in several 
battles. Then Christian, King of Denmark, came to their assistance. 
But he was defeated and the cause of the Protestant princes seemed 


THE SwepisH Periop. In 1630 Gustavus Adolphus, King of 
Sweden, came to the rescue. In 1632 he defeated the imperial army 
at the Battle of Liitzen, but Gustavus was killed. 

THe Frencu Periop. France, under Cardinal Richelieu, had helped 
Gustavus Adolphus with money. .In 1634 a French army was sent 
into Germany. The war now became one for aggrandizement. Rich- 
elieu died but Mazarin continued his policy. 

1648. Tur Peace oF WEsTPHALIA. According to the Peace of 
Westphalia, the most important event in history since the Treaty of 


I lost. - 


| Verdun, the Catholics and the Protestants were put upon the same 


footing. Alsace was given to France, parts of northern Germany 
to Sweden, and the Hanseatic League was broken up. National 
feeling in Germany seemed extinct. At the beginning of the war the 


| population of Germany was 30,000,000; at its close it was 12,000,000. 


PRAGUE ’ 
INDEPENDENT-1648 
BOHEMIA SWITZERLAND 
AUSTRIAN : 
BRANDENBURG 
PRUSSIA [ 
bMUNICH 


yeNNe BR ANDENBURG wo 
DOMINIONS FRENCH GAINS [TTI 


SPAIN 


Expulsion of the 
Moors 


In 1492, upon the fall 
of Granada, a compact 
was made with the 
Moors according to | 
which these people were 
allowed to retain their | 
own laws, customs and | 
language, and they were 
permitted to keep their 
religion. But soon 
after this, measures 
were taken by Spain to 
bring about the con- 
version of the Moham- 
medans. In 1500 the 
Moors revolted, After 
the revolt had been 
suppressed with charac- 
teristic Spanish cruelty, 


the Moors were forced }} 


to choose between con- |j 
version or banishment, 
Though most of the 
Moors chose the first 
alternative, it did not 
save them from con- 
tinued acts of oppres- 
sion. Charles V_ be- 
came incensed at them 
when he discovered that 
many of them while 
professing Christianity 
in public secretly clung 
to the faith of their | 
fathers. Philip II is- 
sued an edict forbid- 
ding the Moors to 
speak or write in Ara- 
bic. As a consequence 
many uprisings of] 
Moors took place. Fi- 
nally in 1609 Philip gave 
these unfortunate peo- 
ple but three days in 
which to leave Spain. 

The loss of these 
progressive people who 
had established systems 
of irrigation in Spain, 
who had developed 
manufactures and com- 
merce, who had intro- 
duced the cultivation of 
silk, rice and_ sugar, 
who, ‘in brief, consti- 
tuted the backbone of 
the industrial life of 
Spain, was a fatal blow 
to the country. Spain | 
now rapidly sank to the } 
position of a second- 
rate power. 


ENGLAND 


1660-1685—-Charles II 


PARLIAMENT AND RE iIcIon. Farliament hated the is - 


{Isenters and was afraid of the Catholics, When the King 
jsuspended the penal laws against the Catholics and the Dis- 
senters, Parliament objected, and the King gave way. The 


1] Prayer Book of the Church of England was the only form | 


\fof public prayer allowed in the land. 

PARLIAMENT AND TAXATION. Parliament opened a new era 
in the financial history of England and representative gov- 
ernment by gaining control of taxation. Charles made him- 
self partly independent of Parliament by. accepting large 
bribes from Louis XIV of France for his neutrality in the 
Continental wars. But when Parliament did vote him money, 
it controlled the expenditure of the money. 

1679. Tue Haseas Corpus: Act. The King reluctantly 
gave his consent to the Habeas Corpus Act, which provided 
for a speedy and public trial of a person charged with a 

‘| crime. 


1685-1688—James II 

James II tried to reestablish Catholicism. In 1688, when a 
child was born to his Catholic wife, a group of prominent 
men invited William of Orange to come to England and take 
possession of the government. William landed in England 
with a small army and James fled to the Continent. The 
crown was offered by Parliament to William and Mary 
funder certain conditions. They accepted the conditions and 
thus after 200 years of absolute rule the peaceful Revolution 
lof 1688 made Parliament supreme in the government of 
England. 


1689-1702—William and Mary 
| The Declaration of Rights passed by Parliament in 168 
again stated the fundamental rights of the English nation. 
PARLIAMENT AND Retricion. The Toleration Act allowed 
the Dissenters to worship in their own churches. After a 
time the Catholics were allowed to worship in their own way. 
But neither Dissenters nor Catholics could hold office. 
WitittAm’s Wars. William had to fight for his crown. 
Many battles were fought before the Irish and Scotch High- 
landers accepted him as king. Each year, also, William went 
to Netherlands to fight the armies of Louis XIV of France. 
| Tue KING AND PARLIAMENT. Parliament was supreme and 
passed acts restricting the power of the sovereign. William 
did a great thing for England by abiding by the regulations 
of Parliament, and ruling strictly according to law. War 
clouds again gathered during the last few years of his life. 
| He died in 1702, eight years after the death of his wife Mary. 


1702-1714—-Queen Anne 

Act oF SETTLEMENT. In 1701 Parliament had passed the 
Act of Settlement which provided that the crown, upon 
William’s death, should go to Anne, the sister of his wife, 
and daughter of James II. 


favored an Austrian prince for the throne of Spain, but when the prince became Emperor 
Charles VI they were satisfied to have Philip V-keep the Spanish throne on condition that he 


! would renounce his claim upon the French throne. 


Peace oF Utrecut. According to the treaty Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Sardinia and_| 
Milan were given to Austria; Gibraltar and the Island of Minorca and a large part of the 
French possessions in the New World were given to England. From this time on Eng-]} 
land and France were destined to be on opposite sides in the long Continental wars. 

Postrion or France. For half a century the history of France had been the history of 
{western Europe. The long wars and the despotic rule of the kings had weakened France 
and left her people a heritage of misery and discontent, which in the latter part of the} 
century were again to make her the center of European history. 


wf 


‘Louis XIV—Continued 


States-General, and made France 


{ sessed great power. 


FRANCE 


War AcGatnst NETHERLANDS. 
In 1661 Louis XIV took the gov- 
ernment into his own hands. His 
favorite saying was, “I am the 
state.” He never convened the 


a stronger absolute monarchy |} 
than ever. He advanced his}i | 
power in Europe by carrying on 
many successful wars, the most 
important of which was the one 
against Netherlands and the 
United Provinces. In 1679 a 
peace was made, according to 
which Louis kept Spanish Neth- 
erlands. During this war Charies, 
King of England, had been in 
the pay of Louis. 

REVOCATION OF THE EniIcT OF 
Nantes, 1685. In 1685 Louis 
revoked the Edict of Nantes. 
Persecutions of the Protestants }} 
followed, which caused many of 
the most skillful and industrious }j 
of the French people to leave 
France for England and other 
countries. 


War of the Spanish Succession 


In 1700 the King of Spain] 
died, after bequeathing all his] 
dominions to Philip V, grand- 
son of Louis XIV. 

In 1701 William, King of Eng- 
land, made a treaty known asf]! 
the ‘Grand Alliance,” according 
to which England, Holland, 
Austria and Prussia agreed to 
act together in preventing the 
union of the French and Spanish 
dominions. William had placed 
Marlborough at the head of the 
English and Dutch forces, and 
after William’s death Marl- 
borough, whose wife and the 
Queen were good friends, pos- 


Marlborough and Prince 
Eugene, the two generals of the] 
allies, won the famous battles 
of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oude- 
narde and Malplaquet. The allies 


GERMANY 


Rise of Prussia 

During the 15th cen- 
tury, Emperor Sigis- 
mund granted to Fred- 
erick, Count of Hohen- 
zollern, the March of 
Brandenburg. In the 


lihands of the Hohen- 
Hizollerns Brandenburg 


was to grow into one 
of the, greatest king- 
doms of Europe. 

In 1611 Prussia, a 
small German state on 
the Baltic Sea, a fief of 
the King of Poland, 
was united with Brand- 
enburg. Frederick Wil- 
liam, the.Great Elector, 
secured the independ- 
ence of Prussia and or- 
ganized a strongly cen- 
tralized government. 
He became the cham- 
pion of Protestantism 


land acquired additional 
lterritory by the Peace 


oft Westphalia in 1648. 
In 1701 his son Fred- 
erick was crowned 


{King of Prussia. 


fs } 
(inal 


D NY aM 
aN 


{PPS 


) BE 
} 


POLAND 


Poland 

In 1386 Poland and 
Lithuania were united. 
In 1466 Poland an- 
nexed a part of Prus- 
sia. Poland then com- 
prised the large part 
of central Europe, ex- 
tending from the Bal- 
tic almost to the Black 
Sea. It was one of 
the greatest states of 
Europe. During the 
Thirty Years’ War 
Poland placed a fleet 
at the disposal of the 
Emperor. 


RUSSIA 


Rise of Russia 

About the middle of the ninth century 
Rurik, a Norseman, conquered the Slavs and 
Finns near the Baltic and thus laid the found- 
ation of Russia. In the middle of the 13th 
century, Russia became subject to Genghis 
Khan, the great Tartar, or Mogul, King of | 
Asia. In 1462 Ivan the Great began the reor- 
ganization of the country and freed his king- 
dom from the Tartars. The Russians at this 
time were a semibarbarous people. Ivan the 
Terrible crushed the power of the Tartars and 
extended his dominions to the Caspian Sea. 
In 1547 he assumed the title of Czar. The 
conquest of Siberia was begun by Ivan, and 
gradually the dominions of Russia were ex- 
tended until in 1639 they reached to the Pacific 


Ocean. 


1674-1696—John III 

In 1674 Sobieski, a gallant gen- 
eral, was chosen king as John III. 
In 1683 an army of 250,000 Turks 
laid waste the plains of Hungary 
and appeared before Vienna. The 
Emperor of Germany appealed to 
the Polish ruler for help. Sobie- 
ski, at the head of a Polish and 
German army, totally destroyed the 
Turkish power. During divine 
service held in the Cathedral of 
Vienna after the victory, a priest 
suddenly exclaimed, “There was a 
man sent from God, and his name 


1682-1725—Peter the Great 
Peter wrested from Poland a 
part of her territory and con- 
quered Azov from the Turks. 
Twice he visited Holland, Ger- }} 
many and England, to study 
navigation and to learn other 
things that might be useful to 
his people. He introduced re- 
forms of various kinds. He is- 
sued a new coinage, encouraged 
learning, built roads and canals, 
and invited artisans, merchants 
and artists to live in Russia. He 


was John.” 


: Oa aceite aires 5 Bye ABOUT 


Ze aes an 
ADDED TO -2-A 
‘RUSSIA BY PETER CASE 


C> 


Ke 
Ce | 


AS H} 
i SEAS 
_J BLACK SEAS 


builtanavy. He built St. Peters- 
burg and made it the capital of 
Russia, 

Russia AND SWEDEN. In 1700} 
Russia joined the kings of Den- 
mark and Poland and the Elec- 
tor of Saxony in appropriating 
iparts of Sweden, but Charles 
XII of Sweden defeated the 
Russians at Narva. In 1709, 
however, his army was annihi- |} 
lated by Peter at Poltava. In 
1721 the Swedish war ended with 
parts of the Baltic lands in the 
possession of Peter. 

His Work. Peter was a des- 
potic and at times a cruel ruler, 
ibut he raised his country to a 
position of great importance in 
Europe. Russia no longer faced 
Asia, but western Europe. 


ENGLAND 


eee 


1714-1727—George I 

In 1721 George I appointed Robert Walpole 
chancellor. The King could not speak Eng- 
lish and so delegated much power to the cabi- 
net, and especially to Walpole, who received 
the title of prime minister. There was much 
political corruption in England during the 
reigns of George I and George II, but during 
it all England was growing in wealth and 
power. 


The Silesian War 


England helped Austria against Prussia and 
France in the Silesian War, or the War of 
the Austrian Succession. 


FRANGE 


1715-1774—Louis XV 

Louis XV was five years old when his grand- 
father Louis XIV died. The Duke of Or- 
leans made himself regent. He tried to intro- 
duce some reforms of government but failed. 
The government issued a great amount of 
paper money and floated it by means of the 
Mississippi Company, but this ended disas- 
trously to the nation. In 1723 the majority 
of Louis XV was proclaimed. 


In the Silesian War France supported Prus- 
sia against Austria and England. The peace 
of 1748, however, discredited France. During 
the reigns of Louis XIV and Louis XV the 


great French debt kept increasing steadily. 
The morals of the nobles at court were scan- 
dalous. Madame de Pompadour, the King’s 
mistress, for 20 years made and unmade minis- 
ters at will. The nation lay dormant, but soon 
France was to awake. 


1756-1763—The Seven Years’ War 


In 1754 Maria Theresa, to win back Silesia, entered into an alliance with France, Russia, 
Sweden and Saxony. It soon became apparent that these powers had decided on the dismem- 
berment of Prussia. 
the Seven Years’ War. 

A Wor.tp-Wip—E War. The Seven Years’ War became a_ world-wide struggle. 
carried on at the same time in Europe, America and India. Four large armies coming from 
four different directions invaded Prussia, but the military genius of Frederick was a match 
for them all and saved Prussia from destruction. _ In 1757 he defeated and captured a French 
army at Rossbach. He defeated another army at Leuthen, and, though defeated at times, 
held his enemies at bay until peace was made. 

In America the war was known as the French and Indian War. The English aided by 
the colonists attacked the French all along the line. 
Quebec, which brought the war to a close. In India Clive defeated a native army at Plassey. 
The naval victories of England established her supremacy on the sea. 

PEACE WAS SIGNED IN 1763. The treaty of peace made no change in territory in Europe. 
In America, France ceded Canada and all her territory east of the Mississippi to England, and 
the territory west of the Mississippi to Spain, and Spain ceded Florida to England. 


1776-1783—The American Revolution 


The French and Indian War gave rise to the problem of how the 
expense of the war should be divided between England and the 
colonies. England determined to tax the colonies, but the colonies 
objected to being taxed by a Parliament in which they were not 
represented. This led to a war between the Mother Country and 
the colonies. 

In 1776 the colonies declared their independence and chose George 
Washington commander-in-chief. Washington was a great leader in 
a great cause. Early in the war the Americans lost New York, and 
for a time Boston and Philadelphia, but in 1777 they captured the 
British army under Burgoyne at Saratoga. In 1778 France came to 
the assistance of the colonies, and soon after Spain and Holland 
also joined in the war against England. Besides carrying on the 
war against the colonies England was compelled to defend India, 
Gibraltar and her other possessions in different parts of the world. 

In 1781 the Americans, aided by the: French, forced Cornwallis to 
surrender at Yorktown. This ended the war. 

In 1783 a treaty of peace was made. According to this treaty 
England recognized the independence of the colonies, ceded Florida 
to Spain, and a few islands in the West Indies to France. Thus the 
colonies won their independence and France and Spain had their 


revenge, for they had helped the colonies to break away from 
England. 


In 1755 Frederick made an alliance with England and in 1756 he began} 


It was! 


In 1759 Wolfe defeated Montcalm at 


GERMANY 


1730-1740—Frederick William I 


Frederick William was a good ruler. Under him the Government 
of Prussia reached a high point of efficiency. He built up a large 
and well-trained army, and by rigid economy left a large sum of 
money to his son Frederick, who succeeded him in 1740, 


1740-1786—Frederick the Great 


Frederick, ignoring the ,.Pragmatic Sanction, entered Silesia with 
an army and seized that province. In the war that followed France 
joined Prussia. Maria Theresa fled to Hungary, where the nobles 
rallied to her support. England joined Austria against Prussia and 
France. Peace was made in 1748, but Austria did not regain Silesia. 

In America an expedition of New Englanders captured the French 
fortress of Louisburg. In India the French captured Madras. At 
the close of the war England returned Louisburg to France in 
exchange for Madras. 


Effect of the Seven Years’ War on Germany 


At the end of the Seven Years’ War Prussia was considered one 
of the leading European powers, and the conflict between Austria 
and Prussia was foreshadowed. The German people no longer con- 
sidered France the leader in thought and manners. National life 
and patriotism sprang up in north Germany. Intellectual independ- 
ence found expression in the philosophy of Kant and in the poetry 
of Goethe, Lessing and Schiller. : 

FREDERICK THE GREAT. Frederick the Great was not only one of 
the greatest military leaders the world has produced but he was 
great also in his work of peace. While a most pronounced despot 
he considered himself simply “the first servant of the state.” He 
was compelled to keep up a large army, but he kept the taxes down 
by a system of rigid economy and strict supervision of public officials. 
He built canals, encouraged manufactures and commerce, laid the 
foundations of the present school system of Germany and encouraged 
art and literature. 


TREATY OF 1763 
@ ENGUSH GAINS FS 
SPANISH GAINS [7 


RUSSIA 


1762-1796—Catherine 


the Great 

Catherine deposed her 
husband, Peter III of 
Russia, and became 
Catherine IJ. She was 
a great ruler but a most 
profligate woman. 

1772 — ParTITION OF 
PoLAND. Catherine en- 
tered into an agree- 
ment with Frederick 
the Great and Maria 
Theresa to dismember 
Poland. Three succes- 
sive divisions were 
made, one in 1772, an- 
other in 1793 and the 
last in 1795. The terri- 
tory gained by disre- 
garding the law of na- 
tions brought Russia 
into the heart of the 
European Continent. 

1774 — CoNQUEST OF 
THE CRIMEA. In 1767 
Turkey declared war 
against Russia. The vic- 
torious Russian armies 
soon reached the Dan- 
ube, and a Russian fleet, 
after sailing around 
Europe and through 
the Straits of Gibral- 
tar, suddenly appeared 
in the Black Sea and 
destroyed the Turkish 
fleet. Peace was made 
in 1774 and Russia 
gained control of the 
Crimea. 


ENGLAND 


Inventions 


In 1776 Arkwright in- 
vented an improved 
spinning machine. Soon 
after this a power loom 
was invented. James 
Watt in 1781 built 
steam engines for man- 
ufacturing purposes. 
These inventions revo- 
lutionized manufactures 
and led to the intro- 
duction of the factory 
system. 


War Between Eng- 
land and France 
For a time after the 
French Revolution had 
begun, the English 
sympathized with the 
French people in their 
efforts to reform their 
government. But when 
the Reign of Terror 
set in and the King 
land Queen of France 
were executed, the 
English people were 
horrified. In 1793 the 
French minister was 
ordered to leave Eng- 
land. France then de- 
clared war against 
England. The struggle 
lasted until 1815. - 
The war with France 
had the effect of not 
only checking reform 
movements in England 
but causing a loss in 
political and social 
conditions. Ireland, af- 
ter enjoying a brief 
period of Home Rule, 
was joined to England 
in 1789, being allowed 
100 members in Parlia- 
ment. The colonial ac- 
quisitions and the in- 
creased trade which 
icame to England dur- 
ing this period were 
offset by burdensome 
taxes and dissatisfac- 
tion of the people. 


War of 1812 

In 1812 war broke 
out between England 
and the United States, 
because of the restric- 
tions England placed 
oncommerce. The 
treaty of peace did not 
settle any of the dis- 
puted questions. 


FRANCE 


The French Revolution 
Wuat Ir Was. The French Revolution was an effort of the 
French people to secure political and social freedom. The Revolu- 
tion. was constructive in character, securing many lasting reforms 
in France and paving the way for many political changes in other 
European countries. an 

Asuses UNDER THE RULE oF Kincs. For centuries France was goy- 
erned by kings who exercised absolute power. The nobles and the 
clergy enjoyed unjust privileges. They paid no land tax and they 
were exempt from military service. The salt tax and the many 
other indirect taxes’ were levied in such a way that they bore most | 
heavily on the poor. Nearly all of the taxes were paid by the poor 
peasant class, who could ill afford it, while the wealthy privileged 
classes paid only a small fraction of them. 

THE WorkK oF MEN or Letters. Abuses of government alone, how- 
ever, could not account for the Revolution. There must be active 
discontent. This was furnished by the men of ideas. Many able 
writers during the middle of the 18th century, influenced by the re- 
forms in England, espoused the cause of the people. Voltaire stood 
for religious freedom and Rousseau stood for political freedom. 

ATTITUDE OF KiNG AND Court. The long wars of Louis XIV and 
Louis XV, and the lavish court expenditures had brought France 
close to bankruptcy. Louis XVI felt the need of reforms but he 
was weak and unequal to the task of inaugurating them. His con- 
troller-general, the able Turgot, curtailéd the expenditures of the gov- 
ernment and court, and abolished many privileges of the nobles and 
the clergy, but the Queen and the court secured his dismissal. Necker, 
his successor, also tried to introduce necessary reforms but the nobles 
and the clergy forced his retirement. Then came Calonne, who tried 
to improve matters by dazzling expenditures of money for court and 
other purposes, but before long he was compelled to inform the 
King that France was bankrupt, and that only radical reforms could 
save the government from destruction. 

Tue Notastes ArE SUMMONED. In 1787 the King summoned the 
leading nobles and clergy for a conference, but they were selfish 
and opposed the reforms suggested by Calonne. 

THE STATES-GENERAL CALLED, In 1788 the King authorized the elec- 
tion of members of the States-General, which had not met for 175 
years. There were 557 members of the Third Estate and about that 
number of nobles and clergy. The deputies to this body met in 1789. 

THE STATES-GENERAL CHANGED TO NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Soon af- 
ter the assembling of the States-General the members of the Third 
Estate, the representatives of the people, organized themselves into 
the National Assembly, representing the nation as a whole. Most 
of the nobles and clergy reluctantly joined them. 

THE WorK OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. August 4, 1789, the As- 
sembly swept away the numerous special privileges enjoyed by the 
nobles, clergy, and middle class in the cities, thus putting an end to 
feudalism in France. In 1791 the Assembly completed the written 
constitution which provided for a limited monarchy. Thus great 
power was given to the people who were not prepared to exercise 
such power. 

Tue LecisiativeE Assempty. In October, 1791, the regular Legis- 
lative Assembly provided for by the constitution began its session. 
The kings of Europe, fearing their people might imitate the French 
in demanding reforms, determined to restore the old regime. In 1792 
100,000 Austrians and Prussians invaded France, but they were de- 
feated. The Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National Con- 
vention. 

THE NATIONAL CoNVENTION, 1792-1795. In 1792 monarchy was 
abolished and France became a republic. In 1793 the King was be- 
headed. Patriotism and enthusiasm again defeated the allies, and 
civil and political liberty was kindled over Europe. The Belgium 
Republic was formed. But in France itself came the Reign of Ter- 
ror, with Robespierre at the head. The radical party was in con- 
trol during this time of disorder and bloodshed, and many changes 


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Pe ee aT eR RT See ae eel 


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9 5 


FRANCE 


were made in the government, in education and religion. The good 
and bad seemed to be swept away together but out of it all a new 
French nation was born. Finally Robespierre was beheaded and the 
early history of the Revolution came to an end. 

‘Tue Directory, 1795-1799. A new constitution went into effect un- 
der which the Directory assumed control of affairs. In 1795 the army 
under Napoleon crushed the Royalists and saved the Convention. 


iIn 1796 the Directory made Napoleon commander of the army in 


Italy. Napoleon now became the central figure in Europe. After 
defeating the Austrians in Italy he advanced on Vienna, and in 1797 
Austria ceded to France Austrian Netherlands. In 1798 Napoleon 
planned the expedition against Egypt to cripple the commerce of 
England. But Nelson annihilated the French fleet at Alexandria, and 
Napoleon returned secretly to France, leaving his army in Egypt. A 
second coalition was organized against France. In 1799 Napoleon 
made himself first consul and later emperor. Thus the Revolution 
produced its military despot. 

THE CONSULATE AND THE First Emprre, 1799-1815. For 15 years 
Napoleon kept Europe in a turmoil of confusion. He set up kings 
at pleasure. He was at war with most of the powers of Europe. He 
defeated the Austrians at Marengo and Hohenlinden. England alone 
held out against him. In 1802 treaties were made with all the coun- 
tries with which France had been at war. Napoleon now restored 
order in France. He again established the Christian religion and thus 
won the support of the Pope. A commissioner codified the laws of 
France, and the Code Napoleon later became the basis of civil law in 
many countries of Europe. 

IMPERIALISM AND FALL oF. NApoLeon. In 1804 Napoleon became 
emperor. The many republics that had sprung up were changed to 
kingdoms, only Switzerland remaining free. Europe dreaded Na- 
poleon, and coalition after coalition was formed against him. From 
1804 to 1815 the struggle went on. The battles of Austerlitz and 
Jena made Napoleon supreme and left Prussia prostrate. The Em- 
peror of Austria was forced to surrender the crown of the Holy 
Roman Empire. Some of the German states then formed the Con- 
federation of the Rhine under Napoleon’s protection. By 1811 Na- 
poleon had created a world empire. Only Russia remained to op- 
pose him. In 1812 he invaded that country to capture Moscow and 
dictate an European peace, but the Russians, aided by the climate, 
defeated him. Russia, Prussia, England and Sweden now put an 
army in the field and in 1813 the world Battle of Leipsic made Ger- 
many free. Wellington defeated the French in Spain, and in 1814 
the allies entered France. Napoleon abdicated and was banished to 
the Island of Elba. The throne of France was given to the late 
King’s brother, who ruled as Louis XVIII. The boundaries of 
France were restricted to those of 1791. In 1815 Napoleon returned 
to France, but was defeated by the English and Prussians at Wa- 
terloo. He was sent as a prisoner to St. Helena, where he died in 1821. 


RUSSIA 


1801-1825—Alexander | 


During the Napole- 
onic wars Alexander 
entered into several co- 
alitions with other 
European powers 
against France, and in| 
1812 Napoleon invaded 
Russia with a superb 
army of 400,000 men. 
He defeated the Rus- 
sians in several battles 
and then entered Mos- 
cow, which the Rus- 
sians had abandoned. 
Soon after his entry a] 
fire broke out which 
destroyed the city. In 
the latter part of Oc- |} 
tober Napoleon began 
his retreat. The wea- 
ther was severe, and 
cold and hunger and 
the attacks of the Cos- 
sacks thinned the ranks ]] 
of the French army. 
Only 80,000 of the en- 
tire army returned. In 
1813 the Russians aid- | 
ed the coalition in the 
Battle of Leipsic, and 
in 1814 they entered 
France with the allies. 

TERRITORIAL GAINS, 
During the reign of 
Alexander I Russia} 
added Finland, Poland, | 
Bessarabia and a part 
of the Caucasus to her 
dominions. 


The Congress of Vienna obi 


In 1814 a congress of the powers of Europe met at Vienna to reconstruct the map of Europe. | 
Their labors were for a time interrupted by Napoleon’s return to France from Elba. The 
following were the most important political and territorial readjustments made by the Congress: 


Switzerland was guaranteed its independence. 
Denmark was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden. 


CON DUB ON Es 


of Saxony and other German districts. 


Holland with the addition of Belgium became the Kingdom of Netherlands, 


The independent German states were united in a loose federal union. 
Poland was reconstructed and united in a personal union with Russia. 
Austria lost territory in central Europe, but received Venice in exchange for Belgium. }| 
The Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, and Genoa was added to it. 

Prussia lost the Duchy of Warsaw, Slav territory difficult to organize, but gained half 


Interest was to center in the last three arrangements, for by them Austria’s despotic power 
was weakened, Sardinia was to become a nucleus for the union of Italy, and Prussia, now 
extending down into the heart of Germany, was to make possible the organization of the}| 


‘1German Empire. 


ENGLAND 


Growth of Democracy 


CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION 
Act. This enabled Catholics 
to hold any office to which 
they were elected. 


Only one out of every ten 
adult males in England, Scot- 
land and Ireland could vote. 
Many cities had no representa- 
tion in Parliament. 

THE Rerorm Bit oF 1832. 
This abolished 56 “rotten bor- 
oughs”’ and created 43 new 
boroughs to include the large 
manufacturing cities, and ex- 
tended suffrage rights to all 
|who owned or rented a house 
worth $50 in rent a year. 

OTHER Acts. An act of 1833 
ifreed all slaves in British do- 
minions. A factory act reg- 
mated the labor of children in 
tactories. The Municipal Re- 
form Act put the control of 
the government in each city 
land borough in the hands of 
the people. 

THe Corn Laws. In 1848 
the tariff on wheat was re- 
moved; by 1852 all protective 
tariffs had been removed, and 
‘England has since that time 
been a free-trade country. 

THE CrimMEAN War. Russia 
declared war against Turkey in 
} 1853, In 1854 England, fear- 
ing that Russia’s success might 
endanger her route to India, 
joined France in a war against 
Russia, It virtually became a 
war to preserve the integrity 


FRANCE 


1814-1830—Louis XVIII and 
Charles X 


The King issued a charter 
which gave France a fair de- 
gree of self-government. Louis’ 
brother became king in 1824 
as Charles X. He joined the 
Holy Alliance and introduced 
many reactionary measures. 

REVOLUTION oF 1830. In 1830 
Paris broke out in open re- 
volt against the government. 
A provisional government was 
formed with the aged Lafay- 
ette at the head, and Louis 
Philippe became king. 


1830-1848—Louis Philippe 

Louis Philippe agreed to 
abide by the new constitution 
and thus the Divine Right of 
Kings came to an end. The 
right of franchise was given 
to every one who paid $40 in 
taxes. 

REVOLUTION oF 1848. Louis 
Philippe opposed the reforms 
of the liberal party. An up- 
rising in Paris in 1848 re- 
sulted in the abdication of the 
King, The provisional gov- 
ernment declared France to be 
a republic and it established 
manhood suffrage. Under the 
new constitution Louis Napo- 
leon was chosen president. 


1852-1870—Louis Napoleon 

By a coup d Etat Louis in 
1851 proposed a new govern- 
ment and was elected president 
for ten years. Then by an al- 
most unanimous vote he was 
chosen “Emperor of the French 
by the Grace of God and the 
Will of the People.” 

He joined England and Tur- 
key in a war against Russia in 


of Turkey. At Balaklava the] 1954 


English “Light Brigade’ made 
their memorable charge, Rus- 
sia was defeated in the war. 


In 1859 Napoleon began a 
war against Austria to free 
Italy, but an unexpected peace, 
after several French victories, 
left Italy at the mercy of Aus- 
tria. 

The Emperor favored the 
cause of the Southern Confed- 
eracy in the United States, and 
in 1863, despite the Monroe 
Doctrine, made Maximilian 
Emperor of Mexico. 

Louis Napoleon, though he 
suppressed liberty, encouraged 
popular education. During his 


reign the industries of France 
flourished and wealth accumu- 
lated. 


ITALY 


The Kingdom of Italy 


The Congress of Vi- 
enna left Italy “merely a 
geographical expression.” 
After the flight of Met- 
ternich Venice and Mi- 
lan set up republics and 
drove the Austrian 
troops out of northern 
Italy. The other Austri- 
an states were granted 
constitutions. The _ re- 
publics in northern Italy 
appealed to Charles Al- 
bert, King of Sardinia, 
for aid. Charles Albert 
responded, but in his ef- 
forts to free Italy he 
found himself unsup- 
ported by any states ex- 
cept Milan and Venice. 
He was defeated and ab- 
dicated in favor of his 


son. 
re So EE ay 


VicToR EMMANUEL AND CA- 
vour. Victor Emmanuel, the 
soldier, and Cavour, the states- 
man, were to find means for 
unifying Italy. Cavour insti- 
tuted many reforms in the 
kingdom. In 1854 he sent a 
small but well-organized army 
to help the allies in the Crim- 
ean War. 

AUSTRO-SARDINIAN War. As 
a result of this war Lombardy 
was added to Sardinia. 

THE Two SiciLies Join SArR- 
DINIA, In 1860 Garibaldi freed 
the two Sicilies, and the people 
voted to join Sardinia. 

EMMANUEL BECOMES KING 
or Itaty, 1861. In 1861 the 
first Italian Parliament met at 
Turin and the Kingdom of 
Italy was a reality. Cavour’s 
Aiea ss proved success- 

ul. 


VENETIA ADDED TO THE KING- 
pom, 1866. Italy joined Prus- 
sia in the war against Austria 
and added Venetia to the Ital- 
ian Kingdom. 


GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 


The German Confederation 

The Congress of Vienna recognized 38 independent German states. 
To repel invasion these were organized into a very loose confed- 
eracy. Austria and Prussia were the leading states, but Austria 
exercised a sort of presidency over the league. 

Poticy oF METTERNICH. Metternich, the Austrian statesman and 
reactionist, was afraid that in a real German Empire Prussia might 
take the lead. With the states practically independent Austria could 
hope to ‘dominate affairs. By the aid of the Holy Alliance Metter- 
nich stifled liberalism in Germany. The Revolution of 1830 sent a 
chill throughout Europe. But demonstrations against the govern- 
ments in the German Confederacy were promptly put down. France 
however, was lost to the Holy Alliance. In 1833, Austria, Russia 
and Prussia, under the direction of Metternich, again united to sup- 
press revolutionary uprisings. 


THE REVOLUTION oF 1848. As a result of the risings in March, 1848, 
following the Revolution in France, the German states granted their 
sebjects new constitutions, and old feudal privileges disappeared. 


Metternich fled. Hungary and Austria were granted constitutional | 


liberties. A national assembly met at Frankfort to draft a consti- 
tution for United Germany. But reactionary forces were soon at 
work, The Czar helped Francis Joseph put down the Hungarians, 
who had proclaimed their independence under Kossuth. Charles 
Albert, King of Sardinia, tried to free Italy, but he was crushed by 
the Austrian armies. Frederick William IV lost faith in the liberal 
cause, so nothing came of the Frankfort Assembly. A Prussian 
league was formed and war with Austria seemed imminent. In 1850 
King William submitted to Austria and the German Confederation 
upon the basis of 1815. The King of Prussia, however, granted his 
people a constitution and feudalism disappeared forever from Ger- 
many. 


1861—William I of Prussia 

William I was a conservative but he favored German unity. Bis- 
marck, his minister, governed in an arbitrary way and built up a 
modern army. “Blood and iron,” he declared, would succeed in ex- 
pelling Austria from the league. . 

Tue DanisH War, 1864. Bismarck induced Austria to join Prus- 
sia in a war against Denmark. After a gallant fight the Danes were 
defeated and Denmark was compelled to cede Schleswig-Holstein to 
Prussia and Austria. 

Tue SEVEN Weeks’ War Wirt Austria, 1866. In June, 1866, 
war was declared between Austria and Prussia. All the states in 
the German Confederation except a few small ones in the north 
sided with Austria. On July 4, 1866, the Austrian army was de- 
feated at Sadowa. Prussia annexed several of the northern states, 
including Schleswig-Holstein, and then organized the North German 
Confederation. 


RUSSIA 


UR EGS pimp | 


THE Hoty ALLIANCE. 
In 1815 Alexander or- 
ganized the Holy Alli- 
ance, a league entered 
into by Russia, Austria 
and Prussia, to main- 
tain religion, justice 
and order in Europe, 
but the Alliance was 
soon used in crushing 
uprisings for political 
freedom. 


1825-1855—Nicholas I 

REVOLUTION IN Po- 
LAND, 1830. In 1830 an 
uprising in Poland was 
crushed by Russia, and 
Poland was made a 
part of Russia, 

THE SLAVOPHILS. 
About 1840 the Slavo- 
phil movement began. 
It has continued to the 
present time. This has 
for its purpose the Rus- 
sianizing of all prov- 
inces and dependencies | 
and the stamping out 
of all liberal tendencies 
in government and re- | 
ligion. 


THE CRIMEAN WaAR. 
In 1854 France and] 
England declared war 
against Russia to pre- 
vent the dismember- 
ment of Turkey. Rus- 
sia was defeated. 


eo eo eee 


EMANCIPATION OFTHE |} 
Serrs. In 1861 Alex- 
ander II issued the 
edict of emancipation. 
The landlords were 
paid an indemnity to 
release the serfs from 
bondage. 


ENGLAND 


Growth of Democracy—Con- 
tinued 

Rerorm Bitits oF 1876 AND 
1884. The passage of these 
measures assured the right of 
suffrage to all self-supporting 
men, and England became a 
true democracy. 

Tue Home Rute Bits. In 
1886 Gladstone introduced a 
measure granting Home Rule 
to Ireland, but it was defeated. 
In 1893 he again introduced 
such a bill. It passed the 
House of Commons but it was 
defeated in the House of 
Lords. 

Tue Lasortnc CLAssEs, La- 
bor legislation has made rapid 
progress since 1890, By means 
of the various Allotment Acts 
the land is gradually being re- 
stored to the peasantry. 

Tue Borer War. In 1899 in 
a war with the Transvaal and 
Orange Free State, the Boers, 
after a gallant resistance, were 
overthrown, and the two re- 
publics became a part of the 
English possessions in Africa. 

CoLonies. England has over 
1100 colonies and dependencies. 
|Australia, New Zealand, In- 
dia, South Africa, Newfound- 
‘land and Canada are the most 
important. Of these, India is 
a royal colony; the others ex- 
ercise the power of self-gov- 
ernment, except in their rela- 
tions with foreign nations. In 
1867 the Canadian provinces 
formed a confederation, and in 
1901 the five Australian col- 
onies and the Island of Tas- 
mania formed the Common- 
wealth of Australia. The con- 
stitution of the Australian 
Confederation is more demo- 
cratic than that of the United 
States. In May, 1910, the col- 
onies of the Cape of Good 
Hope, Natal, the Transvaal and 
the Orange River formed the 
Union of South Africa. 


Woritp War. As a result of 
the World War Great Britain 
formally annexed Egypt and 
the Anglo-Egypti 1 Sudan. Un- 
der the guise of Mandate rule, 
her territory has been vastly 
increased since most of the 
German colonies pass under 
her control as well as the Turk- 
ish provinces in Mesopotamia, 


FRANCE 


Louis Napoleon—Continued 

FRANCO-GERMAN War. To 
strengthen his government at 
home Napoleon began the war 
against Prussia which resulted 
in the loss of Alsace and Lor- 
raine, 


The Third Republic 

In 1871 the Paris mob set up 
a second Reign of Terror. 
Order was finally restored and 


the Third Republic was estab-- 


lished. In 18 months France 
paid $1,000,000,000 war indem- 
nity and the Prussian army 
left France. 

FRENCH COLONIES, ALGIERS 
AND TuNIs. Though both pos- 
sessions have a good climate 
and soil, and are in close prox- 
imity to France, very few 
French settle in these coun- 
tries. France is not a coloni- 
zing nation. Thisis largely due 
to the fact that the birth rate 
has. been steadily declining for 
many years. 

ALLIANCES. In 1882 Italy 
joined Germany and Austria in 
the Triple Alliance and thus 
completely isolated France in 
Europe. In 1891 France made 
an alliance with Russia. In 
1904 France entered into a 
friendly agreement. with Eng- 
land which is destined to keep 
the countries on friendly terms. 

STATE AND CuurcH. Nearly 
80 per cent of the people are 
Catholic. The differences be- 
tween the State and Church 
caused serious disturbances. 
In 1905 the Separation Act 
provided for complete separa- 
tion of Church and State. It 
guaranteed liberty of con- 
science and freedom of public 
worship. 

Wortp War. France suffered 
terribly in the World War of 
1914, a large part of northeast- 
ern France was devastated. Her 
Cities ani towns were burned; 
her mines and _ industries 
wrecked, her fruitful fields 
made a desert. She regained, 
however, her for er provinces 
of Alsace-Lorraine rich in iron 
deposits which will soon make 
her a gieat manufacturing na- 
tion. 


we ne 
The Kingdom of Italy—Con. 
tinued 

Rome JoInep To THE KiNG- 
pom. In 1870 the French troops 
were withdrawn from Rome, 
which became the capital of 
United Italy. 

ITALY AND THE CHURCH, In 
1871 Parliament passed a bill 
which provided for the separa- 
tion of the Church and the 
State, guaranteed the spiritual | 
independence of the _ pontiff 
and allowed him $600,000 a 
year, which, however, has 
never been claimed. 

DEATH oF Victor EMMANUEL 
AND Pius IX.. In 1878 Victor 
Emmanuel, the heroic figure in} 
the struggle for nationalism, 
died. In the same year Pius 
IX also passed away. ~The 
Pope’s kindliness of heart and 
his love for the people made 
him popular with the masses 
an his death was mourned by 
all. 

FRANCHISE Rerorm. In 1881 
suffrage was extended to all 
men able to read and write. 

Tue Tripre ALLIANCE. In 
1882 Italy entered into an al- 
liance with Germany and Aus-] 
tria. 

Tue Finances, The financial 
condition’ of Italy after 1860 
was deplorable. Though the 
ministers exercised “economy 
to the bone” they were finally 
compelled to resort to the ob- 
noxious “grist tax,” a tax on 
grinding wheat. 
revenues of the government 
for the first time equaled the) 
expenditures and there was no 
deficit. By 1884, due to the 
removal of the grist’ tax com- 
bined with increased govern- 
mental expenditures for rail-] 
road construction and public 
works, the annual deficit again 
set in. By 1900 the public 
debt had reached the enormous 
sum of $2,500,000,000. 

Wortp War. As a result of 
the World War “Italia Irre- 


Sgt Pee, 


In 1876 the}] 


RPE REE RG SS 


ite 


ws 


= 


dentia” or the former provinces|} 


of Italy under Austrian rule,— 
Italian Tyrol, the area around 
Triest and portions of the East] 
Adriatic coast became a part 
of Italy. 


11King William of Prussia became Em- 


AUSTRIA- 
HUNGARY 


Enfeebled by the 
Seven Weeks’ War, 
Austria was compelled 


GERMANY 


The German Empire 


Franco-GERMAN War. The rivalry 
between France and Germany culmi-|1, grart complete au- 
nated in the war of 1870. Napoleon|tonomy to Hungary. 
was doubtless influenced by dynastic] Austria-Hungary was 
considerations, but the war was ex-loften called the poly- 
ceedingly “welcome to Prussia, in fact,jglot nation because by 
it might have been averted, had notjthe political develop- 
Bismarck deliberately altered the sense/ment of previous cen- 
of a friendly telegram from King Wil-|turies the original Aus- 
liam to the French Ambassador so as|T!@ a heey had 
to give offense to France, knowing this(Xtence¢ their sway 


over the territory of 
pear to war, a result he ardently neighboring Slavonic 
esired. 


people and held them 

The result was a great defeat forjin an unwilling union. 
France. In addition to paying a huge/The ruling people in 
indemnity, the Rhine provinces of Al-|Austria, the Germans, 
sace and Lorraine were wrested fromjmade every effort to 
her. The enthusiastic heat of this|Germanize such o 
great victory welded i.to one compact these people as formed 


: ri ermanic states and|* Patt of Austria. They 
empire the various G endeavored to make 


wea them Austrian in lan- 
peror William I of Germany. guage, culture and na- 


Prrtop oF THE Empire. No nation ever|tional ideals, and for 


4 


made more rapid progress in the ele-|this purpose enacted 
ments of national greatness than that ex-;|many oppressive laws. 
perienced in Germany during the period|The ruling class in 


Hungary, the Magyars, 
were not behind Aus- 
tria in this respect. 
Thus the Dual Em- 
pire was. structurally 
weak. It was in un- 
stable equilibrium. The 
World War was the 


of the empire, especially during the 
thirty years’ reign of William II (1888- 
1918). It was the Golden Age of Ger- 
man industrial life. The Empire be- 
came a great manufacturing nation. Her 
foreign trade increased four fold. She 
became a great colonial power. She was 
second in rank among the naval powers]. ¢4. against which this 
of the world, and her army was the most|inwieldy shin of state 
powerful military machine ever organ-|dashed and the Dual 
ized. Empire went to pieces. 
Tue Repustic. But the principles of/Hungary resumed its 
government on which the empire rested|independence; while the 
were those of medieval times, not in|Subject Slavic people 
tune with present day ideals, and the severed the political 
government was essentially autocratic in ety that bound ‘yes a 
form. It became a glaring example of ei eg tig rae 
A A ; ae ve hand, and Hungary on 

a nation in which militarism was Shela mera tnctead: of 
ideal of the leaders. The military caste/ihe Dual Empire of 
and the ruling house began to dream oflearlier years we have 
world dominion and the virus of this|now a group of inde- 
poison speedily. infected the fountains|pendent nations of 
of national life. The result was the|which Austria and 
World War, the downfall of the empire,|Hungary are minor 


and the rise of a republic in its stead, representatives. The 
former subject people 


of the Dual Empire, 
with the territory they 
inhabited are divided 
among Poland, Czecho- 
Slovakia, Roumania, 
Jugo-Slavia, and Italy. 


RUSSIA 


Pan StavisM. The activities 
of Russia in Europe during re- 
cent decades were due to the 
strength of the Pan-Slavic 
movement, that is to say, the 
feeling of racial unity among 
all the Slavic people of Central 
and Southeastern Europe with 
which of course Russia sym- 
pathized and which impelled 
her to come to the assistance 
of other Slavic people. This 
feeling was at the bottom of 
the Russo-Turkish war of 
1877-8, which resulted in the 
Slavic nations of Roumania 
and Bulgaria gaining their in- 
dependence from Turkish mis- 
rule, and increase of Russian 
dominion in Asia. Finally it 
was the strength of this move- 
ment that impelled Russia to 
enter the World War of 1914 
as an ally of Serbia. 


THE RusstAN REVOLUTION. 
The one great outstanding fact 
in Russian history during re- 
cent years is the bloody tri- 
umph of the Revolutionary 
movement which like a smould- 
ering fire had at uncertain in- 
tervals blazed forth, then 
thought to be extinguished, but 
in secret burned on until the 
political and social fabric of 
government fe’ in ruins in the 
spring of 1917. It was a 
phase of development assum- 
ing a bloody form in Russia, 
as it had in France, but which 
in one form or another every 
European people known to his- 
tory passed through, since it 
was an inevitable accompani- 
ment of the evolution from 
tribal to political government, 
a change never fully made in 
Russia. Advantage was taken 
of the deplorable conditions in 
Russia resulting from _ the 
World War to bring to a con- 
clusion the revolutionary move- 
ment, The Czar was deposed 
March 17, 1917, and the most 
revolutionary form of govern- 
ment ever known came into 
power, a process attended with 
some disintegration of territory 
in European Russia, resulting 
in the independence of Finland 


and the organization of border 
states from the Gulf of Fin- 
land south. 


\ 


WORLD WAR 


The World Wat of 1914 in which the majority of the nations of Europe were actively en-| 


gaged was one of those great events in history, the full importance of which only the future 
will disclose. It was not only the greatest of all wars, but the political changes it effected, the 


far deeper and more significant social changes it seems destined to effect and which may extend . 


to the warp and woof of organized society, render it the most important of all wars. --It was]} 
an epoch-making war, but few, the equals of which, are known in history. From it we shall}} 


date ‘a new age in the culture history of Europe, of the entire world. 


CHANGES IN EurRoPEAN GOVERNMENTS. When the war began 63 per cent of Europe was in- 
cluded in the governments of three autocratic nations, at the heads of which were three ruling 


houses which for the thousand years preceding had swayed the destinies of Europe, each feeling }} 


that it was Divinely commissioned to rule, each secretly despising whatever constitutional lim- 
its had been placed on its personal rule. These three nations were Russia, Germany and Aus- 
tria-Hungary; the ruling houses of which were (respectively) the Romanoff, the Hohenzollern 


and the Hapsburg. 


When the war ended, these empires had passed away, in their stead were a number of na- 


tions of uncertain government,—Germany, Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, Austria, and Hungary. 
Jugo-Slavia is a country, the government of which is hard to define since it is a confederation 


THE HISTORY OF SOME SMALL STATES SINCE 1815 
Sweden and Norway 


SWEDEN AND Norway A DuaAt Monarcny IN 1814. In 1814 the Diet of Eidvold adopted a {j 


constitution and elected a king. But Norway had been taken from Denmark by the Con- 
gress of Vienna and given to Sweden because Denmark had aided Napoleon, and Sweden 
resolved to enforce her claims. A compromise, however, was agreed upon by Norway and 
Sweden. Sweden recognized the new and liberal constitution of Norway on condition that 
the Norwegian Diet would ask for the abdication of the King of Norway, and elect, in his 
place, the Swedish king, who was to rule jointly over Sweden and Norway. The dual monarchy 
constituted a loose union, for Norway kept its constitution and its legislature, the Storthing. 

In 1884 the Storthing, backed by a unanimous vote of the people, demanded of King Oscar 
of Sweden the right to regulate all internal affairs of Norway and to appoint separate consuls. 
The aristocracy of Sweden opposed these demands. 

INDEPENDENCE OF Norway. Manhood suffrage had been introduced in Norway in 1898 and 
soon after a political party sprang up urging complete separation of their country from Sweden. 
In 1905 the Storthing passed an act dissolving the union and providing for an independent pro- 
visional government. Both countries now prepared for war. But King Oscar was determined 
that the two Scandinavian peoples should not go to war, and so, when by a referendum vote 
the Norwegians declared unanimously in favor of independence, he urged a peaceful separa- 
tion. In 1906 the people of Norway chose as their king, Charles, a Danish prince, who 
assumed the name Haakon. In October, 1906, the coronation of Haakon VII and Queen Maud, 
a daughter of Edward VII of England, took place. Norway was the first country of Europe 
that gave women the right to vote for members of Parliament. 


Holland and Belgium 

Beteium. The Congress of Vienna joined Belgium to Holland. In 1830 Belgium, with the 
assistance of France and England, gained its independence. In 1893 a suffrage act was passed 
giving to each man from one to three votes, the number depending on his age, wealth and 
whether he is at the head of a family. The public schools are under the control of the Church. 
As in England, the ministers constitute the government, and the king can act only through his 
ministers. In 1908 the Congo Free State in Africa, which King Leopold had by will bequeathed 
to Belgium, was formally annexed by Belgium, and a new colonial law was passed intended 
to remedy the deplorable conditions in regard to the government of the African state. 

Hottanp. About two-thirds of the people of Holland are Protestants, the rest are Catholics. 
In 1896 a suffrage law gave the right to vote to all Dutchmen over 25 years of age who paid 
a small direct tax. It is virtually manhood suffrage. The country is in a prosperous condition. 


iSpain and Portugal 

SPAIN. Isabella II became queen in 1843. Her reign was characterized by many court scan- 
dals in which the Queen was involved. After the revolution of 1868 Isabella fled to France, 
and the crown was offered to several princes. At last a son of Victor Emmanuel accepted 
the crown and tried honestly to improve conditions. In 1873 he voluntarily resigned, 


Sat =< ie 


After the resignation of the King a republic was established with Castelar as president,|| 


but the Spanish people could not appreciate republican institutions. Anarchy and crime be- 
came so common that Castelar felt obliged to proclaim himself dictator during a recess of the 


WORLD WAR 


of a number of essentially republican states under the hegemony of Serbia, itself a constitutional 
kingdom. Russia is still harder to define since it is an experiment,—the only one ever known— 
of a Soviet republic. A confederacy of a number of republican states may succeed it; or pos- 
sibly several of these potential republics may be entirely independent new comers among the 
nations of the world. 


But autocracy has definitely passed away. The dynasty of the Romanoffs has ended in blood, | 


Ithe head of the House of Hohenzollern, and that of the Hapsburg are in exile. It does not 


seem possible that scions of these ancient houses will ever again be called to rule in Europe, 
but if they do they will be strictly constitutional rulers. "At present there is not a grand duke, 
or duke or prince exercising authority in the former territory of these nations. Luxemburg is 
the only duchy that has survived the storm. 

Possible social and economic changes, affecting every strata of society, possibly organized gov- 
ernment as well, loom portentously on the horizon of Europe, of our own country, of the civil- 
ized world,—as a result of this war. But all should wait with confidence the future knowing 
that evolution does not go backward and that out of seeming ills will come forth good. We 
should see in the great unrest in Europe—in the world, the birth pangs of a new age. 


THE HISTORY OF SOME SMALL STATES SINCE 1815 


‘{|Cortes. He used the army in checking lawlessness and disorder. When the Cortes reassembled, 


Castelar, disgusted with his office, promptly resigned. 

In 1874 Spain offered the crown to Alfonso XII, the son of Isabella II, and monarchy was 
again introduced. In 1876 Spain secured her first real constitution. Under Alfonso-local self- | 
government was granted the people and many reforms were introduced. 

THE CuBAN Question. The Cuban colonists revolted again and again. Finally Spain sent | 


iGeneral Weyler to restore order. He was merciless in stamping out the rebellion. In 1898 the | 


United States interfered in behalf of downtrodden Cuba and declared war against Spain. The 
Spanish fleet in Manila Bay was destroyed by Admiral Dewey, and another fleet under Cervera 
which had been sent to Cuba from Spain was utterly destroyed by admirals Sampson and |] 
Schley at Santiago. Peace was then made. Spain declared Cuba free and ceded the Philippine 
Islands to the United States upon the payment of $20,000,000. 

In 1902 Alfonso XIII, son of Alfonso XII, was crowned king. Spain is now devoting her 
energies in developing the resources of the land and in educating her people. 

PortucaL. In 1807 the French seized Portugal and the King fled to Brazil, the greatest of ]| 
the possessions of Portugal. England then came to the assistance of Portugal and the French 
were driven from the country. 

In 1901 manhood suffrage, with slight restrictions, was introduced, and the veto power of 
the sovereign greatly reduced. King Carlos was a spendthrift and it was charged that he was 
guilty of complicity in financial scandals. In February, 1908, he and the Crown Prince were 
assassinated. Prince Manuel then ascended the throne as Manuel IJ, but in 1910 during an | 
uprising against the government he fled to England. A republic was then proclaimed. 


Switzerland 

In 1815 the Swiss cantons were joined in a loose confederation. By the constitution of 1848 
a federal government was organized with centralized power and Switzerland became a nation. | 
Since 1848 all amendments to the constitution must be submitted to popular vote, and since 1874 
all federal laws upon the petition of 30,000 voters must be submitted to popular vote. In 1891 
the initiative was introduced, according to which any 50,000 citizens can frame a law which 
the Federal Congress must then submit to the people. Thus the Swiss established the prin- 
ciple of direct legislation. Switzerland has no illiterates. The people are very prosperous. 


The Balkan States 

In 1815 southeastern Europe was a part of the Turkish Empire. In 1828 Greece gained its | 
independence. After many revolts of the Slavonic nations, most of which Turkey put_down }} 
with incredible ferocity, Servia, Bulgaria, Roumania and Montenegro, with the aid of Russia, | 
became independent. In 1912 Bulgaria, Servia, Greece and Montenegro began a _war to com- 
plete the emancipation of their Christian brethren and to drive the Turk out of Europe, The 
allies defeated the Turkish armies and were ready to attack Constantinople when the western 
‘European powers intervened. An armistice resulted in failure. The war was renewed, and by 
1913 the Turks were totally defeated. During the World War Turkey and Bulgaria, choos- 
ing to aid Germany,- were defeated and lost much of their territory. 


—_ 


—— 2 merengue oe aN 


HITCHCOCK 


Hitch’cock, Edward (1793-1864), an 
American geologist, born in Massachu- 
setts. He was chosen professor of chem- 
istry and natural history in Amherst 
College, where he afterwards became 
president, with the chair of natural the- 
ology and geology. One of the foremost 
geologists of the United States, Hitch- 
cock was first president of the American 
Geological Society, which originated 
from his suggestion. He wrote Geology 
of Massachusetts, Religion of Geology 
and its Connected Sciences, Religious 
Truth, Illustrated from Science and Re- 
ligious Lectures on Peculiar Phenomena 
of the Four Seasons. 

Hitchcock, Ethan Allen (1835-1909), 
an American statesman, born in Mobile, 
Ala. He was appointed minister to Rus- 
sia in 1897, and the next year was made 
secretary of the interior. During his 
term of office Hitchcock won national 
fame by his fearless exposure of the 
frauds connected with securing public 
lands and his successful prosecution of 
the leading perpetrators of these frauds, 
some of whom were public officials of 
high standing. He resigned in 1907 and 
died two years later. 

Hitchcock, Frank Harris (1869- )> 
an American lawyer and statesman, born 
at Amherst, Ohio, and educated at Har- 
vard and George Washington universi- 
ties. He was admitted to the bar of the 
District of Columbia in 1894 and ad- 
mitted to practice in the United States 
Supreme Court in 1897. He has held 
many important public posts, among 
which are assistant postmaster-general 
under Roosevelt and postmaster-general 
in Taft’s cabinet from 1909 to 1913, and 
chairman of the Republican National 
Committee. During his administration 
as postmaster-general, postal savings 
banks and the parcel-post service were 
instituted. 

Hit’tites, the name applied to a 
group of nations of Old Testament his- 
tory, and also found in Egyptian and 
Assyrian inscriptions. The Hittites of 
the Old Testament seem to be divided 
into three groups: the children of Heth, 
from whom Abraham purchased a bury- 


HOANGHO 


ing place (Gen. xxiti) ; the Hittites whe 
inhabited Palestine previous to its oc- 
cupation by the Israelites; and those 
who dwelt in northeastern Syria, and 
with whom Solomon formed marriage 
alliances. 
in some sort of an empire, and figure 
more prominently in Egyptian and As- 
syrian than in Bible records. Hiero- 
glyphic inscriptions recount their vigor- 
ous resistance to several Egyptian mon- 
archs, while cuneiform inscriptions 
mention a people called Hatti, who were 
in frequent conflict with the Assyrians 
from the time of Tiglath-Pileser I to 
that of Sargon II (about 1100 By C.- 
721 B. C.).. Many Hittite monuments 
and inscriptions have been found in 
Syria, at. Carchemish,’; Hamathwanam 
neighboring places; and throughout 
Asia Minor. 

Hives, or Nettle Rash, a disease 
which appears as an eruption on the 
skin, usually in patches. It occurs first 
in the form of small, white, rounded 
elevations accompanied by an itching 
sensation. Scratching acts as an irritant, 
causing the parts affected to turn red. 
The disturbance may be brought on by 
contact with stinging nettles or by indi- 


gestion caused by eating fresh pork, fish — 


or certain fruits. Inflammation may be 
reduced by a solution of baking soda 
applied locally. 

Hoangho, Hwahng' ho’, or Hwangho, 
a river in China, next to the Yangtse- 
kiang the largest in the country. It rises 
in a marshy plain in Tibet and flows 
eastward in an unusually winding course, 
crosses the Great Wall into Mongolia, 
continues east to the western boundary 
of Shansi, a Chinese province, then 
south, and, after winding eastward once 
more, empties into the Gulf of Pechili. 
The course undergoes frequent changes, 
and inundations occur continually as a 
result of the large amount of sediment 
which it carries. Because of the disas- 
ters caused by this overflowing, it has 
been called “China’s sorrow.” Its total 
length is over 2500 m. The principal 
tributaries are the Taoho, the Tatungho 
and the Weiho. 


1356 


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HOAR 


Hoar, George Frisbie (1826-1904), 
an American statesman, born in Con- 
cord, Mass. He graduated at Harvard 
in 1846, was admitted to the bar and 
began practice at Worcester, Mass. In 
1852 he became a member of the State 


Legislature, served in the lower branch 


of Congress from 1869 to 1877, and in 
the Senate from the latter year until his 
death. He served on the electoral com- 
mission in 1877, and on many impor- 
tant committees in Congress, and exer- 
cised great influence over national leg- 
islation. 

Ho’bart, the capital of Tasmania, 
situated on the Derwent River, at the 
foot of the lofty Mt. Wellington. The 
prominent buildings include the St. 
Mary’s Roman Catholic Cathedral, the 
Baptist Tabernacle, the Government 
House, the House of Parliament, the 
University of Tasmania, the town hall, 
the national art gallery and the museum. 
It is a regular port of call for Austra- 
lian lines and has a large export and im- 
port trade. Fruit is exported to Sydney 
and London. Other products include 
grain, hops, timber and wool. Among 


important industries are saw and flour 


milling, brewing, tanning, iron founding 
and the manufacture of soap, hats, bar- 
rels, pottery and woolen goods. Hobart 
has long been a favorite summer resort. 
Population in 1901, including the sub- 
urbs, 34,182. © 

Hobbema, Hob’ e mah, Meindert 
(1638-1709), a Dutch landscape painter 
of unknown origin. His subjects are 
quiet and restful, being secluded wood- 
lands, peaceful waysides, streams and 
water mills. His pictures are flooded 
with golden light; the atmosphere is 
transparent, the color warm, the space 
infinite; his trees are of special charm, 


of great variety and individuality. The 
largest and best collection of his works 


is in the National Gallery, London, 
which contains the well-known Avenue 
Near Middelharnis, Holland. Famous 
also are Ruins of Breberode Castle and 
Landscape View in Holland, the latter 
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 
New York. 


HOBOKEN 


Hobbes, Hobz, Thomas (1588-1679), 


an English philosopher, one of the first 


great English writers on government. 
His most remarkable work, Leviathan, 
was published in 1651, and it advocated 
pure and unrestrained monarchy as the 
best form of government. Hobbes con- 
tended that such a government was a 
contract between the sovereign and the 
people, who were moved by the desire 
to escape from all the evils of a state of 
nature, which is a state of war. This 
has probably given more offense than 
any other political theory ever pro- 
pounded. 

Hobkirk’s Hill, Battle of. 
DEN, BATTLES OF. 

Ho’boken, N. J., a city of Hudson 
Co., opposite New York City, directly 
north and east of Jersey City on the 
west bank of the Hudson River, and 
the eastern terminus of the West Shore, 
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 
and other railroads. Hoboken is con- 
nected with New York by steam ferries 
and by two subway lines through tun- 
nels under the river. Electric railways 
also connect with the towns and cities 
of northeastern New Jersey. The prin- 
cipal streets of the city run nearly par- 
allel with the river, and its miles of 
water front give excellent shipping fa- 
cilities. The piers of the North German 
Lloyd, the Hamburg-American, the Hol- 
land-American and the Scandinavian 
steamship lines are located here. The 
city, which covers ari area of about one 
square mile, lies at the base of the Pali- 
sades, which rise on the north and west 
to a height of 200 ft. 

Parks, BOULEVARDS AND BUILDINGS. 
Hoboken contains 26 m. of well- -paved 
streets and boulevards. Castle Point 


See CAM- 


‘in the northeast rises from the gener- 


ally low level to about 100 ft. Hudson 
Park contains a soldiers’ monument; 
and Church Square Park, a firemen’s 
monument. Palisades Park was laid out 
in 1911 and will ultimately reach along 
the west bank of the Hudson River for 


50 m. Among the public buildings are 


the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 
Railroad Station, city hall, Federal 


1357 


HOCKEY 


Building, banks, substantial business 
blocks and many fine church edifices. 

InstT1ITuTIONS. The educational insti- 
tutions include the Stevens Institute of 
Technology, the high school, Hoboken 
Academy, Sacred Heart Academy, a 
public library and nine public schools. 
St. Mary’s Hospital is a well-equipped 
institution. 

InpustriEs. Hoboken has an exten- 
sive trade in every known commodity, 
especially in coal, and is one of the 
principal points from which New York 
and its shipping are supplied. The city 
is an important industrial center and 
contains automobile works, foundries 
and machine shops, silk mills, wall-pa- 
per mills, chemical works, lumber mills 
and manufactories of lead pencils, 
leather goods and caskets. There are 
also large yards for shipbuilding and re- 
pairing. 

History. The land upon which Ho- 
boken is located once formed a part 
of the territory of New Netherland. 
The place was early known as Hopog- 
han Hackingh, “the land of the tobacco 
pipe.” In 1711 title was acquired to the 
place by Samuel Bayard, Jr., a New 
York merchant. During the Revolution- 
ary War his descendant, William Bay- 
ard, was a Loyalist, and his home was 
burned and estate confiscated. Col. John 
Stevens purchased the property in 1784 
and in 1804 laid it out as a town. Ho- 
boken was incorporated as a town in 
1849 and as a city in 1855. Population 
in 1920, U. S. Census, 68,166. 

Hock’ey, a game imperfectly organ- 
ized except in England, its original 
home, and there played under definite 
rules only since 1883. In the United 
States it is commonly called shinny. It 
requires a space perhaps 200 ft. wide 
and 300 or 400 ft. long; and is common- 
ly played by any number of persons, di- 
vided into approximately equal teams. 
A single small ball is laid down in the 
center of the field. Two players, one 
from each side, stand facing each other 
with their shinny sticks against oppo- 
site sides of the ball. At a given signal 
each raises his stick and endeavors to hit 


HOFER 


the ball so as to drive it toward his op- 
ponent’s goal line, all other players of 
each team having already formed in long 
lines of defense. As soon as the ball is 
in play, the teams scatter over the field 
and a rough and tumble contest ensues, 
which continues until the ball is driven 
over one or the other of the goal lines. 
Wherever and whenever there is good 
skating, ice hockey is now almost cer- 
tain to be in vogue. The Hockey Asso- 
ciation of Canada organized this game 
under definite rules about 1887; and it 
has since become a favorite winter sport 
for many college and local associations 
both in the United States and Canada, 
and intercollegiate contests are a feature 
of the winter season. 

Hodg’ins, John George (1821-1912), 
a Canadian author and public official, 
born in Dublin, Ireland, and educated 
at Victoria and Toronto universities. 
He served successively as chief clerk of 
the department of education, Upper 
Canada, secretary of the provincial 
board of education, Ontario, deputy su- 
perintendent of education, deputy min- 
ister of education and librarian and his- 
toriographer, all of Ontario. In 1904 he 
became historiographer alone. He ed- 
ited the Upper Canadian Journal of Ed- 
ucation for 30 years and was a pioneer in 
school-book literature in Canada. 

Hoe, Richard March (1812-1886), an 
American inventor and manufacturer, 
born in New York City. He worked 
with his father in the manufacture of 
printing materials and in 1832 succeeded 
to the management of the business, In 
1837 a trip to England afforded him op- 
portunity of observing advanced presses 
and enabled him to make great improve- 
ments in printing machines. Nine years 
later, in 1846, he patented the rotary 
printing press. With his brothers, Rob- 
ert and Peter, he continued to manufac- 
ture presses for many years, meanwhile, 
with their aid, inventing the web-per- 
fecting press, now generally used in the 
printing of newspapers. See NEwspa- 
PER; PRINTING PRESS. 

Ho’fer, Andreas (1767-1810), a pa- 
triotic leader of the Tyrolese. When 29 


1358 


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Zi 
hyo 
$a 


HOFMANN 


he led a body of his countrymen against 
the French, and in 1809 headed an in- 
surrection which temporarily liberated 
his country from the yoke of Napoleon. 
He acted as head of the government un- 
til deserted by the Austrians, when the 
French made a third invasion and the 
Tyrol was conquered. Hofer was be- 
trayed to the enemy, was condemned by 
Napoleon and shot. 

Hof’mann, Josef (1877- );-a Bok 
ish pianist, born at Cracow. His father 
was director of the Warsaw Opera and 
a professor in the Warsaw Conserva- 
tory, and the son was early given mu- 
sical training. In his sixth year he be- 
gan appearing in public at recitals and 
was_immediately famous. After study- 
ing for two years under Rubenstein, 
Hofmann reappeared in public in 1894 
and has since delighted audiences in all 
countries. His visits to the United 
States have been enthusiastically her- 
alded and most favorably received. Hof- 
mann has composed many selections for 
the piano and a well-known concerto in 
B flat. 

Hog, the representative species of 
the Swine Family, and known, through 
domestication, in all but the coldest cli- 
mates. The many breeds which are 
raised upon the great stock farms of the 
United States are all descendants of the 
wild hog, or boar, and retain many of 
the characteristics of the original spe- 
cies. Like them they have large and 
rounding heads,’ with long, flexible 
snouts of soft cartilage, which end in a 
fiattened disk, bearing the nostrils; with 
this snout whole fields may be plowed 
up as the animals search for truffles, 
roots and buried nuts. The eyes and 
ears of the hog are small, the body broad 
but often long, the legs short and com- 
pleted by four toes, upon the middle two 
of which the animal walks. The tail is 
short and thin and in many species is 
tightly curled. The color of the hog is 
creamy yellow, black or black-spotted ; 
in wild hogs the young, called pigs, have 
tawny spots which disappear as the ani- 
mal grows older. 

The occupation of hog raising is an 


HOHENSTAUFEN 


cMnOreine branch of agriculture in the 
United States; the flesh of the hog is of 
excellent flavor and, since it takes salt 
readily, is one of the best packed meats. 
The fat of the hog is manufactured into 
lard, the bristles into brushes, and the 
skin is of use in bookbinding. See MEAT 
PACKING. 

Contrary to common belief, hogs are | 
intelligent animals, and are occasionally 
trained for performances in the circus 


ring. In European countries they are 


used to locate truffles, which are com- 
pletely buried underground, and in some 
instances, to point game, a sport in which 
some varieties are adept. See TRUFFLE. 
Ho’garth, William (1697-1764), the 
great English painter, was born in Lon- 
don, the son of a schoolmaster. He he- 
gan his artistic training as an apprentice 
to a silver-plate engraver. Later he 
opened a shop of his own, where he en- 
graved coats of arms, bookplates and 
other illustrations. The works of Ho- 
garth are clever satires on society and 
caricatures of prominent personages of 
his day, and he executed with a brush 
what Dickens and Thackeray depicted 
with a pen. Hogarth was the earliest, 
most original and one of the greatest of 
the entire British School of Painting. 
The most characteristic of his works 
are The Enraged Musician, The Dis- 
tressed Poet and Marnage a la Mode. 
Hogg, James Stephens (1851-1906), 
an American lawyer, born near Rusk, 
Tex. His first public office was that of 
justice of the peace in Wood County, 
and he advanced through the successive 
offices of county attorney (1878-1880), 
district attorney (1880-1886) and attor- 
ney-general (1886-1890) to that of gov- 
ernor of the state (1890-1895). After 
retiring from public office he continued 
the practice of law, and was in demand 
as a popular speaker until the time of his 


death. 


Hohenstaufen, Ho” en shtouw’ fen, a 
German dynasty, which ruled the em- 
pire from 1138 to 1254. The family de- 
rived its name from a castle, the ruins 
of which may still be seen on the left 
bank of the Danube, a few miles below 


1359 


HOHENZOLLERN 


Stuttgart. The first of the house to come 
to the throne of Germany was Conrad 
III, and the succeeding emperors were 
Frederick I, who was known as Barba- 
rossa, Henry VI, Philip 1, Frederick II 
and Conrad IV. 

Hohenzollern, Ho” entsol'ern, the 
name of a dynastic House in Europe. Its 
origin was not unlike that of the other 
great house in German history, the 
House of Hapsburg. They originated in 
the same way—petty chieftains—in the 
same section of Europe, only about one 
hundred miles separated them. But the 
House of Hapsburg had long been a 
leading figure in German history before 
the House of Hohenzollern became at 
all prominent. It was a Hapsburg who 
created a Hohenzollern Margrave of 
Brandenburg in 1411. The considera- 
tion was a sordid one,—the emperor 
pawned the margravate as security for a 
loan. See Prussia. 

Hokusai, Ho’ koo sah” e, (1760-1849), 
a Japanese artist, the son of a maker of 
metal mirrors in Honjo. His life was 
full of adventure, beginning when he left 
home at the age of 13 to apprentice him- 
self as an engraver. He worked at his 
trade for five years and then became a 
pupil of a famous designer, who soon 
expelled him from his school for his 
persistence in ignoring the standards of 
art of the day. Hokusai was by turns a 
peddler, illustrator and teacher. In the 
latter profession, which he adopted in 
1810, he was immediately successful, 
and the number of his pupils became so 
great that he was forced to learn wood 
engraving to keep.them supplied with 
models. From this arose his album en- 
titled Ten Thousand Sketches and his A 
Hundred Views of Fuyjisan. 


Holbein, Hole’ bine, Hans, the Elder 
(about 1460-1524), a German. painter, 
born at Augsburg of a family of paint- 
ers. The work of his earlier years is of 
the Flemish School and is less pleasing 
than his later pictures, which show the 
influence of Italian art. Holbein’s ear- 
lier portraits, although in ready demand, 
are now less valued, but his drawings 
show a pleasing lightness of touch and 


2 Wore b2s | i ie 
toad) RD ‘ 
- 


‘ HOLDEN 


delicacy of execution that is also marked 
in the work of his son. Influenced by 
Italian art, Holbein’s later pictures have 
less artificiality, more attention to anat- 
omy and a more pleasing display of 
color, drapery and form. The last years 
of the artist’s life were marked--with 
financial difficulties. Holbein’s _ best- 
known pictures are: those in the Cathe- 
dral at Augsburg, portraying scenes 
from the life of the Virgin; scenes from 
the Passion in the Dominican Church at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main; the Fount of 
Life, now in the gallery at Lisbon; St. 
Sebastian and St. Katharine in the gal- 
lery at Augsburg; and scenes from the 
Passion, in the Munich Gallery. 
Holbein, Hans, the Younger (about 
1497-1543), a German painter, the son 
of Hans Holbein mentioned above. His 
earliest training was received at the 
hands of his father, but when 18 years 
of age he went to Basel, where he 
worked illustrating books. Here he also 
began painting portraits, and his work 
became sufficiently well known to cause 


him to be called to Lucerne for two — 


years’ work in designing and decorating. 
After his return to Basel, where he re- 
mained until 1526, he painted many no- 
table pictures. From 1526 to 1528 he was 
in England at the court of Henry VIII, 
and there painted portraits of many dis- 
tinguished persons. With the exception 
of four years, 1528 to 1532, spent in 
Basel, Holbein passed the remainder of 
his life in England, where he became one 
of the foremost of the world’s portrait 
painters. Aside from portraits, his 


Dance of Death and The Ambassadors 


are his most celebrated works. Among 
his portraits are those of Henry VIII, 
Anne of Cleves, Erasmus, Thomas 
More, Lady Jane Seymour and the 
Duke of Norfolk. Holbein was also a 
master of wood engraving and was 
among the first to paint portraits in min- 
iature. 

Holden, Hole’ den, Edward Singleton 
1846-1914), an American astronomer, 
born in St. Louis, Mo., and educated at 
Washington University and the United 


States Military Academy, where from — 
1360 , 


HOLIDAY . 


1873 to 1881 he was professor of math- 
ematics. For the next four years he was 
director of the Washburn Observatory 
at Madison, Wis. Later he became pres- 
ident of the University of California 
and director of the Lick Observatory. 
Among his works are Index Catalogue 
— of Nebule, Wntings of Sir William 
, Herschel, Earth and S ky and Essays im 
pS: Astronomy. 

Holiday, originally, holy day. This 
is a day set apart as an anniversary of 
_ some religious event, or for commemo- 
_ rating some national or state event of 
f great importance. Religious holidays 
m are fixed by the Church» and differ 
among different denominations, though 
all Christian denominations are prac- 
_. tically uniform in celebrating Christmas 
' and Easter. In the United States legal 


e holidays are fixed by Congress if na- 
_ tional, and by the Legislatures of the 
4 different states if local. The national 
' holidays in the United States are Labor 
' Day, Thanksgiving, Christmas, New 
-* Year’s and Fourth of July. On legal 
holidays banks are closed because they 
. cannot legally transact business. 
: Holland. See NETHERLANDS. 
; Hol’land, Josiah Gilbert (1819-1881), 
: an American editor and author, born in 
Belchertown, Mass. He studied medi- 
cine at the Berkshire Medical College, 
- but his first years of practice at Spring- 
| field, Mass., were not successful. After 
| teaching school for a short time he was 
assistant editor of the Springfield Re- 
publican. In 1870 he was one of the 
_ founders of Scribner's Monihly and be- 
came its editor, remaining in that posi- 
_ tion when it was changed to the Cen- 
tury and until his death. His early 
__writings were published under the name 
-* of Timothy Titcomb. He wrote moral 
- verse, faithful descriptions of pictur- 
esque village life in New York, novels, 
essays, history and biography. 
works include: the novels, Miss Gilbert's 
Career and Arthur Bonnicastle; the po- 
ems, Bittersweet, Kathrina and Gar- 
nered Sheaves; and Letters to Young 
People, Plain Talk on Famihar Subjects 
and Life of Lincoln. 


~ 


His 


HOLLYHOCK 


Holland, Mich., a city of Ottawa Co., 
26 m. s. w. of Grand Rapids and 80 m. 
w. of Lansing, at the head of Black 
Lake, an arm of Lake Michigan} and on 
the Pere Marquette and M. Elec. rail- 
roads. Holland has a good harbor, direct 
communication by steamship with Chica- 
go, Milwaukee and other ports, and is an 
important trading and manufacturing 
center. The industries include the manu- 
facture of furniture, beet sugar, wood- 
working machinery, tubs, baskets, flour, 
pickles, electric launches and furnaces 
and veneer ; there are also tanneries, plan- 
ing mills, creameries and grain eleva- 
tors. Holland is the seat of Hope Col- 
lege, and of the Western Theological 
Seminary, both controlled by the Re- 
formed Church of America. It has sev- 
eral fine buildings and a public library. 
The city was settled in 1847 by a Dutch 
colony. It was chartered as a city in 
1867. Population in 1920, 12,183. ; 

Hol’ly, a tree or shrub of the Holly 
Family, having thick, stiff leaves whose 
broad, concave scallops are separated 
by sharp, rigid points. These leaves, 
though not always evergreen, generally 
retain their shining bright color through- 
out the winter. The flowers appear early 
in the summer and may be single or in 
clusters but are always white in color. 
The fruit is a bright red berry contain- 
ing from two to six one-seeded nuts. 
The European holly is one of the most 
ornamental of European shrubs; the 
American species has duller leaves and 
less brilliant berries, but is also very dec- 
orative. It grows from southern New 


England south and is common in Ten- 


nessee and Arkansas. . 

On account of the great contrast of 
the evergreen leaves and red berries in 
the winter, the holly is sacred to winter 
festivities and is the symbol of the 
Christmas season. Its leaves are the em- 
blem of forethought because of the pro- 
tection given to the buds by the defen- 
sive thorns. 

Hol’lyhock, a tall garden plant of 
the Mallow Family, brought from Syria. 
The leaves are rough and deeply-veined 
and have five or seven lobes. The flow- 


1361 


HOLMES 


ers are attached by short stems to a tall 
spike upon which the lower buds open 
first. They are three to five inches 
broad and of all shades of red, yellow, 
blue and white; their time of blooming 
is the late summer and autumn. Holly- 
hocks are favorite old-fashioned flowers 
and are cultivated in gardens in single 
or double varieties. 

Holmes, Homez, Oliver Wendell 
(1809-1894), an American poet, essayist 
and physician, born at Cambridge, Mass. 
The year 1809 was lavish in its gifts, be- 
stowing on the world not only Holmes, 
but Gladstone, Tennyson, Darwin and 
Abraham Lincoln. In later years Holmes 
spoke with pride of his lineage. Abiel 
Holmes, his father, a Calvinist minister, 
graduate of Yale and author of a his- 
tory, was descended from one of the 
early inhabitants of Woodstock, Conn. 
Through his mother, Sarah Wendell, he 
could trace his descent from Anne Brad- 
street and his relationship to the orator 
Wendell Phillips, the poet Richard 
Henry Dana and-the clergyman Dr. 
Channing. His father had hopes of ed- 
ucating young Oliver for the ministry, 
but the stern theology preached by the 
orthodox Abiel Holmes and his friends 
was far from attractive to the lively 
fun-loving boy, who wrote in after years 
that some of his father’s clerical visit- 
ors, with their sad looks and woebegone 
ways, did more to wunchristianize him 
than their sermons were apt to accom- 
plish in the other direction. Of his early 
schooling it is recorded that he behaved 
himself and made good progress. At the 
age of 15 he was sent to Phillips Acad- 
emy at Andover, and in the following 
year, 1825, entered Harvard College. The 
famous “class of 729,” of which he was 
a member, bore on its roll the names of 
several illustrious men, and has received 
further renown by the lyrics Holmes 
wrote for the anniversary dinners held 
in after years. 

PHYSICIAN AND TEACHER. On leay- 
ing college Holmes studied law for a 
year. During this time he wrote his first 
successful poem, Old Ironsides, which 
_-was inspired by the order for the de- 


HOLMES — 


struction of the historic, old war frigate, 
the Constitution. ‘The stirring lines of 
this poem created such an outburst of 
national indignation that the old boat 
was saved, and may be seen today in the 
Charlestown navy yard. Regarding the 
law as merely an experiment, Holmes 
next took up the study of mediciné at a 
private school. The need of more thor- 
ough instruction induced his parents to 
send him to Paris in 1833 to study un- 
der the famous French physicians and 
surgeons. While in France he worked 
with praiseworthy diligence, beginning 
his practice in Boston in 1835. Holmes’s 
brilliant social qualities proved a_ hin- 
drance to his success as a physician, as 
the Bostonians seemed to feel that so _ 
witty a doctor was not a trustworthy 
person to care for their bodies. His 
prospects were brightened, however, by 
prizes awarded him for professional pa- 
pers and his appointment as professor of 
anatomy at Dartmouth College in 1838, 
a position which he held for two years. 
In 1840 he married Miss Amelia Lee 
Jackson, a lady of charming character. 
Their eldest son, Oliver Wendell Holmes, 
Jr., was in 1902 appointed an associate 
justice of the United States Supreme 
Court. In 1847 Dr. Holmes became pro- 
fessor of anatomy and physiology at the 
Harvard University Medical School, 
where his duties were so varied that he 
made the statement that he occupied “not 
a chair, but a settee in the school.” His 
lectures were so witty and stimulating 
that the last period of the day was al- 
lotted to him, a tribute to his ability to 
keep the students awake after a series 
of difficult lectures. He held his Har- 
vard position for 35 years, a source of 
great pleasure and pride to him. 
LiTERARY ACHIEVEMENT. Several vol- 
umes of verse, published in 1836, 1846, 
1849 and 1850, gave Holmes a reputa- © 
tion as a poet, but he did not produce — 
the works by which he is best known | 
until 1857, the year of the founding o 
the famous Atlantic Monthly. Throu 
the influence of his good friend’ Ja 
Russell Lowell, Holmes was invited to 
contribute to this magazine, and its first 


1362 


HOLMES 


number contained the opening paper of 
The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table 
series. The success of these original and 
witty essays was so decisive that their 


author was launched on a new career 


immediately. On the conclusion of the 
Autocrat series the Professor took the 
chair at the breakfast table (1859). In 
these essays Holmes wrote as he talked 
at the Saturday Club dinners, where he 
was admitted to be the most entertain- 
ing among a group of such charming 
talkers as Emerson, Longfellow, Whit- 


tier, Lowell, Sumner, Agassiz and Mot- | 


ley. A third series of essays, The Poet 
at the Breakfast Table, appeared in 1872. 

Holmes wrote poetry from time to 
time throughout his literary career, be- 
ing unusually gifted as the poet of spe- 
cial occasions. While much of his verse 
was of merely temporary interest, he 
wrote a few poems of enduring value, 
among them The Chambered Nautilus, 
The Living Temple, The Voiceless, The 
Last Leaf and The Iron Gate. Such po- 
ems as The One Hoss Shay and Parson 
Turell’s Legacy take: high rank as ex- 
amples of humorous verse. In 1861 he 
wrote his first and best novel, Elsie 
Venner, followed in 1867 by The Guar- 
dian Angel, and in 1885 appeared a 
third, A Mortal Antipathy. All of these 
novels are studies in hereditary tenden- 
cies. This versatile and cheery author 
also attempted biography, producing in 
1878 a life of his close friend, the histo- 
rian Motley, and in 1884 a life of Em- 
erson. In 1886 he made a trip to Eng- 
land, where he was received with great 
enthusiasm, becoming the recipient of 
honorary degrees from the universities 
of Cambridge, Oxford and Edinburgh. 
His last important work, Over the Tea- 
Cups, of the same character as the Break- 
fast Table papers, appeared in 1890, 
when he was 81 years of age. 

PERSONAL AND LITERARY QUALITIES. 
The writings of Holmes express most 
clearly his genial and kindly nature. The 
wit and humor that brighten his essays 
and poems give his readers the same 
sort of entertainment that was enjoyed 
by those who listened to his brilliant con- 


HOLY FAMILY 


versation. Yet Holmes was more than an 
apostle of good cheer. He was always 
courageously outspoken against vice and 
superstition, and his serious lyrics re- 
veal the depth of his feeling for the true 
and the beautiful in life. His achieve- 
ments in poetry were less notable than 
those of Longfellow, Lowell or Whit- 
tier, but as the creator of a new type of 
prose Holmes must take high rank in the 
list of American men of letters. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr. (1841- 

), an American jurist, born at Bos- 
ton, Mass. His father was the distin- 
guished author of the same name. Judge 
Holmes studied at Harvard, graduating 
from the law school there. He served 
two years in the Civil War, then began 
the practice of law in Boston. While 
practicing law in Boston he edited the 
American Law Review. Judge Holmes 
accepted the chair of law in Harvard 
Law School in 1882, in which year he 
also became associate justice of the Mas- 
sachusetts Supreme Court, being made 
chief justice 17 years later. He was ap- 
pointed associate justice of the Supreme 
Court of the United States in 1902. 

Holmgren Test for Color Blindness. 
See CoLtor, THEORY OF. 

Holy Alli’ance, a league between Al- 
exander I of Russia, Francis II of Aus- 
tria and Frederick William III of Prus- 
sia, formed in September, 1815. It de- 
clared that in accordance with the teach- 
ings of Jesus Christ the principles of 
justice, charity and peace should control 
the domestic policy and international re- 
lations of rulers, and that their great 
object would be the religious welfare 
and happiness of their subjects. How- 
ever, the real object of the Alliance was 
to maintain the power of the rulers of 
Europe against the rising tide of democ- 
racy. Metternich, the Austrian minis- 
ter, was its chief supporter. The design 
of the Alliance respecting Russian colo- 
nization in North America in 1823 was 
one of the causes for the promulgation 
of the Monroe Doctrine by the Ameri- 
can Government. 

Holy Family, in art, the name given 


to the group composed of the Virgin, 
1363 


HOLY GRAIL 


the Infant Jesus and accompanying fig- 
ures. The earliest representation of such 
a group is in the Catacomb of St. Calix- 
tus, Rome, representing the Virgin and 
Child and the Prophet Isaiah. The tra- 
ditional arrangement was the seated Ma- 
donna, with the Child on her lap, both 
figures gazing out at the spectator, the 
Infant with hand upraised in an atti- 
tude of blessing. Variations of this com- 
position were introduced later; the Vir- 
gin’s seat became a throne; angels were 
grouped about; emblems of the Passion 
were added. Late in the Middle Ages, 
St. Anna, the mother of the Virgin, St. 
Catharine, St. Joseph and St. John, and 
sometimes the Twelve Apostles, found 
place in the group. The Madonna and 
the Child have been one of the favorite 
themes of modern artists. Giovanni Bel- 
lini, Filippo Lippi, Perugino, Raphael 
and Andrea del Sarto are among those 
who have treated the subject with great- 
est skill. 

Holy Grail, The. 
Hoty, 

Holyoke, Hole’ yoke, Mass., a city of 
Hampden Co., 8 m. n. of Springfield 
and 104 m. s.w. of Boston, on the Con- 
necticut River and the -Boston & Maine 
railroads. Interurban railways connect 
it with the near-by town and cities. The 
city contains many fine public buildings, 
which include the City Hospital, Holyoke 
Day Nursery, Library, Masonic Temple, 
YeMo Ce AL Yow. GoAVandeNonatuck 
Hotel, House of Providence Hospital, 
two orphanages—St. Vincent’s for girls, 
and Holy Family for boys. Within easy 
reach of Holyoke are three of the most 
famous colleges of the country—Am- 
herst, Mt. Holyoke and Smith. 

Extensive water power is furnished 
by a dam across the Connecticut. For 
many years Holyoke has been noted for 
the number and magnitude of its paper 
mills, which earned for it the title of 
the “Paper City.” The paper industry is 
one of the largest in the world. There 
' are also extensive manufactories of cot- 
ton, silk and woolen goods, cutlery, ma- 
chinery, files, writing paper, blank books, 
sash and blinds, tools, automobiles, bi- 


See GRAIL, THE 


- HOMEOPATHY 


cycles, bits, thread, pumps, knit goods, 
belting, screws, bricks, furniture and 
school supplies. 

Holyoke has many points of scenic in- 
terest, notably Mt. Tom and Mt. Hol- 


yoke, which are ascended by electric 


railways. There is also an extensive 
state reservation. Population in 1920, 
60,203. 


Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Ro- 
man Empire dates from the crowning of 
Charlemagne in 800 A. D. as the suc- 
cessor of the Roman emperors. When 
Otto the Great was crowned by the Pope 
in 962, the name Roman was used for 
the first time, and in 1152 Frederick 
Barbarossa used the term Holy. From 
his time the name Holy Roman Empire 
was used to: designate all the lands un- 
der the control of the German sover- 
eigns, and at different times the empire 
included Germany, Italy, Denmark, Hun- 
gary, Poland, Cyprus and Jérusalem. 
The Hohenstaufen line of emperors had 
some claim to imperial control, but for 
centuries the title was an empty name. 
In 1806 Francis II gave up the title 
of Holy Roman Emperor and the name 
became extinct. See GERMANY, sub- 
head History. 


Holyrood, the royal palace of the | 


Scottish sovereigns. It was originally 
an abbey built by David I in 1128, on 
the spot where his life was saved by a 
miraculous rood or cross which came 
between him and a pursuing stag. It 
was rebuilt by Charles II between 1671 
and 1679. 

Homeopathy, Ho” me op’ a thy, a sys- 
tem of medicine, opposed to allopathy 
and founded upon the belief that the 
chemical substance which causes a dis- 
ease will cure it. The principles were 
first formulated by Dr. Samuel Hahne- 
mann of Leipsic, and consisted in “test- 


ing” a drug by noting the symptoms 


shown by healthy persons taking it, then 
applying that drug to a diseased person 
showing the same symptoms. At first 
the system also included the treatment 
by a single, very large dose, but this 


Hahnemann soon changed, and advo- — 
cated giving minimum doses and as often 


1364 ' 


rae 


HOMER 


as required. The system from the first 
has met strenuous opposition, but it has 
a large following in the United States, 
where there are at present about 15,000 
homeopathic physicians and 18 colleges. 
See MEDICINE, 

Ho’mer, the great epic poet of 
Greece. Because of the obscurity sur- 
rounding his name and existence, the 
word Homer has come to be applied to 
the whole of the early epic poetry of 
Greece, on the assumption that no single 
individual bearing that name ever ex- 
isted. He is, however, generally rec- 
ognized as the poet who shaped the /liad 
and the Odyssey, the two great epics of 
Greek and world literature. According 
to Herodotus he lived about 850 B. C.; 
later authorities place him variously in 
the tenth and the eleventh centuries. 
There are eight extant lives of Homer, 
and these present widely divergent facts 
concerning his life. Some say his name 


is derived from the Greek word for 


hostage, and make him a hostage in 
youth; others, that his name is a dia- 
lectic word for blind, as he is said early 
to have lost his sight. He is thought to 
have wandered around from town to 
town in Asia Minor, earning his bread 
by reciting his poetry or by teaching. 
Wr hermay have: been:a’ singer inva 
royal house of the Homeric age. The 
lines 

“Seven cities claimed the mighty Homer 

dead, 
Where living Homer begged his daily 
bread,” 

have grown proverbial. Since there is 
no authentic external testimony to prove 
the time and place of Homer’s life or 
of the writing of his verses, internal 
evidence from the poems can alone be 
resorted to, and even this yields only 
meager definite results. 

He represents the first name in Euro- 
pean literature. It is unknown whether 
or not the poems ascribed to him were 
written during his lifetime, though a 
few facts point weakly to the supposi- 
tion that they were. The Jliad (See 
Iu1ap) and the Odyssey, are masterly 
products of a mind given to thinking 


HOMER 


in concrete terms and possessing to an 
extraordinary degree the power of de- 
tailed and vivid description. There is 
nothing subjective about his work; his 
accounts are a faithful mirror of the 
external world. He presents detailed 
descriptions of the most ordinary events 
in the daily life of the Greek; hence 
we come to know through him more in- 
timately the life of the Homeric man 
than that of any other primitive people. 
Matthew Arnold in an illuminating com- 
mentary on his style has once for all 
pointed out the four qualities that make 
for enduring recognition. He finds it 
(1) rapid; (2) plain and direct in the 
evolution of thought and in his expres- 
sion of it; (3) plain and direct m the 
substance of his thought, that is, in mat- 
ter and ideas; and (4) eminently noble. 
The nobility of his work rests on its 
very simplicity. The feelings he describes 
are primitive, and he never stops to ana- 
lyze or refine. His interest is purely 
dramatic. Witness his Odyssey, wherein 
he describes, in 24 books, the extraor- 
dinary experiences of Odysseus after the 
ten years’ siege of Troy, who was con- 
strained to wander ten solitary years 
longer, patiently yearning to see the 
rocky Isle of Ithaca. The poet’s inter- 
est here is in a broad and sweeping pic- 
ture of human action and feeling, that 
may lack unity but never forceful direct- 
ness or a marvelous power of picturing 
a multitude of things. He cares little 
for themes like political questions, race 
antipathies or matters of religion, but 
transcends them in his greater vision and 
nobler purport. His influence on con- 
temporary and subsequent literature was 
extraordinary. To the Greeks he has 
been the Bible itself. Men began te 
copy his literary excellencies immediate-: 
ly, and parallelisms to his style and 
thought run through the centuries of lit- 
erature that followed. Even today the 
great gods which he celebrated are 
known chiefly through the medium of: 
his art, and as such continue to live in 
the poetry and sculpture that are prod- 
ucts of our own age. Consult Jebb, /n- 
troduction to Homer. 


1365 


HOMER 


Homer, Winslow (1836-1910), one 
of the leading artists in America at the 
beginning of the 20th century, born in 
Boston, After working in a lithogra- 
pher’s shop and contributing sketches to 
magazines, he entered the National Acad- 
emy of Design as a pupil. In 1859 he 
removed to New York, and during the 
Civil War was artist and correspondent 
for Harpers Weekly. His first impor- 
tant picture, Prisoners from the Front, 
was exhibited in 1864. The Maine Coast 
is probably his masterpiece. 

Home Rule, a measure which passed 
the British Parliament in 1914 providing 
for the government of Ireland. This bill 
was the result of nearly a half-century of 
agitation by the Irish to secure the right 
to legislate concerning affairs pertaining 
only to Ireland. The measure was first 
advocated by the Irish Nationalists in 
1870. The first Irish home rule bill was 
introduced into the House of Commons 
by Gladstone in 1886 and was defeated. 
The second bill, also introduced by Glad- 
stone in 1893, was passed by the House 
of Commons but defeated by the House 
of Lords. 

In 1909 the Irish Nationalists and the 
Liberals formed an alliance, by which the 
former agreed to support the budget and 
other government measures on the un- 
derstanding that a Home Rule bill was 
to be passed. 

In 1911 Parliament passed an act en- 
abling a bill to become a law without 
the consent of the House of Lords pro- 
vided it passed the House of Commons 
three times and was signed by the King. 
The Home Rule bill passed in 1914 be- 
came a law by virtue of this bill, having 
been passed by the House of Commons 
three times and defeated successively in 
the House of Lords. 

The measure grants and provides for 
an Irish Parliament consisting of a Sen- 
ate of 40 members and a House of Com- 
mons of 164 members. The powers of 
this body are restricted to legislation per- 
taining to Ireland. 

Strenuous opposition to Home Rule 
developed in Ulster because the residents 
of this province believed the measure to 


HOMESTEAD 


be unfavorable to their commercial and 
religious interests. For a time Civil War 
seemed imminent but Parliament made — 
provision whereby each county might de- 
cide by vote whether or not it would 
come under the operation of the Home 
Rule act for the first six years after it 
went into force. Upon the breaking out 
of the European War, however, the 
operation of the bill was suspended for 
one year. 

Home’stead, in law an estate in land, 
used as a home by the tenant or owner, 
and to a greater or less extent protected 
by law from the claims of creditors. 
This exemption right is a modern privi- 
lege created by statute and was unknown 
to the common law. The homestead laws 
are of two classes, those enacted by Con- 
gress and those enacted by the state 
Legislatures. The primary object of the 
first class is to enable citizens without 
capital to acquire homes. The object of 
the second class is to secure homes, once 
acquired, against the claims of creditors. 

The Federal Homestead Laws begin 
with the act passed in 1862, now a part 
of the United States Revised Statutes. 
Their policy is to give portions of the 
public lands to those who will settle, 
cultivate and make homes upon them. 
Any person who is the head of a family 
or who is 21 years of age and is a citizen 
of the United States, or who has filed 
his declaration to become such, may ac- 
quire a tract of 160 acres of land, on 
condition of settlement, cultivation and 
continuous occupancy for five years and 
of the payment of certain moderate fees. 
Under the provisions of these laws more 
than 85,000,000 acres of unoccupied pub- 
lic lands have been transferred by the 
United States to homestead settlers, and 
most of the public land available has 
been occupied. 

State legislation provides three meth- 
ods by which a homestead may be se- 
cured against the debts of its owner. 
The first is by prescribed form of public 
notice; the second, by actual occupancy 
and use; and the third, by a proceeding 
in a court of justice. The amount of 
land which may be exempted under the 


1366 


HOMESTEAD 


_ Homestead Laws varies in the different 
states. In some the limits are those 
of acreage, in others those of cash value. 
See LANnps, PUBLIC. 

Homestead, Pa., a city of Allegheny 
Co., 7 m. s.e. of Pittsburgh, of which 
city it is a suburb, on the Monongahela 
River and on the Pittsburgh & Lake 
Erie and the Pennsylvania railroads. 
Homestead has one of the largest steel 
plants in the United States, employing 
about 7000 men, and producing both 
structural and nickel-steel armor plate. 
The borough has also manufactories of 
fire brick, glass, machinery and other 
articles. It was settled in 1871 and in- 
corporated in 1880. Population in 1920, 
U. S. Census, 20,452. 

Hondu’ras. See CENTRAL AMERICA. 

Honey, Hun’ ny, a sweet, liquid, trans- 
parent vegetable food product made by 
bees from the nectar of flowers and 
deposited by them in the cells of their 
honeycomb as a food for themselves and 
their young. When produced by young 
bees, it is called virgin honey, and is 
much whiter, purer and better than that 
made by old bees. Honey derives its 
flavor largely from the plants from 
which the bees collect it. Honey forms 
not only a valuable, healthful food, but 
it is also used largely in medicine as a 
laxative and as an expectorant in cough 
remedies. Honey is generally sold as 
_a liquid, after being extracted from the 
honeycomb, although much of it is mar- 
keted in the comb. Honey is adulterated 
chiefly with glucose and cane sugar. See 
BEE; GLUCOSE. 

Honeybee. See BEE, subhead Honey- 
bee. . 

Honey Locust, a large tree of the 
Pea, or Pulse, Family, found occasion- 
ally in forests but attaining its greatest 
growth when isolated. It then has a 
broad, rounded top and drooping, lat- 
eral branches, which make it easily rec- 
ognized. The bark of the locust is made 
up of thin scales closely pressed to the 
trunk. The leaves have many tiny, oval 
leaflets, and at the base of each leafstalk 
is a long, shiny, brown thorn. The flow- 
ers, which are green and rich in honey, 


HONGKONG 


produce long, curly pods that are so thin 
as to disclose the position of every tiny 
seed contained within. The honey locust 
is found in central United States, and 
its wood, which is strong and. durable, 
is used in making posts and railway ties. 
The mesquite is also called the honey 
locust. See MESQUITE. 

Honeysuckle, a name given to a num- 
ber of shrubs and herbs of the Honey- 
suckle Fam- . 
ily. The true 
honeysuckles 
have twining, 
woody stems 
with leaves 
cenenaliy 
evergreen, the 
upper pairs 
being united 
about the 
stems. The 
flower has a 
long red or 
yellow tube 


with five 
i | short lobes, 
HONEYSUCKLE as: inset ie 


trumpet hon- 
eysuckle, or two white or purple lips, one 
broad and one narrow, as in the Euro- 
pean honeysuckle. Several wild species 
are also found which have smooth leaves, 
white, scentless flowers and more bushy 
stems. The fruit is a red berry. The 
fly honeysuckles are upright bushes, with 
leaves never united and with a pair of 
flowers on a stem. These flowers ripen 
into two berries, which are often united. 
The Tartarian fly honeysuckle is most 
common. in cultivation, as its pinkish 
flowers are profuse and showy in the 
spring. There are wild species having 
yellow flowers and round-lobed leaves. 
These have red or purple berries. The 
wild columbine is sometimes wrongly 
called wild honeysuckle. 

Hong’kong’, a British island posses- 
sion, separated from the southeast coast 
of China by the narrow channel known 
as Ly-e-Mun (Carpfish Pass). It is 
10% m. long and contains an area of 
29 sq. m. The outline of the. island is 


1367 


HONOLULU 


very irregular, and its surface consists 
of bald ranges of irregular granite hills 
between which wind bleak and dreary 
valleys. Victoria Park, the highest point, 
is 1825 ft. above sea level. Victoria, the 
capital and largest city, is situated on a 
beautiful bay along the north shore. It 
contains the Anglican and Roman cathe- 
drals, the city hall, Queen’s College, the 
Government House, the Clock Tower, 
the large business houses and ware- 
houses. The products of the island are 
oranges, pears, mangoes, lichens and 
building stone. 
merce are flour, ivory, mercury, opium, 
betel, amber, wools, salt, cotton and su- 
gar. Among the industries are granite 
quarrying, sugar refining, tanning, cotton 
spinning and weaving, ship and boat 
building, rope making, wood and ivory 
carving and gold beating 

Hongkong is a free port.. It was 
made a separate colony in 1843, and 
since 1857 has no longer been under the 
control of the minister-plenipotentiary 
to China, but has had its own governor 
and council., Population of the island 
in 1906, 326,961. 

Hon”olu’lu, the capital city of the 
Hawaiian Islands, situated on the south 
coast of Oahu and forming one of the 
great ports of the Pacific. The pleasant 
climate has always made Honolulu: an 
attractive residence city, and as it was 
originally well laid out, it has been easily 
kept beautiful. Much attention has been 
given streets, squares and public gardens, 
and the favorable climate has made veg- 
etation luxuriant. Among the interest- 
ing buildings are the large government 
buildings, the former royal palace, a 
public library, a museum, schools and 
several excellent hospitals. The numer- 
ous schools and colleges make the city 
an educational center for the islands. 
The industries are represented by the 
great warehouses, the wharves, with fa- 
cilities for the largest vessels, the foun- 
dries and the manufactories of iron and 
ice. Steamship service unites the city with 
San Francisco and other Pacific ports. 
The newspapers of the city are published 
in English, Hawaiian, Japanese and 


The articles of com-_ 


HOOD 


Chinese. Population in 1920, U. S. Cont 


sus, 83,327. 

Hood, John Bell (1831-1879), an 
American soldier, born in Owingsville, ~ 
Ky., and educated at West Point. 
1861 he entered the Confederate sery- 
ice. 


em 
a 


In 


I 


He commanded the largest division © 


of Longstreet’s corps at Gettysburg, and — 


lost a leg at Chickamauga. 
ant-general he served with Johnston in 
the Atlanta campaign, superseding him 
in command in July, 1864, and in ac- 
cordance with his instructions to draw 
Sherman out of Georgia, immediately 
marched northward into Tennessee. His 
army was almost annihilated at Frank- 
lin and Nashville, and he was relieved 
of command, at his own request, in Jan- 
uary, 1865. 

Hood, Robin, in English legends, a 
hero outlaw, first mentioned in the sec- 
ond edition of Piers the Plowman, about 
1377. He was variously represented: as 
the last of the Saxons, resisting Nor- 
man encroachment; as a follower of 
Simon de Montfort; as the insurgent 
Earl of Lancaster; or as one Robert 
Locksley, a manslayer. His comrades 
were principally Lieutenant Little John, 
Chaplain Friar Tuck, William Scathlock, 
George-a-Green, Much and Maid Ma- 
rian. With these he was supposed: to 
dwell in Sherwood Forest, in Notting- 
hamshire, and in woods of Barnsdale, 
in West Riding. Robin Hood, as the 
people’s ideal, was a yeoman, a brave, 
jocular sportsman and an especially apt 


As lieuten- — 


archer, who gave to the poor what he 


stole from the rich. 


Hood, Thomas (1799-1845), an Eng- 


lish poet and humorist, born in London. 


In 1821 he became editor of the Lon- 


don Magazine, and in 1830 began the 
publication of the Comic Annual, in 


which appeared some of his most hu- | 
morous, whimsical productions. He lived — 


in Coblenz, Germany, from 1835 to 1840. 


After his return to London he was the — 


editor of the New Monthly Magazine, 
and later established Hood's Magazine. 


His fondness for punning became a se- — 
rious fault, but in his better moments — 


his wit and intermingling of comedy 


1368 


3 


HOODED SEAL 


and pathos were admirable. On a bed 
of sickness which became his deathbed, 
he wrote the incomparable Bridge of 
Sighs and Song of the Shirt. He touched 
on the great human and social interests 
of his time, his pictures of poverty and 
toil emphasizing the need for immediate 
relief. Other works are Hero and 
Leander, Eugene Aram’s Dream and 
Ode to Melancholy. 

Hooded Seal.. See SEAL. 

Hoog’ly River. See Hucri River. 

Hooker, Joseph (1814-1879), an 
American soldier, born in Hadley, Mass., 
and educated at West Point. He re- 
signed from the army in 1858 and en- 
gaged in private business in California 
until May, 1861. He was then appointed 
brigadier-general of volunteers and was 
assigned to the Army of the Potomac, 
in which he became popularly known as 
“Fighting Joe’° Hooker. He _ distin- 
guished “himself during the Peninsula 
Campaign, at South Mountain and at 
Antietam, where he was severely wound- 
ed, and soon after was appointed briga- 
dier-general in the regular army. Sub- 
sequently he was division commander 
at Fredericksburg, and in January, 1863, 
succeeded General Burnside in command 
of the Army of the Potomac. However, 
after a crushing defeat at Chancellors- 
ville (See CHANCELLORSVILLE, BATTLE 
OF), he was superseded by General 
Meade, at his own request. Then join- 
ing Rosecrans, Hooker distinguished 
himself in the “Battle Above the Clouds” 


(Lookout Mountain), being thereupon 


brevetted major-general in the regular 
army, and with Sherman did efficient 
work in the Atlanta campaign of 1864. 
Hooker, Richard (about 1553-1600), 
an illustrious English theologian, born 
at Exeter. Through the influence of 
Bishop Jewel of Salisbury, he was sent 
to Oxford when about 15. In 1582 he 
took holy orders, and soon plunged into 
that controversy with Puritanism which 
caused him to write his great work, The 
Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. Four of 
its eight books appeared in 1594 and 
the last three after his death. It pre- 
sents Hooker’s theory of the origin of 


‘ HOOKWORM 


government and its bearing on the 


Church, 
Church. 

Hooker, Thomas (about 1586-1647), 
an American colonist and clergyman, 
born in Leicestershire, England. He was 
educated at Cambridge, and entered the 
ministry in London. In 1633 he came 
to New England and settled in Cam- 
bridge. In 1636 he and his congrega- 
tion removed to the Connecticut Valley, 
and established a settlement at Hartford. 
In 1639 he had a conference with John 
Winthrop regarding the formation of 
the New England Confederation as a 
means of defense against the French and 
Indians. This conference resulted in the 
adoption of the Fundamental Orders, 
which became effective the same year 
and formed the first of any kind of con- 
stitution in this country. Hooker was 
the author of An Exposition of the 
Principles of Religion, The Soule’s In- 
grafting Into Christ and The Saini’s 
Guide. See CONNECTICUT, FUNDAMEN- 
TAL ORDERS OF. 

Hook’worm”, a microscopic, cylin- 
drical worm so named because of the 
sharp, strong hooks in the mouth. There 
are several species, all of which are 
parasites, some upon man and some upon 
cattle. Those attacking man are the 
cause of a serious disease variously 
known as hookworm disease, miners’ 
anzmia, tunnel disease, brickmakers’ 
disease and Egyptian chlorosis. The 
worms are small white objects from 
one-half to three-fourths of an inch long 
and having about the same circumfer- 
ence as No. 8 cotton thread. They enter 
the body upon unclean foods, such as 
lettuce, celery, onions, strawberries, rad- 
ishes, etc., that have been grown in pol- 
luted soil or treated with infected fer- 
tilizer, or they crawl through the skin 
of the feet of a person walking bare- 
foot or wearing leaky shoes on damp, 
polluted ground. Drinking infected wa- 
ter or wading in infected streams is 
also a common means of allowing their 
entrance. Through the blood the worms 
reach the lungs and throat and from 
there make their way to the small in- 


and defends the Anglican 


47 1369 


HOOKWORM 


testines, where they cling to the walls, 
suck the blood and inject a poison into 
the circulation. They multiply rapidly, 
and though the adults are able to live 
only in the intestines, the eggs pass out 
in the discharges, and the hatching 
worms live in water or the soil until they 
can again find entrance into the human 
body. 

The disease which these parasites 
cause manifests itself in impaired diges- 
tion, pain in the stomach, headache, 
shortness of breath, diarrhea or consti- 
pation, sores, swelling of the limbs, diz- 
ziness and stunted growth. In mild 
cases only a few of these symptoms ap- 
pear. Hookworm disease is a slowly- 
developing disease and for that reason 
is perhaps less regarded than a deadly 
epidemic, which generally receives wide- 
spread and speedy attention. 

In southern United States, the Phil- 
ippines, Porto Rico, Guam, Egypt and 
southern Europe much attention is being 
given to the extermination of the hook- 
worm. Three suggestions are made by 
the Arkansas Board of Health in regard 
to stamping out the disease: (1) the 
wearing of good shoes; (2) the curing 
of all infected persons; and (3) the in- 
stallation of sanitary sewage systems. 
The presence of the hookworm in the 
intestines may be discovered by medical 
examination, and a treatment by means 
of cathartics, especially Epsom salts, and 
thymol being found effective in its cure. 

Hoover, Herbert Clarke (1874—). A 
celebrated mining engineer and man of 
affairs, becoming prominent in the World 
War as an organizer of government re- 
lief work. He was born at West Branch, 
Iowa, educated at the Leland Stanford 
Junior University, graduating in 1895. 
He was a member of the United States 
Geological Survey for the Sierra Moun- 
tains. Subsequently, he became widely 
known as a mining expert and manager 
of extensive mining properties in Aus- 
tralia. He was chief engineer of the 
Chinese Imperial Bureau of Mines and 
made extensive exploration in the inte- 
rior of China. Afterwards he was man- 
ager and mining expert for many prop- 


HOOSAC TUNNEL 


erties in various countries in the Far 
East. When the World War broke out, he ~ 
attracted attention by his management of © 
various relief organizations in Europe, — 
especially the Belgian Relief Organiza- 
tion. In 1917 he was appointed Food 
Supervisor for the United States. After 
the war he continued to act as chairman 
of relief organizations, paying special at- 
tention to famine stricken sections of 
Europe. In 1921 President Harding ap- — 
pointed him Secretary of Commerce. 
Hoopoe, Hoo’ poo, a bird related to the 
Hornbill Family, living in Europe, Asia 
and Africa. The best-known species is 
about a foot long, and is a brownish 
or buff-colored bird with black wings 
and tail, more or less barred with black 


Ss 


S S ww ~ 
KV a ] 


HOOPOE 


and white. The bill is long and slender 
and slightly curved, and the head is sur- 
mounted by a large, orange-brown crest, 
extending from the bill to the back of — 
the head, which may be raised and low- 
ered at will. The nest is usually made ~ 
in hollow trees, but fissures in rocks, as 
well as holes in banks, are used. Five 
to seven greenish-blue eggs are laid. In- 
cubation occupies 16 days. The hoopoe 
feeds principally on insects. It has the 
peculiar habit of rapping large objects 
on the ground and tossing them in the 
air before swallowing them. 

Hoo’sac Tunnel, one of the longest 
railway tunnels of the United States. It 
passes over four miles through Hoosac 
Mountain in northwestern Massachusetts, 


1370 


HOP 


and was constructed for the Boston & 
Albany Railroad at a cost of $11,000,000. 
The tunnel was begun in 1856, but was 
not completed until 1873. Near its cen- 
ter a ventilating shaft 1028 ft. deep has 
been sunk. Two tracks extend through 
the tunnel, which is 24 ft. wide and 2234 
ft. high. 

Hop, an important, climbing plant oi 
the Nettle Family used sparingly as a 
medicine and in large quantities in the 
manufacture of beer and other malt 
liquors. The plant has long, twining 
stems and broad, three- to seven-lobed 
leaves, heart-shaped in form and notched 


Vt 


2771p ne 


APS 
snd 


(a 
U4 
ee 


HOPS 


on the margins. The flowers upon one 


plant are stamen-bearing, or staminate, 


and those upon another fruit-producing, 
or pistillate. The pistillate plants are 
the only ones of importance, since their 
flowers are the ones used commercially. 
They are inconspicuous and grow in 
scale-covered, conelike clusters, which 
are yellowish-green in color and soft in 
texture. Hops are grown in rows and 
climbing upon poles, which arrangement 
allows them to present a sufficient sur- 
face to the sunlight and to hold the 
blossoms up so that they may develop 
well. The picking, which takes place 


HOPKINS 


when the flower cones become papery or 
turn to a darker yellow, occupies about 
two weeks and must be. done at the 
proper time, as otherwise the flowers 
are liable to lose their “hop meal,” a 


yellowish dust, which is found at the 


base of the flowers and which is an 
important ingredient in beer making. 
After being picked, the hops, as the 
flower heads are called, are dried, either 
artificially or by sun heat, and stored 
until required for use. 

There are many species, each of which 
has its own claim to importance. The 
chief hop-producing countries are the 
United States, Germany, Great Britain 
and Austria; in the United States, Ore- 
gon, California and New York lead in 
the amount and quality produced. Asa 
medicine, hops are used to make a rem- 
edy for dyspepsia, and hop pillows are 


said to induce sleep. 


Hopkins, John Castell (1864- Ne 
a Canadian editor and author, born in 
Iowa. In 1893 he resigned as associate 
editor of the Toronto Daily Empire to 
devote his entire attention to political 
writings on phases of Canadian progress 
and British imperialism and to compiling 
and editing books of reference. He edi- 
ted Canadian Encyclopedia of the Coun- 
try and published: Toronto: An Histori- 
cal Sketch, Life and Work of Mr. Glad- 
stone, History of South Africa and Life 
of King Edward VII. He has, more- 
over, edited various Canadian annuals 
and written innumerable pamphlets on 
historical subjects. 

Hopkins, Stephen (1707-1785), an 
American statesman, signer of the Dec- 
laration of Independence, born in Rhode 
Island. Early a merchant and surveyor, 
he became a member of the General 
Assembly in 1732. In 1739 he became 
chief justice of the Court of Common 
Pleas and in 1751, of the Superior Court. 
Three years later he was a delegate to 
the Albany Convention, and, excepting 
four years, was governor of Rhode Is- 
land from 1754 to 1768. He was a mem- 
ber of the First Continental Congress 
from 1776 to 1778. Throughout the 
Revolutionary period he published many 


1371 


HOPKINSON 


pamphlets favoring the colonial cause. 
For many years he was chancellor of 
Brown University. 

Hop’kinson, Joseph (1770-1842), an 
American jurist and song writer, born 
in Philadelphia, Pa. After graduating 
at the University of Pennsylvania in 
1786, he rose to high rank in the pro- 
fession of law. From 1828 until his 
death he served as district judge, -and 
in 1837 was a member of the Penn- 
sylvania Constitutional Convention. Hop- 
kinson wrote legal essays, but is best re- 
membered for the national song Hail 
Columbia, which not only attained im- 
mediate popularity, but is today a favor- 
ite. 

Hopkinsville, Ky., a city and the 
county seat of Christian Co., 71 m. nw. 
of Nashville, Tenn., on the Illinois Cen- 
tral, the Louisville & Nashville and other 
railroads. The principal industrial in- 
terests are connected with the cultiva- 
tion of tobacco and the preparing of this 
product for the market. » The manufac- 
tures include flour, lumber, wagons, car- 
riages, lime and brick. There is con- 
siderable trade in coal, live stock, hay, 
wheat, corn and flour. Hopkinsville is 
the seat of Bethel Female College, excel- 
lent public school with modern courses 
and equipment, and of the Western Ken- 
tucky Asylum for the Insane. Hopkins- 
ville was named in honor of Samuel 
Hopkins, pioneer, soldier and congress- 
man. The place was incorporated in 
1798, and has the commission form of 
government. Population in 1920, 9,690. 

Hor’ace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) 
(65-8 B. C.), a Roman poet, born at 
Venusia, a small town in Apulia. His 
father left the farm and removed to 
Rome, and the son, profiting by these 
improved advantages for receiving an 
education, soon became well versed in 
Latin and Greek literature and philos- 
ophy. Lack of money drove him to 
writing verse, and friendship with Ver- 
gil, Varius and Mecenas brought him 
into the companionship of the best lit- 
erary men of his age. His first book 
of satires, called Sermones, was issued 
in 35 B. C. Another volume followed 


HOREHOUND 


a few years later, a marked advance 
on the first, which had received but 
slight favorable comment. At the age 
of 42 he published the first three books 
of his Odes, and the excellence of this 
work brought him immediately into the 
front rank of poets. The Epistles tol- 
lowed, the second volume of which was 
devoted to literary criticism, and the 
third probably containing his formal 
essay, Art of Poeiry. 

Next to Vergil, and possibly not ex- 
cepting him, Horace has been the most 
widely read of all the Roman writers. 
He wrote a great deal about himself, 
and one of the notes of originality in 
his work is the intimate, personal re- 
lationship that he establishes between 
himself and the reader. A truthful and 
accurate painter of the social life and 
manners of the ancient world, he is 
neither passionate nor ecstatic, nor mys- 
tical, but for the inspiration of his odes 
he drew freely upon the pleasures of a 
life lived among the Sabine hills, and 
from the leisure and peace of the open. 
In his later writings there is a manly 
Stoicism gradually replacing the passive 
Epicureanism of his younger years, and 
his philosophy is that of a genuine mor- 
alist who makes the most of life, at the 
same time reflecting without anxiety on a 
certain departure from the world. He 
was a master of simple and natural style, 
of form, meter and rhythm, of stateli- 
ness and dignity of expression. 

Hore’hound”, or Hoar’hound”’, a 
common, rough herb of the Mint Fam- — 
ily whose leaves and tops are used me- 
dicinally. The plant has a square, erect 
stem, opposite, heart-shaped leaves with 
wavy edges, and clusters of tiny, laven- 
der flowers, growing around the stem 
in the axils of each pair of leaves. The 
entire plant has a pleasing, aromatic 
odor. There are two distinct species, 
the black and the white horehound, each 
of which is valued medicinally. The 
plant is native in Europe and Asia and 
has been brought to the United States, 
where it is produced in herb cardens 
for the use of drug factories. As a 
medicine horehound is chiefly used as a 


1372 


HORN 


cough or throat remedy and is often put 
up in candy form. 
Horn, the name given in a general 


sense to the hard, bonelike substance © 


growing from the heads of animals, such 
as deer, cattle, sheep and goats. There 
are two kinds of horn, one being a pro- 
longation of growth of the actual bone 
structure and the other being a hard- 


ening of the epidermis, or outer layer 


of the skin. Horn is a hard, tough, 
flexible, translucent substance found in 
its greatest development among animals 
of the Ox Family and also in the shell 
of the tortoise, and the nails, hoofs, bills 
and quills of other creatures. 

Horn can be softened by heat and 
rendered flexible, as well as weldable, 
and is easily stamped and otherwise fab- 
ricated into various articles, such as han- 
dles for knives, forks, canes and um- 
brellas, for combs, buttons, drinking 
cups and many varieties of boxes: At 
one time thin plates of horn were used 
for windowpanes, lanterns and book cov- 
ers. See TorTOISE SHELL. 

Horn, the name of a large class of 
musical instruments, originally formed 
from the horn of an animal. The horns 
in most common use are in the form 
of a twisted tube with a cup-shaped 
mouthpiece and terminate in a spread- 
ing bell. Horns are of two kinds—the 
natural and the valve horn. The tone of 
the natural horn is regulated by the force 
of the performer’s breath, the pressure 
of his lips, or by “stopping” the orifice 
of the instrument by inserting his hand 
in it. In the valve horns there are three 
pistons, operated by the player’s fingers, 
which give to the tube additional sec- 
tions, in this way varying the pitch. By 
using them separately, or in combina- 
tion, the pitch may be lowered anywhere 
from a semitone to three whole tones. 

Horn’beam”, a _ substantial tree of 
the Birch Family, one species of which 
is native in North America. The tree 
is often found in groves of maples or 
elms or along banks of streams, where 
its thick foliage gives a delightful shade. 
The hornbeam has an irregular trunk 
covered with.a tight, gray bark, much 


HORNBLENDE 


like that of the beech, and often shaded 
with light or darker spots. The branches 
are tough and marked by long, twisted 
grooves. The leaves are long-oval, 
pointed, and sharply-toothed; the veins 
form prominent ridges on the underside 
of the leaf. The flowers are inconspicu- 
ous, but the fruit, which is a dry, winged 
nut, is foliagelike and adds greatly to 
the beauty of the tree. The wood is 
hard and tough and light brown in color; 


‘it is used for fuel or occasionally in the 


manufacture of woodenware. Hornbeam 
is is also called blue beech, water beech 
and ironwood. It grows in North Amer- 
ica from Quebec to Central America, 
and in the Old World from Sweden 
to southern Europe, in Asia Minor, in. 
China and in Japan. See Ironwoop. 

Horn’bill” Family, birds related to 
the woodpeckers, easily recognized by 
the long, pointed bill, the upper man- 
dible of which is peculiarly modified, 
being widened out or forming a great 
hornylike projection. In size the spe- 
cies vary from one and one-half to four 
feet. A number of species nest in hol- 
low trees, laying two to four eggs. While 
the female is sitting upon the eggs the 
male plasters up the opening with mud, 
leaving a small aperture through which 
she may be fed. When the young are 
ready to fly, the male breaks down the 
plaster and releases the family. The 
hornbills, of which about 70 species are 
known, are confined to the warmer re- 
gions of India, Africa and Malaysia. 

RHINOCEROS HorNBILL. ‘This is about 
45 inches in length and is the best-known 
species. The general color is black, with 
steely reflections; the rump, tail coverts 
and abdomen are white; the tail is white, 
with a black band; the bill is yellowish; 
and the horny appendage is black, red 
and orange. 

Hornblende, Horn’ blend”, one of the 
most abundant and widely distributed 
of minerals. It is an important constit- 
uent of many different kinds of rock, 
chiefly granites and basalts. It crystal- 
lizes in a diversity of forms and dis- 
plays a variety of colors. Hornblende 
is brittle, has a glossy luster and is of 


1373 


HORNED TOAD 


the hardness of feldspar. Some species 
are opaque, others transparent. It forms 
needlelike crystals, arranged in various 
ways, and it may be green, pink, white 
or black, forming beautiful cabinet spec- 
imens, 

Horned Toad, a desert lizard of the 
Iguana Family represented by 15 species, 
all of which might better be spoken of 
as horned lizards. They inhabit the 
United States, chiefly the southwestern 
part, and are recognizable by their flat, 
toadlike bodies with a fringe of mar- 
ginal spines. The scales, with which 
they are covered, are fine, but the head 
has large, ferocious-looking spikes on 
the chin, temples and back. These liz- 
ards are remarkably swift and run about 
in the sun on the hot desert sand after 
their insect prey. The Texas horned toad, 
which is the species generally brought 
East by tourists, has the peculiar defen- 
sive power of squirting, from a gland 
beneath the eye, a fine stream of blood 
calculated to blind its enemy. See 
LIZARD. 

Hornell’, N. Y., a) city of) Steuben 
Co., 93 m. s.e. of Buffalo, on the Canis- 
teo River and on the Erie and -the 
Pittsburgh, Shawmut & Northern rail- 
roads. It was known as Upper Canis- 
teo until 1820, when it was incorporated 
as a separate town. The city has sev- 
eral public parks, and contains a free 
library, St. Ann’s Academy: and St. 
James Mercy Hospital. Its manufactures 
include railway supplies, white goods, 
electrical machinery, sash, doors, furni- 
ture and other articles. Population in 
1920; US) Censts)15,025, | 

Hor’net, a family of large wasps of 
the order Hymenoptera. In color, hor- 
nets are brown or black and banded with 
white or yellow lines. Their nests are 
constructed in the eaves of buildings, in 
hoilow tree trunks, the branches of trees 
or even below ground, and are made of 


the thin, gray wasp paper which they 


manufacture from small pieces of wood 
and leaves. These nests are often so 
large that two or three branches are 
necessary to support them, and there are 
several enveloping layers of the paper. 


ee GM 
.) ae 
hi? : 4 


HORSE 


Hornets are social wasps living in colo-— 


nies and feeding upon insects, honey and 
pollen. 
can cause painful wounds. See Wasp. 

Horse, a family belonging to the or- 
der of solid-hoofed animals, or Ungu- 
iata, and containing members that have 
been of the greatest service to man in 
the progress of civilization. The grace- 
ful carriage horses and the heavy draft 
horses of today are very different from 
their common ancestor, which was of 


small size and had five toes upon each — 


foot. The modern horse is an importa- 
tion of Asian descent, coming either 
from hardy Northern stock or the fleet 
Arabian steed. Careful breeding has de- 
veloped two main classes from these, the 
light and the heavy horses. The former 
are those required for light work and 
for speed; they are classed as running, 
trotting, pacing, saddle, coach or express 
horses. The draft horses are of three 
classes: light draft, weighing from 1500 
to 1600 lb. ; the medium draft, from 1600 
to 1800 lb.; and the heavy draft, from 
1800 up. t 

The points by which a horse is judged 
vary according to the purpose for which 
it is desired. In general, a light horse 
should be tall and have long limbs and 
a greyhound build. The distance from 
its chest to the ground should be more 


than one-half the distance from the with- 


ers to the ground, and its chest should 
be narrow but deep. Draft horses, on 


_ the contrary, should be of massive build, 


broad and low set. At maturity they 
should weigh from 1500 to 2400 Ib. 
Breeps. Much attention has been 
given to the breeding of horses for dif- 
ferent purposes. 


The Percheron, which was developed in 
France, is a deep-bodied type, gener- 


ally of gray color, and is popular in 


the West; it is this type that was the 
subject of Rosa Bonheur’s picture, The 
fTorse Fair. The Belgian, developed in 
Belgium, is more blocky than the Per- 


cheron, and is generally roan, chestnut 


or bay in color. The Clydesdale breed, 
developed in Scotland, has longer legs 


1374 


They have long stings which ~ 


There are four prin-_ 
cipal breeds of draft horses in America. 


‘ 


THE PRIDE OF THEIR OWNERS 


JUPITER, LARGEST DRAFT HORSE IN AMERICA 


His weight Is 2650 pounds. 


RAW MATERIAL OF SUPERIOR 


HAMPSHIRE DOWN LAMBS 


HORSE-CHESTNUT 
{ 
and lighter body; its colors are brown 
or black, usually with white markings, 
especially upon the feet. The Shire, de- 
veloped in England, is much like the 
Clydesdale, but is heavier. 

There are seven principal breeds an 
light horses, used chiefly as carriage or 
running horses. Of these the German 
coach and the French coach are the larg- 
est, both being from 16 to 16% hands 
high. The Hackney, an English breed, 
is smaller, but is noted for its power 
of endurance, splendid constitution and 
good action. The Cleveland Bay, also a 
coach horse, is large and strong, but 
not of as pleasing build. Roadsters 
are bred for speed and are slender in 
body and have longer legs than the coach 
horses. The thoroughbred is a cross be- 
tween the light English horse and the 
Arabian horse. It is of lithe form and 
graceful build. A Kentucky horse of 
this breed holds the world’s record of 
one mile in one minute, 35% seconds. 
The American trotter and the American, 
or Kentucky, saddle horse differ chiefly 
in pace; they were developed in the 
United States, principally in Kentucky. 

Ponies are small horses noted for their 
speed and endurance (See Pony). The 
ass is a domesticated member of the 
Horse Family used as a beast of bur- 
den, and the mule is a cross between 
the horse and the ass (See Ass; MuLe). 
For practical discussion of the horse, its 
care, training and diseases, and of horse 
breeding, consult Harper, The Training 
and Breaking of Horses; Harper, Man- 
wal of Farm Animals; Marshall, Breed- 
ing of Farm Animals. 

Horse-Chestnut, a popular shade 
tree of the Horse-Chestnut Family, easily 
recognized in summer by its large, star- 
like clusters of leaves, and in winter, by 
its large resin-covered buds. It is a 
large tree, with a rounding top, which 
is of sufficient size to shade a great area 
O18 lawn) The © bark'is’. scaly; the 
branches, dividing not far from the 
ground, are completely covered by 
spreading, blunt-topped leaflets, which 
are arranged so as to present a wide 
surface to the sunlight. In summer the 


HORSE LATITUDES 


stiff, full clusters of white or yellow, 
red- spotted blossoms are very showy. 
The fruit is globular and is covered by 
a three-divided, prickly bur of yellow- 
ish green color without, and having a 
soft, white lining within. The nuts, of 
which there may be one, two or even 
three in a shell, have a leathery, shining 
brown coat with a noticeable, tan-col- 
ored base and two plump but bitter- 
tasting seed leaves. The bark of the 


Us N 


HORSE-CHESTNUT 


horse-chestnut is useful in medicine and 
for tanning purposes; the wood is used 
for the blind work of cabinetmaking and 
for the manufacture of artificial limbs. 
The tree grows commonly throughout 
the United States and Europe. In the 
accompanying cut A represents the prick- 
ly, half-opened bur from which the nut 
has fallen; B is a spike of the showy 
blossoms with a single spreading leaf. 

Horsefly. See GApFLy. 

Horse Latitudes, belts of calms near 
the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. 
These belts are not continuous, but with- 
in them occur regions of calms. sepa- 
rated by regions where winds are blow- 
ing. Horse latitudes is the sailors’ name 


1375 


BE, ee “ ~_ 


HORSE MACKEREL 


for these calms, because years ago, when 
ships transporting horses were becalmed 
for a long time along the Tropic of 
Cancer, some of the horses were thrown 
overboard. 

Horse Mack’erel. See Tu’NA. 

Horse’rad”ish, a coarse plant of the 
Mustard Family whose tough, white roots 
are ground or grated and used as a con- 
diment with meats. The leaves are long 
and rough and have somewhat the same 
spicy flavor as the root; they are used 
for greens. The branching stem grows 
to a height of from two to four feet 
in fence corners, vacant lots and along 
the roadside, where it is looked upon 
aS a common weed, except in the spring 
when the gathering and preparing of its 
roots gives profitable employment to the 
small boy. The grated horseradish is 
put up with vinegar, but, unless soon 
eaten, loses its peppery flavor and be- 
comes flat to the taste. 

Horse’shoe”, a thin metal plate, usu- 
ally of iron, designed to fit a horse’s 
hoof and protect it from wear. It is 
especially necessary when horses are 
worked on hard roadways. The shoe is 
bent and forged to a shape to fit the 
bottom of the hoof, and held securely 
in place by nails driven through holes 
in the shoe and through the outer layer 
of the hoof. This work is performed 
by a horseshoer, who is usually a black- 
smith and who has a forge, anvil and 
the requisite tools. Shoes for horses 
that work on icy roads are provided 
with steel points or calks, one at each 
heel of the shoe and one at the toe. 
Those horses drawing loads on soft 
roads have shoes with soft-iron calks, 
while pleasure-driving horses are shod 
with plain shoes. Race horses usually 
have only a very thin plate instead of 
the heavy shoe of draft horses. Horse- 
shoes are made now principally by ma- 
chines and of soft steel instead of iron. 
Farm horses are generally unshod. Iron 
horseshoes were introduced into Europe 
about the ninth century, and taken to 
England by the Normans. For centuries, 
the shoemaker’s art had great honor in 
_ France and England. 


HORSETAIL 


Horseshoe Crab, or King Crab, an © 


order of the group Arachnida whose 


members are recognized by their ap- : 


pendages as being closely related to scor- 
pions, spiders and mites. They have 


firm, polished shells, shaped like a horse- } 


shoe, and long, pointed tails. They are 


aquatic and frequent muddy shores or — 


soft bottoms at a depth of from four 
to six fathoms. The shells have a prom- 


inent median ridge, on either side of © 


which, near the front, lies a small me- 
dian eye; farther back and nearer the 
outer edges of the shell are two large, 
lateral eyes. The mouth is still farther 
back and is large enough to be easily 
reached by the appendages which assist 
in the feeding. The food consists of 
bivalves and Mollusks of all sorts. There 
are four species of horseshoe crabs—one 
found in the United States, one in China 
and Japan and two in the East Indies. 
-Horsetail, or Equisetum, Ek” wi se’ 
tum, one of the highest forms of spore- 
producing plants and a member of the 
Horsetail Family. Though these plants 
are found all over the world, there is 
but one genus known at present and 
this is represented by only 25 species. 
From what we are able to learn of these 
plants in previous geological periods, we 
are led to believe that the horsetails 
were once an important family includ- 
ing, not only small plants as at present, 
but trees which grew to a height of 
nearly 100 ft. 
cies are low plants often found grow- 
ing along railroad tracks or in dry waste 
ground, but occasionally discovered in 
swamps or deep woods; there is, how- 
ever, one South American species that 
attains a height of 40 ft. The horsetail 
rises from a branching rootstock which 
is apt to have tiny tubers for storing 
nourishment for its period of hiberna- 
tion. The stem is erect and hollow; those 
which remaiz unbranched are fertile 
plants and will bear spores, the tiny 


bodies which take the place of seeds; 


others branch and are commonly sterile 
plants. The leaves are scalelike struc- 
tures which unite into cups surround- 
ing the stems at regular intervals. The 


1376 


Now, the commonest spe- — 


HORTICULTURE 


branches grow from the axils of. the 
leaves, and encircle the stem in a spread- 
ing whorl with the leaf cup at their 
bases. 
a pointed stem, but the fertile produce 
a conelike cap which contains the spores. 
The method of reproduction by means of 
these spores is extremely complicated. 
The horsetails are easily recognized by 
their peculiar growth, lack of ordinary 
green coloring matter and their conse- 
quent yellowish-brown color. Moreover, 
the stems of all horsetails contain a 
great deal of silica, which makes their 
fibers and cell walls so hard that they 
are used in polishing wood and metal. 


HORSETAIL 


-Hor’ticul’ture, a branch of agricul- 
ture which deals with the growing of 
fruits, vegetables, ornamental shrubs and 
flowering plants. It formerly referred 
only to the care of the garden, but with 
the increased study of agriculture in 
schools and colleges, horticulture has de- 
veloped into a profession which includes 
many departments. The successful hor- 
ticulturist must have a practical knowl- 
edge of botany, especially with regard 


to variations of species and the laws — 


that govern them, plant diseases and 
their treatment, soils, fruit development, 
etc. The various departments of horti- 
culture are commonly known as: truck 


The unfertile horsetails end in. 


Era: 


HOSPITAL 


farming, or market gardening, which is 
the raising of vegetables for the market; 
pomology, which is the study of fruits; 
arboriculture, which is the cultivation of 
trees; and floriculture, which is the cul- 
tivation of shrubs, ornamental trees and 
flowering plants. See AGRICULTURE; 
ForESTRY ; GARDENING. 

Hosea, Ho ze’ a, a book of the Old 
Testament following Daniel and preced- 
ing Joel; also the name of the author 
of this book, one of the minor Hebrew 
prophets. Hosea began to prophesy un- 
der Uzziah, King of Judah, and Jero- 
boam, King of Israel, continuing his 
prophesying until the time of Hezekiah, 
great-grandson of Uzziah. The book of 
flosea contains: (1) a symbolical rep- 


resentation of the adoption, rebellion and 


rejection of the people, the conversion 
of the Gentiles and the final restoration 
of Israel; (2) prophetic discourses, il- 
lustrated by vivid imagery. See BIBLE, 
subhead The Old Testament. 

Hosmer, Hoz’ mer, Harriet Goodhue 
(1830-1908), an American sculptor. She 
studied anatomy in the St.' Louis Med- 
ical College and clay modeling at Bos- 
ton, and at the age of 22 went to Rome. 
The remainder of her life was spent in 
Italy. She became known in 1856 
through an exhibition of a. statuette, 
called Puck. Among her most note- 
worthy productions are Zenobia im 


Chains, The Sleeping Faun, A Waking 


Faun and Beatrice Cenci. 

Hos’pital, an institution for giving 
medical treatment to the sick or injured. 
Hospitals were founded in India, Persia 
and Arabia long before the Christian 
The Greeks and Romans main- 
tained shelter houses, with attendants, 
for the sick. One of the earliest of 
these institutions was. that founded by 
Valens in 370. .In the time of the 
Crusades numerous hospitals were built, 
and knights called hospitalers were in 
attendance. 

All hospitals belong to one or the 
other of two principal groups, the gen- 
eral and the special. General hospitals 
are of two kinds: (1) clinical and (2) 
nonclinical. The clinical hospital is at- 


1377 


‘ 


HOSPITAL, MILITARY 


tached to a medical school and usually 
is situated in its immediate vicinity. 
These institutions are intended primarily 
for the care of the sick and wounded, 
and secondarily to furnish means of in- 
struction to students of medicine and of 
nursing. The nurses in these hospitals 
are under the immediate control of an 
interne, or resident doctor, who has ob- 
tained the position through competitive 
examination. The interne is under su- 
pervision of the school instructors, who 
may be also practicing physicians and 
who visit the hospital at specified times. 
A nonclinical hospital is one that is not 
connected with a medical school and to 
which students of medicine are not ad- 
mitted for observation. 

Special hospitals are those which make 
a specialty of treating one disease or 
one class of persons to the exclusion of 
all others. In the former: group are hos- 
pitals for cancer, tuberculosis, paralysis, 
erysipelas, skin diseases and for treat- 
ment of diseases of the eye, ear, nose 
and throat. To the latter group belong 
women’s hospitals, children’s hospitals, 
military and naval hospitals, and hos- 
pitals for the insane. 

The main principles of hospital con- 
struction and operation are pretty gen- 
erally followed in all medical practice. 
The important feature of the hospital 
is the ward, a large room intended to 
accommodate several patients on single 
beds. Wherever possible the wards 
should be separated from the remainder 
of the hospital and should be built as 
pavilions of one or not more than 
two stories. A representative institution 
employing the pavilion plan in the Johns 
Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Md. 
Its pavilions are two stories high, and 
each contains two wards which occupy 
the entire upper and lower floors. These 
buildings are arranged in rows and con- 
nected by tunnels beneath the corridors. 
A large number of city hospitals are 
contained in a single building several 
stories in height, and constructed to pro- 
vide every facility for treatment. 

Hospital, Military, a place for the 
care and treatment of sick or wounded 


HOT-AIR ENGINE 


soldiers. Military hospitals are of twe 
kinds, permanent and field hospitals. 
Permanent hospitals are established in 
convenient and sanitary places, and at 
army.posts and forts. The General Med- 
ical Hospital at Ft. Bayard, New Mexico, 
is maintained for the treatment of con- 
sumptives from the United States army 
and navy. At Hot Springs, Ark., offi- 
cers and men, whether active or retired, 
are treated. Field hospitals are portable, 
and can be very quickly put in readiness | 
to receive those who may be wounded 
in the field. From these field hospitals 
the wounded are removed, as soon as 
possible, to the station hospital, which 
is placed between the field of action 
and the base of supplies. 

Hospital Ship, a ship accompanying 
ali warlike expeditions, to care for the 
sick and wounded. The hospital ships 
of the United States navy are fitted to 
serve either as stationary or movable 
hospitals as occasion may require. They 
are painted white, with green bands 
along the sides, and fly the Red Cross 
flag and the national flag. Hospital ships 
are regarded by all civilized nations as 
exempt from attack so long as they are 
not armed, and give aid to only the sick 
and wounded. 

Hos’tage, a person given as a pledge 
for the fulfillment of certain conditions. 
Hostages were formerly exchanged be- 
tween parties at war with each other, 
as guaranty that prisoners would be 
properly treated, or that a city captured 
would not be destroyed. When the con- 
ditions are fulfilled the hostages are re- 
turned. If the conditions are not ful- 
filled the hostage may be put to death 
or otherwise punished. 

Hot-Air Engine, an engine having 
its piston propelled by the expansive 
force of heated air. It differs from the 
steam engine in design, principle and 
construction, as it uses air at very low 
pressures. It consists of a light, up- 
right frame, with bearings at the top 
carrying a crank shaft with pulleys and 
flywheels-and a connecting rod. In the 
bottom of the frame is hung a combus- 
tion chamber arranged to burn gas, coal 


1378 


HOTBED AND COLD FRAME 


or wood, and over it rests an upright 
cylinder into which is fitted a piston. 
When the air is heated, the piston moves 
up and the air is exhausted at the end 
of the stroke through valves, and when 
the cylinder is cooled by water, the pis- 
ton moves down or returns, and so on. 
Hot-air engines are built in sizes of 
from half-horse to 10-horsepower, and 
are used chiefly for pumping water. 

Hotbed and Cold Frame, common 
terms used to express a seedbed and its 
covering. A hotbed is a seedbed, made 
by having a deep layer of fermenting 
compost or horse manure mixed with a 
few inches of fine, sifted loam, and a 
cold frame is the wooden frame with 
a glass or cloth cover placed around 
and over the hotbed to protect the plants 
growing in the beds from frost and 
rain. It is employed in starting plants 
before removal to a greenhouse. The 
fermentation heats the soil, while the 
cold frame prevents a too rapid radia- 
tion and loss of heat. They are some- 
‘times used separately, especially in warm 
climates. Cold frames are frequently 
used alone to force violets into bloom. 
There is no heat except sunlight used 
in hotbeds or under cold frames. The 
cold frame should slope with its glass 
roof towards the south, and should be 
hinged and arranged so as to allow for 
the ventilation of the hotbed. See 
GREEN HOUSE. 

Hotch’kiss, Benjamin Berkely (1826- 
1885), an American inventor, born in 
Watertown, Conn. A machinist, he in- 
vented -the Hotchkiss magazine gun, 
which was adopted by the government, 
as was his system of rifle projectiles, 
which was extensively used during the 
Civil War. His revolving cannon was 
introduced into Europe in 1867. Sub- 
sequently he invented a magazine rifle. 

Hot Springs. See THERMAL SPRINGS. 

Hot Springs, Ark., a city and the 
county seat of Garland Co., 54 m. s.w. 
of Little Rock, on the Chicago, Rock 
Island & Pacific, the St. Louis, Iron 
Mountain & Southern, the Little Rock & 
Hot Springs Western and other rail- 
roads. It is built in several mountain 


HOUDON 


ravines and partly on a plateau, and is 
one of the most beautiful towns in the 
United States, being famed for its min- 
eral waters and delightful climate. There 
are 72 thermal springs rising within an 
area of ten acres on the-side of Hot 


Springs Mountain. The daily flow from 


these springs is approximately 1,000,000 
gallons. They vary in temperature from 
76° to 157° F. and possess remarkable 
curative properties. Since 1832 the land 
containing the springs has been a na- 
tional reservation, and large sums have 
been expended by the United States 
Government in improvements. An army 
and navy hospital has been established 
here and bathhouses free to the public 
are maintained. There are numerous 
other baths, hotels and other accommo- 
dations for visitors, who number more 
than 100,000 annually, and the chief busi- 
ness interests of the town are centered 
in the care of these transients. Besides 
the springs, an important natural resource 
of the city is novaculite rock of fine 
quality found in the vicinity and from 
which hones are made. The first per- 
manent settlement on the site dates from 
1828 ; the place was incorporated in 1876 
and chartered‘as a city three years later. 
Population in 1920, 11,695. 

Hot’tentots, a peculiar race living in 
western Province of Cape of Good Hope 
and throughout the southern part of 
Africa. They are of medium height; 
their skin is an olive-brown; the cheek- 
bones are prominent. The chin is 
pointed, giving the face a strange, tri- 
angular contour. They have been a 
nomadic race, and ‘as cattle breeders 
they were constantly moving from one 
meadow ground to another. Their re- 
ligion is chiefly ancestor worship. In 
1904 the mixed Hottentot population 
numbered over 85,000, but those of pure 
blood represent only about one-fourth of 
this number. 

Houdon, Oo” don’, Jean Antoine 
(1741-1828), a French sculptor, born at 
Versailles. He made numerous portrait 
busts of eminent men, among them 
George Washington. In 1788 he became 
a member of the French Institute, and 


1379 


HOUGH 


was decorated with the insignia of the 
Legion of Honor. His chief works are 
busts of Gluck, Franklin, Mirabeau and 
Rousseau, a Statue of Voltaire, Mor- 
pheus and Diana the Huntress. 

Hough, Huf, Emerson (1857-1923), 
an American author, born in Newton, 
Iowa, and educated at the State Uni- 
versity of lowa. He has traveled ex- 
tensively in the western part of the 
United States, exploring, on.skis, Yel- 
lowstone Park in the winter of 1895. 
The outcome of this trip was an act of 
Congress protecting the Yellowstone 
buffalo.. Besides several short stories 
for magazines, he has written The Story 
of the Cowboy, The Gurl at the Half- 
way House, The Mississippi Bubble, 
Heart’s Desire, Fifty-four Forty or 
Fight, The Purchase Price and Young 
Alaskans on the Trail, and The Web. 

Hound, a class of dogs which, be- 
cause of their keen scent and their speed, 
are used in the hunt. They have droop- 
ing ears, large, rounding heads and, 
generally, wrinkled faces. Their usual 
color is black and tan. When the term 
hound is used without a descriptive ad- 
jective the foxhound is probably the dog 
referred to. Other 
hounds are the 
‘bloodhound, stag- 
hound, otter- 
hound, harrier, 
beagle, dachs- 
hund, pointer and 
Dalmatian coach 
dog; most of 
these are treated 
under their re- 
spective titles. 
The greyhounds, 
which have keen 
sight, but prac- 
tically no ability 
to follow a scent, 
belong to a group 
by themselves. 

Hourglass, a 
device employed in ancient times to 
measure an hour and its fractions. Its 
use dates before sundials and clocks. It 
consists of two glass bulbs connected by 


HOURGLASS 


HOUSELEEK 


required to boil eggs, and is known as 
an egg glass. . 


Housatonic, Hoo” sa ton’ ik, a river — 


of the United States, rising in the west- 
ern part of Massachusetts amid the 
Berkshire Hills. 


across Connecticut and empties into 


a contracted neck, the upper bulk having — 
a sufficient amount of fine dry sand to © 
flow through the opening in the neck in~ 
one hour. The glass bulbs were mounted — 
on a frame, so that one stood above © 
the other, and the sand flowed from the 
upper to the lower bulb. A modifica- — 
tion of it is employed now chiefly as a © 
convenient method of showing the time — 


It flows southward 


Lang Island Sound. The length is about — 
150 m., and it is noted for its beautiful f 


scenery. 

Houseboat, a type of boat used com- 
monly throughout the world by those 
who, while enjoying outdoor life and an 
occasional change of scene, prefer not 
to abandon the comforts of home life. 
Some of the older houseboats carry sails, 
but many are towed from place to place 
as desired. One steam craft, the Lon- 
don, measures 130 ft. over all, and 


makes 12 knots an hour under favor- ~ 


able conditions. Those equipped with 


gasoline engines are now most popular. 


On the Thames, houseboats became pop- 
ular as early as 1870. They abound on 


the Pacific coast, and on the Great Mis-— 
sissippi system, on the St. Lawrence, on ~ 
many lakes, and especially on the exten-— 
sive waterways of Florida, where some 


of the largest and best are now found. 
Houseleek, or Live-Forever, a pecu- 


liar low plant of the Orpine Family, fre- — 
quently found in the United States grow- 
ing in dooryards or by roadsides, and in © 
England planted upon roofs or walls. — 


The plants reproduce by means of leafy 


shoots, or suckers, which, after growing — 


out a short distance from the mother- 


plant, put forth roots and become new — 
households, circled so closely about the — 
old that ‘children call them “old hen and © 
The stems and leaves of the - 
houseleek are thick and fleshy, the lat-— 
ter growing in circled clusters around the © 
stem ; they are oval in form with smooth — 


1380 


chickens.”’ 


‘Lebanon. 


HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 


edges. The flowers are green or purple 
with five, pointed, leaflike sepals, five 
spreading petals and five or ten stamens 
of unequal length. The undeveloped 
fruits) heim 
four erect lit- 
tle pods which 
are found in 
the center of 
7 the blossoms. 

House of 
Representa- 
tives. See Con- 
GRESS. 

Houston, Hu’ stun, Sam (1793-1863), 
soldier and president of Texas, born in 
Rockbridge County, Va. On the death 
of his father the family removed to Ten- 
nessee where the lad lived much of the 
time, with the Cherokee Indians, one of 
whom adopted him as his son. In 1813 
he enlisted in the United States army, 
serving under Andrew Jackson. He re- 
sisned from the army in 1818, studied 
law in Nashville, and began practice at 
From 1823 to 1827 he served 
in Congress, and was in the latter year 
elected governor of Tennessee. From 
1829 to 1832 he lived again among the 
Cherokee Indians, after which he went to 
Washington in their interest. In 1832 
he went to Texas, and in 1835 was made 
commander-in-chief of the army of 
Texas in its conflict with Mexico. He 
was a member of the state convention 
that declared the independence of Texas 
in March, 1836, and by defeating Santa 
Anna in the Battle of San Jacinto in 
April of the same year made independ- 
ence an actuality. 

In September Houston was elected 
president of the new republic. He was 
largely instrumental in the admission of 
Texas into the Union-in 1845, and at 
that time became United: States sena- 
tor from the new state, serving until 
1859, when he was elected governor. 
In 1861 he retired from public life and 
went to-his home in Huntsville, where 
he died two years later. 

Houston, Tex., a port of entry, the 
county seat of Harris Co., the third city 
of the state in size and an important 


HOUSELEEK 


HOUSTON 


railroad and commercial center. It is 
located upon Buffalo Bayou, 48 m. n.w. 
of Galveston and 145 m. s.e. of Austin, 
on the Southern Pacific, the Gulf, Colo- 
rado & Santa Fe, the Missouri, Kansas 
& Texas, the International & Great 
Northern, the St. Louis, Brownsville & 
Mexico and several other railroads. The 
great Ship Channel, with its turning ba- 
sin, is 54 m. in length and permits the 
passage of the largest ocean-going ves- 
sels. This, with the numerous railroads, 
makes Houston a notable shipping point 
whose importance will increase with the 
opening of the Panama Canal. 

STREETS, BOULEVARDS AND PARKS. 
Houston has broad, paved streets and is 
approached by well-kept gravel and shell- 
graded roads. ‘These are so beautified 
by handsome magnolia trees that the 
city is known as the “Magnolia City.” 
Its suburbs are filled with pleasant homes 
and surrounded by forests of pine, oak, 
ash, elm and cottonwood. Its park sys- 
tem is extensive and includes Sam Hous- 
ton, Cleveland, Elizabeth Baldwin, High- | 
land and Herman Settegast Parks 
and’.a boulevard circling the eity 
and at five points in its course broaden- 
ing into parkways enhanced with gar- 
dens and pagodas. Houston has many 
near-by pleasure resorts, being but an 
hour by train, interurban or motor from 
surf bathing and deep-sea fishing. 

Pustic Burtpines. Among the inter- 
esting buildings of the city are the new 
Auditorium, seating 7,000 persons, the 
county courthouse, the Y. M. C. A. 
Building, the city hall with its adjacent 
covered market, the Federal Building, the 
buildings of Rice Institute, the new ter- 
minal station, the Carnegie Lyceum and 
Library, several modern apartment 
houses and many handsome office build- 
ings. On the Channel or in various at- 
tractive spots in and about the city are 
the homes of the Houston Launch Club, 
the Houston Club, the Country Club, the 
Press Club, the Concordia Club, the Tha- 
lian Club, the Turn Verein Club and 
others. Its hotels are among the finest 
in the state, and the many churches are 
exceptionally attractive in appearance. 


1384 


HOWARD 


Aside from the well-equipped schools 
of the public school system, Houston has 
Rice Institute of Literature, Art and 
Science, the St. Agnes Academy and sev- 
eral excellent private schools and busi- 
ness colleges. 

InpusTRIES. Houston’s industries are 
varied in character. It lies in a farm- 
ing district in the winter truck-growing 
section of the South, and is a market 
for corn, cotton, sugar cane, rice, alfalfa, 
vegetables, fruits, cattle and dairy prod- 
ucts. Its surrounding forests of yellow 
pine and hard wood make it a notable 
lumber market, and its red cedar is in 
constant demand for pencils. There are 
large  coffee-roasting establishments, 
charcoal kilns, iron foundries, railroad 
shops, a meat-packing plant and, pecul- 
iar to this city, great nurseries where 
the beautiful Cape jessamine is culti- 
vated for shipment both as a decorative 
shrub and for its flowers. The manu- 
factured products include hardware, car 
wheels, elevators and escalators, organs, 
pianos, cottonseed products, ice and fur- 
niture. 

History. Houston was platted and 
settled in 1836 and was named in honor 
of Gen. Sam Houston, an American sol- 


dier, who helped Texas secure her in- 


dependence. The city was the capital of 
the Republic of Texas from 1837 to 
1839, when the seat of government was 
removed to Austin. Annually the city 
devotes one week of November to a great 
pageant, or carnival, known as the No- 
Tsu-Oh Carnival, similar in character to 
the Mardi Gras of New Orleans. Dur- 
ing this period the city gives itself 
up to gayety. and to a civic celebration 
of extensive proportions enjoyed both 
by citizens and by a large number of 
guests. Houston has the commission 
form of government. Population in 1920, 
MeS. Censts 1 d8 276) 

How’ard, Catharine (1520-1542), fifth 
wife of Henry VIII, a granddaughter 
of the second Duke of Norfolk. She 
married Henry in 1540, within three 
weeks after he had divorced Anne of 
Cleves; but in a few months she was 
accused of immoral conduct, and, follow- 


1382 


HOWE 


ing a trial at which her guilt was appar- 
ently established, she was beheaded. 

Howard, John (1726-1790), an Eng- 
lish philanthropist. He hastened to the 
help of the survivors of the Lisbon earth- 
quake in 1755, and was taken prisoner 
by the French, but was soon released. 
While high sheriff for Bedfordshire, he 
became interested in jail reform and vis- 
ited the prisons of England and Europe 
to study how to secure better regula- 
tions for prisoners. He died at Kher- — 
son in Russia. He wrote State of the  ~ 
Prisons in England and Wales and An 
Account of the Principal Lazarettos m 
Europe. ) 

Howard, Oliver Otis (1830-1909), an 
American soldier, born in Leeds, Me., 
and educated at Bowdoin College and 
at West Point. He served in the Sem- © 
inole War, for a time instructed in math- 
ematics at West Point, and in June, 1861, 
took command of the Third Maine Reg- 
iment, commanding a brigade at Bull 
Run.’ Three months later he became © 
brigadier-general of volunteers. At the 
Battle of Fair Oaks he lost his right 
arm, later did conspicuous work at An- 
tietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville 
and Gettysburg, was efficient in the cam- 
paign about Chattanooga and com- 
manded Sherman’s right wing in the 


march to the sea and through the Caro- _ 


linas. In March, 1865, he was brevetted 
major-general in the regular army. After 
the war, General Howard was commis- 
sioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau, until 
July, 1874. In that year he was assigned 
to the command of the Department of 
the Columbia. From 1880 to 1882 he 
was superintendent at West Point. In 
1894 he resigned as major-general, and 
the following year founded, at Cumber- 
land Gap, Tenn., the Lincoln Memorial 
University. 

Howe, Elias (1819-1867), the in- 
ventor of the sewing machine, born at 
Spencer, Mass. After securing a com- 
mon school education, he was employed 
for some time’ at Lowell, Mass., in a 
factory for the manufacture of machin- 
ery for working cotton. He went from 
there to Cambridge. While employed 


HOWE 


there Howe began to work upon a sew- 
ing machine, which he completed and 
patented after five years. Being with- 
out sufficient means to manufacture the 
machine, and failing to interest capital- 
ists, he went to Europe, but with no bet- 
ter success. Returning, he found others 
infringing upon his patents and won a 
suit against them in 1854. Thereatter 
manufacturers paid him a royalty which 
afforded him an ample income. He was 
a private in the Civil War. Howe was 
decorated with the cross of the Legion of 
Honor, and received numerous medals. 
Howe, Julia Ward (1819-1910), an 
American author, born in New York 
City. She married Dr. Samuel Gridley 
Howe in 1843, assisted him in editing 
the Commonwealth and worked zealous- 
ly in favor of the abolition of slavery. 
She was one of the organizers of the 
American Woman Suffrage Association 
and the Association for the Advance- 
ment of Women, was president of the 
New England Women’s Club = and 
founded the Woman’s Peace Association 
in London. The Battle Hymn of the 
Republic was by far her most popular 
poem, but all her verse is characterized 
by a distinct lyric quality. Her works 
include Passion Flowers, Modern Soci- 
ety, A Memoir of Dr. Samuel G. Howe, 
Life of Margaret Fuller and Reminis- 
cences. Her verse is collected in From 
Sunset Ridge, Poems, New and Old. 
Howe, Richard, Eart (1726-1799), a 
British admiral, born in London. When 
14 years of age he entered the navy in 
the Severn, which went into the South 
Seas with Anson, and he next served 
in the West Indies. Later, during the 
Jacobite rising of 1745, he was severely 
wounded in the head in an engagetnent 
in the North Sea. As captain ‘of the 
Cornwall he met the Spaniards off Ha- 
vana, October, 1748, and in 1755 he 
came to America with Boscawen, serv- 
ing with distinction. Having been pro- 
moted vice-admiral, Howe was put in 
command of the North America station 
in 1776 because of his leniency toward 
the colonial cause. He had several en- 
gagements with the French fleet under 


HOWE 


D’Estaing off Sandy Hook and New- 
port. In 1782 he distinguished, himself 
by carrying out the final relief of Gibral- 
tar, when the combined fleets of France 
and Spain refused to accept his offer 
of battle. He became first lord of ad+ 
miralty in 1783 and five years later was 
made an earl. But Howe was still to 
see the most brilliant service of his ca- 
reer; during the war with France, in 


1793, he won the epoch-making victory 


of the “Glorious First of June.” 

Howe, Samuel Gridley (1801-1876), 
“the Cadmus of the Blind,” in Whittier’s 
The Hero, was born at Boston and edu- 
cated at Brown University and the Har- 
vard Medical School. Fired by the poems 
of Byron, he served the Greeks for six 
years in their struggle for independence. 
During the succeeding three years he 
raised more than $60,000 for the relief 
of the Greek sufferers, wrote his His- 
torical Sketch of the Greek Revolution, 
and became surgeon-general of the Greek 
fleet. After studying the methods of 
European institutions for educating the 
blind, he served from 1832 until his death 
as superintendent of the first American 
school for the blind. He was also the 
founder of the first American school for 
the feeble-minded. In 1851 he was one 
of the founders and editor of the Bos- 
ton Daily Commonwealth, an anti-slav- 
ery paper, and in this work was assisted 
by his wife, Julia Ward Howe. See 
BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE; FEEBLE- 


- Minvep, EDUCATION OF THE. 


Howe, Sir William (1729-1814), a 
British general, brother of Richard, Earl 
Howe. He entered the cavalry in 1746 
and by 1757 had become a lieutenant- 
colonel, in which capacity he served with 
distinction during the last French and 
Indian War in America. At the out- 
break of the Revolution he was sent, 
though much against his preferences, to 
Boston. He led in storming Bunker 
Hill, was promoted lieutenant-general 
and succeeded to the chief command of 
the army. After two successful cam- 
paigns and an inactive winter at Phila- 
delphia, which caused an investigation in 
which he was not censured, Howe re- 


1383 


HOWELLS 


signed, May, 1778. In 1793 he became 
general, two years later governed Ber- 
wick-on-Tweed and in 1805 governed 
Plymouth. 

How’ells, William Dean (1837-1920), 
an American novelist, born at Martin’s 
Ferry, Ohio. In his father’s office he 
learned the printer’s trade, and in 1859 
was appointed news editor of the Olio 
State Journal. After serving as consul 
at Venice he became connected with the 
New York papers, the Tribune, the 
Times and the Nation. He was editor- 
in-chief of the Atlantic Monthly from 
1872 to 1881, conducted “The Editor’s 
Study” and “The Easy Chair” for Har- 
pers Magazine from 1886 to 1892, and 
edited the Cosmopolitan for a short time. 
In fiction he is the chief American rep- 
resentative of the realistic school. He 
has a sympathetic understanding of the 
common people; a favorite and recur- 
ring type in his novels is the self-made 
man. His observations on social and 
political conditions are keen; his work 
is characterized by wit, saneness and 
artistic excellence. He has written Their 
Wedding Journey, A Foregone Conclu- 
sion, The Rise of Silas Lapham, A Hasz- 
ard of New Fortunes, A Modern In- 
stance, Out of the Question, Modern 
Italian Poets, Impressions and E-xperi- 
ences and,A Boy's Town. 

How’itzer, a cannon longer in pro- 
portion to its caliber than a mortar and 
shorter than a gun. The howitzer is 
used in connection with infantry in field 
and siege service. It throws a shell at 
a high angle and with small muzzle ve- 
locity. This enables it to fire over the 
heads of the infantry and drop its shells 
into the fort or intrenchments of the en- 
emy, The largest howitzers throw a shell 
16%% inches in diameter over five feet 
long and weighing over 2100 pounds. 
Their range is from seven to ten miles. 
See CANNON; ARTILLERY; ARMY. 

Howl’er, an American monkey of the 
Marmoset Family. Members of the fam- 
ily are easily recognized by the presence 
of a merely rudimentary thumb upon 
each “hand” and by the possession, by 
the males of the species, of a greatly 


- HUCKLEBERRY 


enlarged throat, which gives them a bel. . 


lowing voice audible for two miles or 
They are large, powerful ani- . 


more. 
mals, but of low grade of reece 


In color they are red-brown, brown or ~ 
black, but the sexes differ in color as ~ 
Howlers are © 


they do among the birds. 
killed by the Mexicans and South Amer- 


ican Indians for food, and their long ~ 


hair is used in making cordage. About 
seven species are known. 
Hub’bard, Elbert (1859-1915), 


American author and lecturer, born in — 


Bloomington, Ill. He established the 
Roycroft Shop, in East Aurora, 


for the purpose of reviving interest in 


old handicrafts, and more especially in — , 


the artistic making of books. The Philis- 
tine, a periodical containing an individ- 
ual philosophy, was also founded by him. 
He has published a series of biographies 
under the title of Little Journeys, includ- 
ing the lives of artists, musicians, ora- 
tors, philosophers and authors. He also 
wrote Old John Burroughs, Thomas 
Jefferson and Man of Sorrows. 
Huck’leberry, a shrub of the Heath 
Family, bearing an edible fruit of the 
same name. There are many species 
known, several of which are confounded 
with the blueberry, a member of an al- 
lied genus. The common huckleberry of 
the swamp is a high shrub having slen- 
der, spreading stems, which often attain 
a height of ten feet or more. The leaves 


are small and oval or somewhat wedge- 
shaped and, in the fall, take on beau- — 
The flow-— 


tiful red and orange shades. 
ers are white and bell-shaped, often 


tinged with pink or marked with pale ~ 


pink lines. The fruit is a sweet, juicy 
berry containing a few small seeds; it 
is blue-black in color, has no bloom and 
bears upon its apex the remains of the 
calyx. Low-bush huckleberries grow on 
low or rocky ground and are only one 
to three feet in height. The Northern 


huckleberry is really a blueberry, and is — 


distinguished by the soft, white bloom 


upon the fruit. Huckleberries grow from ~ 


New England south and west in almost 


all of the states Face those of the exe 


treme south. 


1384 


N. Ya 


to the Spice Islands. 


HUDSON 
Hudson, Henry ( 


is in 1607, when he set sail from Lon- 
don to search for a northeast passage 
He succeeded in 
getting north beyond the 80th degree of 
latitude. Ona second voyage in 1608 he 
reached Nova Zembla. In a third voy- 
age he sailed to the south and discov- 
ered the Hudson River in 1609, sailing 
up to about the point where Albany now 
stands. In 1610 he made a last effort 
to find the passage, and discovered the 
strait and the bay now bearing his name. 
Here he wintered, but hardship mad- 
dened the crew, who, in 1611, set Hud- 
son, his son John and seven faithful fol- 
lowers adrift. Nothing was ever heard 
of them. 

Hudson, N. Y., county seat of Co- 
lumbia Co., 28 m. s. of Albany on the 
east bank of the Hudson River, and on 
the New York Central & Hudson River 
and the Boston & Albany railroads. A 
steam ferry plies between this place and 
Athens, on the west side of the river. It 
is finely situated on Prospect Hill, which 
commands a view of the Hudson Valley. 
Among its noteworthy buildings are the 
New York State Training School for 
Girls, Hudson Orphan Asylum, State 
Volunteer Firemen’s Home, state ar- 
mory and St. Mary’s Academy. Hudson 
was settled as Claverack Landing by 
New Englanders in 1783. It has exten- 
sive manufactories of car wheels, ale, 
lumber, tobacco, machinery, Portland ce- 
ment, white goods, etc. Population in 
1920, 11,745. 

Hudson Bay, a gulf in the northeast- 
ern part of Canada. It connects with 
the Atlantic Ocean through Hudson 
Strait and with the Arctic Ocean through 
Fox Channel. The total area is 400,000 
sq. m.; its depth, about 70 fathoms. At 
its north end is Southampton Island; to 
the south it ends in a prolongation known 
as James Bay. There are few storms 
and fogs, and the waters are never en- 
tirely ice-locked, but navigation is en- 
dangered by floating icebergs and floes. 
Seal, salmon, whale and walrus are 
found. The winter months are long and 


?-1611), English 


explorer. His first appearance in history 


HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY 


severe. Henry Hudson discovered the 
bay in 1610. 

Hudson River, one of the most im- 
portant commercial highways in the 
United States and the largest river of 
the State of New York, rising in the 
small lake “Tear of the Clouds” near 
Mt. Marcy in the Adirondack Moun- 
tains. The river crosses the state in a 
nearly north and south direction and 
enters New York Bay at the city of New 
York, separating Manhattan Island from 
the State of New Jersey. The river at 
this point is known as the North River 
and is not a river, but an arm of the 
sea. The Hudson has a total length 
of about 350 m. and the tide ascends 
150 m. to Troy, which is at the head 
of navigation. Magnificent steamers ply 
between Troy, Albany and New York. 
The largest tributaries are the Mohawk, 
Hoosic, Wallkill and Sacondaga rivers. 

The Hudson River is unrivaled among 
the rivers of America for picturesque 
and beautiful scenery. In the first part 
of its course the river has many rapids, 
and at Glens Falls there is a fall of 
about 50 ft. Between this city and Troy 
the river furnishes vast power for man- 
ufacturing purposes. Below Newburgh 
the river passes through the beautiful 
Highlands of the Hudson, whose peaks 
rise abruptly to a height of 1000 to 1600 
ft. Tappan and Haverstraw bays are 
expanded parts of the river, the former 
bay being about 4 m. wide and 13 m. 
long. At Piermont, where the river 
again contracts, the Palisades, 300 to 500 
ft. in height, rise picturesquely on the 


west bank and extend for 20 m., the 


opposite bank being. dotted with towns 
and cities. The river derives its name 
from Henry Hudson, who sailed to the 
mouth of the Mohawk, at Cohoes, in 
September, 1609. The Indian name for 
the river was Shatemuc. The Hudson 
has always occupied an important posi- 
tion in the historical as well as the com- 
mercial life of the nation, and is fittingly 
called the “Rhine of America.” 
Hudson’s Bay Company, an English 
trading company organized in 1670 for 
the purpose of trading in furs in the 


1385 


HUERTA 


region around Hudson Bay. For nearly 
a century the company suffered from the 
conflicts between the French and Eng- 
lish and made little progress. When the 
French relinquished their claims in North 
America to the English, the company 
began to prosper and to extend its influ- 
ence. By 1856 it had over 3000 em- 
ployees and was practically responsible 
for the administration of law in all the 
British Northwest. It exerted a power- 
ful influence in the political affairs of 
Canada. But when the Dominion was 
formed in 1867, settlers began to invade 
the company’s domain, and in 1869 it 
sold its territory to the Dominion. 
Huerta, Victoriano, Vic tor ri ahn' no 
Whert' tah. See MExico,subhead History. 
Hugh Capet, Hu Ka’ pet. See CAPE- 
TIAN DyNasTy. 
Hughes, Hewz, Charles Evans (1862- 
), an American jurist and statesman, 
born at Glens Falls, N. Y. He studied 
at Brown and Colgate universities and 
Columbia Law School. He became pro- 
fessor of law in Cornell University in 
1891, and afterwards lecturer in the New 
York Law School. He first came into 
public notice as counsel for the Legisla- 
tive Committee of New York in their 
investigation of certain gas, electric-light 
and insurance companies.- He was gov- 
ernor of New York State for four years, 
beginning in 1907. In 1910 he was ap- 
pointed associate justice of the United 
States Supreme Court. Being nominated 
for president by the Republican National 
Convention in 1916, he resigned from the 
bench, and when defeated in the elec- 
tion he resumed the practice of his pro- 
fession. He entered President Harding’s 
cabinet as Secretary of State in 1921. 
Hughes, James Laughlin (1846- 
), a Canadian educator. He was 
born near Bowmanville, Ontario, and 
educated at the Toronto Normal School, 
where he became an assistant in the 
model school at the age of 20. He was 
influential in the establishment of kin- 
dergartens in Ontario, in 1893 was chair- 
man of the elementary department in 
the World’s Congress of Education at 


ae > and is widely known as a lec- 


HUGHES 


turer on educational subjects. His works ; 
include Dickens as an Educator, The ~ 
Practical Speller and a Topical History ~ 


of England. 


Hughes, John (1797-1864), first 


Archbishop of New York, born at Anna- 
loghan, Ireland. His father emigrated ta 


the United States in 1816 and settled 
in Pennsylvania. After coming to Amer- ~ 
ica the son was placed in Mount St. © 
Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, Md., to ~ 


study for the priesthood. He was or- 


dained in 1826, and his remarkable pow- ~ 


ers first attracted widespread attention 
and admiration when he engaged in a 
controversy with a distinguished Pres- 
byterian clergyman, Rev. J. A. Breck- 
enridge. In 1838 he was consecrated 
Bishop of Basileopulis and coadjutor of 
New York. He was raised to the dig- 
nity of Archbishop of New York in July, 
1850. Archbishop Hughes abolished trus- 
teeism in the New York Diocese, in 
1841 he brought about the overthrow 
of the Public School Society which he 
thought was undermining the religion of 
the children, and later founded the Cath- 
olic School system now existing in New 
York. 


was intrusted with an important mission 
to the court of Napoleon III, and prob- 
ably dissuaded him from recognizing the 
Confederacy. He was a staunch sup- 
porter of the Holy See in its trouble 
with the Italian Government, raising a 
fund of $53,000 as an offering from his 
diocese to the Pope. 

Hughes, Samuel (1853-1921), a Ca- 


nadian legislator, born in Ontario and ~ 


At the outbreak of the Civil — 
War, although not an Abolitionist, he — 
‘boldly sustained the Union cause, and 


educated at Toronto University and at 


the Royal Military Schools. 
tured for ten years in Toronto College 
Institute, on English language, litera- 


ture and history, and in 1885 turned his 4 


attention entirely to journalism, being 


He lec- — 


editor and proprietor of the Lindsay ~ 


Warder from then until 1897. Having 
entered the volunteer militia, he became 
lieutenant-colonel by 1897, and, after 


serving with distinction in the South © 


African War, 1899-1900, he was pro- 


1386 


~, 


HUGHES 


moted colonel, 1902. A Conservative, he 
sat for North Victoria in the House of 
Commons from 1892 to 1904, and after 
that he represented Victoria. and Hali- 
burton. In October, 1911, he entered 
the Borden cabinet as minister of militia 
and defense. 

Hughes, Thomas. (1823-1896), an 
English author, born in Uffington. He 
studied at Rugby under Dr. Thomas Ar- 
nold, graduated at Oxford in 1845, was 
admitted to the bar three years later and 
became queen’s counsel in 1869. In 1880 
he established Rugby, a socialistic com- 
munity in Tennessee. He became famous 
as an author in 1856 with the appear- 
ance of Tom Brown's School Days, a 
truthful delineation of life in English 
public schools. Among his other works 
are Tom Brown at Oxford, The Scour- 
ing of the White Horse, Life of Alfred 
the Great and an edition of Lowell’s 
Biglow Papers. 

Hugli, Hoo’ gle, River, the principal 
delta channel of the Ganges River, 
formed by the junction of the three 
offsets (known as the Nadiya rivers), 
the Churni, the Jalangi and the Bhagi- 
rathi. It is 125 m. long, with an addi- 
tional estuary 35 m. in length, and is 
available for navigation, though under 
the influence of the southwest monsoon 
and frequently encumbered at its en- 
trance by large shoals. 

Hu’go, Victor Marie (1802-1885), a 
French dramatist, poet and novelist, born 
at Besancon. He was brought up a 
Royalist and a Catholic, and studied 
at Paris and. Madrid. At 17 he had 
competed for and won several prizes, 
and at the age of 20 he published a 
volume of odes, where he gave expres- 
sion to his youthful religious and polit- 
ical enthusiasm. In 1827 appeared the 
dramatic poem Cromwell, with the pref- 
ace in which he made his celebrated 
defense of the theories of the Roman- 
ticists. Three years later the drama Her- 
nant was presented, and for nearly 100 
nights the violent protests of the Classi- 
cists vied with the stormy applause from 
the enthusiastic supporters, of the new 
school. There was a burst of such in- 


HUGO 


_tense emotion expressed in the play as 


the theatergoers of the period had never 
witnessed before. In the same vein of 
spontaneity and freedom he produced the 
daring dramas The King Amuses Him- 
self, Lucréce Borgia, Marie Tudor and 
Ruy Blas, the last a triumphant com- 
bination of tragedy and high comedy, 
written in noble verse. In 1843 when 
The Burgraves was written, it became 
apparent that the author had conceived 
situations too grandiose for the limita- 
tions of the drama, and he gave up the 
work, turning his attention to politics. 

In 1841 he became a member of the 
French Academy and was made a peer 
by Louis Philippe four years later. When 
the Revolution of 1848 broke out, he 
supported Louis Napoleon, until Napo- 
leon no longer favored his advancement. 
Then he withdrew, joined the Demo- 
cratic Party, but was distrusted by his 
fellow Republicans and forced to flee to 
Brussels and England, where he remained 
in exile for about 20 years. In the books 
Napoleon the Little and History of a 
Crime his indignation is at white heat 
as he recalls how the Second Empire 
was founded. In 1871 he became a 
member of the National Assembly at 
Bordeaux; resigning, he went to Brus-. 
sels, where his defense of the Paris Com- 
mune brought about threatened mobs, 
and he was expelled from Belgium. 

From 1853 Hugo wrote chiefly fic- 
tion, only one of his larger novels, 
Notre-Dame de Paris, having previously 
appeared. Les Misérables, completed in 
1862, was published in ten different lan- 
guages on the same day. It is the great- 
est epic and dramatic work of fiction 
that has ever been produced. The story 
of a soul ennobled and glorified by suf- 
fering, it presents an alternating pano- 
rama of .sunlight and gloom, and al- 
though it had practically no influence on 
the development of fiction as such, its 
popularity remained unwaning for sey- 
eral succeeding decades. Other novels, 
revealing man in his blind struggle with 
fate and environment, are The Man Who 
Laughs, Toilers of the Sea and Ninety- 
three. 


1387 


HUGUENOTS 


Among his other works are The Chas- 
tisements, a series of poems bearing on 
the joys and sorrows of youth, the in- 
expressible loss of a loved daughter and 
the pains of exile, and The Legend of 
the Centuries, an epic which in sublimity 
and beauty rivals the splendor of even 
Dante and Milton. In 1864 he pub- 
lished William Shakespeare, in which 
eloquence runs riot as he pays homage 
to the bard of the 16th century. Hugo 
was first and last a lyricist and ranks 
as the greatest French poet of his cen- 
tury, as well as one among the greatest 
of all time. 

Huguenots, Hw' ge nots, a name given 
to the French Protestants during the 
15th and 16th centuries. The name, said 
to have been derived from that of King 
Hugo, at whose gate the Protestants met 
nightly, was applied to Protestants in 
much the same way as the term papist 
was given to the Catholics. The edict 
aiming at the extermination of the her- 
etics in 1535 had caused many Prot- 
estants to emigrate, and in 1538 the first 
French Protestant church was _ estab- 
lished at Strassburg with the famous 
John Calvin as its pastor (See CALVIN, 
Joun). About this same time, in spite 
of great opposition, the Church of Paris 
was organized, and a union of all Prot- 
estant churches in the kingdom was at- 
tempted. In 1559 the Synod of Paris 
was called to consider the constitution 
of Calvin; this synod gave its form as 
its name to like assemblies of the later- 
organized Presbyterian Church. The 
Huguenots had by this time attained con- 
siderable strength in France and num- 
bered- among their members such influ- 
ential people as Coligny, the Estiennes 
and Jeanne d’Albret, the mother of Henry 
of Navarre. With such assistance the 
Huguenots were enabled to form a po- 
litical party, which was opposed by the 
House of Guise, the leaders of the Cath- 
olic Party. The contests between the 
parties became as much political as they 
were religious, from this time, and re- 
sulted in a series of religious civil wars. 
After the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s 
Day (1572) the Protestants that re- 


HULL 


mained fled to their fortified towns, 
where after sieges and determined oppo- 
sition war was temporarily terminated, 
The Huguenots, though accused of an 
attempt to set up a government of their 
own, were at heart Royalists, and the 
little republic which they instituted’ was 
rather religious than civil. Of this re- 
public the Prince of Condé was the first 
president, and later Henry of Navarre 
headed it until he became King of 
France. The accession of Henry IV to 
the throne of France filled the Hugue- 
nots with a hope which was temporarily 
extinguished when Henry acknowledged 
the Catholic faith (See Henry IV), but 
was rewarded by the Edict of Nantes 
(See NANTES, Epict oF) in 1598, allow- 
ing religious liberty to Protestants. 
During the following years in~ the 
reign of Louis XIV the Edict was re- 
voked, and such persecutions of Prot- 
estants ensued that the Huguenots were 
driven in numbers to the New World, 
where their settlements in Nova Scotia, 
along the St. Lawrence, in South Caro- 
lina and along the Gulf hastened colo- 
nization. The Code Napoleon enacted 
in the 19th century placed Protestants 
and Catholics upon an equality in France. 
See Law, subhead Code Napoleon. 
Hull, a city of Canada in the Prov- 
ince of Quebec, on the Ottawa River 
and the Canadian Pacific Railway, 2 m. 
n. of Ottawa. It lies directly opposite 
the latter city and is connected with it 


‘by an electric tram and two large bridges. 


The city contains saw and planing mills, 
Portland cement works, a foundry, a 
packing house and factories for the pro- 
duction of paper, matches, sulphur, sul- 
phite, woodenware, bricks, furniture and 
axes. There are important mines of 
phosphate rock, mica and iron in the 
vicinity, and the falls in the Chaudiére 
River opposite the city constitute one 
of the finest cataracts in Canada. Popu- 
lation in 1911, 18,222. 

Hull, or Kingston-upon-Hull, a sea- 
port, civic, county, Parliamentary and 
municipal borough in East Riding, York- 
shire, England. The town is about 40 - 
m. by rail sie. of York and 20 m. from 


1388 


~ HULL 


the North Sea. The surroundings are 
uninteresting and far from picturesque, 
and the old quarter of the town, form- 
ing an irregular peninsula, is very 
crowded. Among prominent buildings 
are Trinity Church, the corn exchange, 
the new exchange, the Hull and East 
Riding College, the Royal Institution and 
numerous other educational establish- 
ments. It is the third port in importance 
in the kingdom. The exports include 
coal, machinery, oil, woolen and cotton 
goods and mill work; the imports, tim- 
ber, wool, flax, hemp, tallow, cattle and 
grain. The docks, among the largest in 
the world, cover 200 acres. After the 


' Norman Conquest the town rapidly de- 


veloped into a port of importance, and 
in 1298 it received its charter from Ed- 
ward I. Population, about 259,000. . 
Hull, Isaac (1773-1843), an American 
naval officer, born in Derby, Conn. He 
was commissioned lieutenant in the 
United States navy in 1798, commanded 
the Argus in 1804, engaged in the Bar- 
bary Wars and was given command of 
the Constitution, with which he suc- 


- cessfully evaded an attack by a supe- 


rior British force at the outbreak of the 
War of 1812. Off Newfoundland he 
soon afterwards captured the British 
frigate Guerriére, losing 14 men to the 
enemy’s 72. This was the first and most 
famous naval victory during the war. 
See CONSTITUTION, THE, 

Hull, William (1753-1825), an Amer- 


‘ican soldier, born in Derby, Conn., and 


educated at Yale. Becoming captain of 
a Connecticut regiment at the outbreak 
of the Revolution, he fought at White 
Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Saratoga, Ft. 
Stanwix, Monmouth and Stony Point. 
After the war he became a state senator 
and from 1805 to 1812 he was governor 
of Michigan Territory. In the latter 
year, when the second war with Eng- 
land opened, as a brigadier-general he 
was placed in command of the North- 
western army, with headquarters at De- 
troit. Hull exhibited inferior ability and 
failed to inspire the confidence of his 
troops, and finally surrendered Detroit— 
and all Michigan Territory—to the Brit- 


HUME > 


ish on Aug. 16. He was court-mar- 
tialed and sentenced to death for cow- 
ardice; but he was pardoned by Madi- 
son in consideration of his Revolution- 
ary services. 

Hull House. 
MENTS. 

Hum/bert I (1844-1900), King of 
Italy and successor of Victor Emman- 
uel II. In January, 1878, he succeeded 
to the throne of Italy and ruled care- 
fully according to constitutional law. In 
his foreign policy he was anxious to take 
an active part in European affairs, and 
for this reason he entered into a Triple 
Alliance with Germany and Austria. He 
earned the title of “Humbert the Good” 
by his lavish charity and his courage 
in the rescue work after the earthquake 
at Ischia in 1883 and during the cholera 
epidemic of 1884. After two unsuccess- 
ful attempts upon his life he was shot 
and killed near Milan by an anarchist. 

Hum/boldt, Alexander, BARON VON 
(1769-1859), a German naturalist, born 
at Berlin, and educated in the univer- 
sities of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Ber- 
lin and Gottingen, and at the academy 
in Hamburg. He also studied in the 
school of mining in Freiberg, and had 
the oversight of the Franconian mines. 
During his lifetime Humboldt visited 
South “America, Mexico, the West Indies, 
Siberia, central Asia and the countries 
of southern Europe. He was the lead- 
ing geographer of his time and his books 
were widely read, especially Kosmos, 
which is still regarded as a standard 
work. 

Hume, David (1711-1776), an Eng- 
lish historian and philosopher, born in 
Edinburgh, the youngest son of the laird 
of Ninewells. His education consisted 
chiefly in home reading, although he ap- 
pears to have attended the University of 
Edinburgh when 12 years old. He stud- 
ied law and engaged in mercantile af- 
fairs for a time, but soon abandoned 
both for the “pursuits of philosophy and 
learning,” to which he gave his life with 
much devotion. He spent three years in 
retirement in France (1734-1737), and 
wrote his Treatise of Human Nature, 


See SoctaAL SETTLE 


1389 


HUMIDITY 


Now regarded as one of the three or four 
most famous philosophical works of 
England, it attracted almost no atten- 
tion at the time of its publication. Turn- 
ing then to political theory, Hume pub- 
"ished Essays, Moral and Political (and 
Literary, added later). 

In 1748 he recast his earlier work in 
the Enquiry Concerning Human Under- 
standing; in 1751 he published Enquiry 
Concerning the Principles of Morals; 
and in 1752 appeared the Political Dis- 
courses, which have been called the 
“cradle of political economy.” At the 
same time he also wrote Dialogues on 
Natural Religion, published after his 
death. From 1754 to 1762 he published 
the various parts of his History of Eng- 
land, which immediately became a classic. 
When he went to France in 1763 as a 
member of the English embassy, he 
found himself famous there, and was 
much lionized. After his return to Eng- 
land four years later he became under- 
secretary of state. In 1770 he retired to 
Edinburgh, where he died in 1776. 

Hume’s literary style is delightful, full 
of sparkle and animation. His essays 
are models of their-kind. His historical 
writing is clear and forceful in narra- 
tion, and philosophical in breadth and 
judgment. As a philosopher he carried 
the empirical school to its logical con- 
clusion in universal skepticism, Locke 
and Berkeley had both retained the con- 
ception of a mental substance which re- 
ceived impressions through the senses. 
Hume drops this out, and identifies the 
mind with the series of impressions it- 
self. When the impressions cease, the 
mind therefore ceases. This does away 
with the permanent Ego, or self, and 
with any possibility of immortality. 
Hume therefore early gained a reputa- 
tion for heresy, agnosticism and skep- 
ticism. The conclusions of his philoso- 
phy aroused Kant from his “dogmatic 
slumber,” and opened the way for fur- 
ther progress in philosophical thought. 

Humid’ity, the water vapor in the 
atmosphere. This vapor is an invisible 
and light-weight gas, constituting five 
per cent of the atmosphere of the earth. 


HUMIDITY 


It is not uniformly distributed, however, 
and the amount in certain localities is 
greatly in excess of that in others. The 


“interchange of water between the ocean 


and the land and between different parts 
of the land and sea is constantly going 
on; and when account is taken of the 
large volumes of water which are con- 
tinually being emptied into the sea by 


rivers, and the large amount which ‘is © 


otherwise returned to its source, and it 
is considered that the atmosphere is the 
chief medium of exchange for all this 
moisture, the amount of water which is 
constantly in transit is almost incredible. 

The chief means of- water circulation 
are evaporation, diffusion and precipi- 
tation. By evaporation liquid water is 
changed to water vapor, in which form 
it is carried upward by ascending warm 
currents until it becomes chilled to the 
dew point, at which it is condensed, or 
changed back again to water, forming 
clouds. The rate of evaporation is con- 
ditioned by the amount of water vapor 
already in the air, by the relative tem- 


perature of the water and the overlying 


air and by the strength of the wind. 
The amount of water vapor in the atmos- 
phere varies greatly with temperature 
and with locality. When the air contains 
the largest possible percentage of water 
vapor, it is said to be saturated. The 
amount of moisture which any given 
mass of air contains is its absolute hu- 
midity. Relative humidity is the ratio 
of the absolute humidity and the quan- 
tity of vapor the air could hold if satu- 
rated. Thus if the air contains half 
the moisture required to saturate it, its 
relative humidity is 50; if three-fourths, 
it is 75. The average relative humidity 
over the land is about 60; over the ocean, 
85. The higher the temperature the 
more moisture is required to saturate the 
air. That part of the. United States 
where the land is agriculturally produc- 
tive without irrigation is that portion 
where the relative humidity is 65. The 
United States is almost equally divided 
into an eastern humid and a western dry 
region, although there are limited areas 
of great humidity along the Pacific coast. 


1390 


~ 


HUMMING BIRD 


Hum/’ming Bird, a family of birds 
found only in North and South America 
and the islands near the coasts of these 
continents. The name is given them 
because of the sound produced by the 
rapid vibration of their wings when in 
flight or poised about flowers in search of 
food. There are between 400 and 500 
species, over 17 of which are found in 
the United States. 

Humming birds are the smallest and 
most beautiful of all birds. They range 
in size from nine inches in length to a 
tiny creature less than two inches long, 
which is often compared in size to a large 
bumblebee. The bill is slender and usu- 
ally straight. It varies in length from 
one-fourth of an inch in the smallest spe- 
cies to five inches in the largest. 

In color humming birds are usually 
brilliant, with metallic hues of green, red, 
blue and crimson. The most conspicu- 
ous color is on the throat, which is usu- 
ally marked with green, gold, ruby or 
some other bright color. In a number of 
species the sexes are colored alike, but 
in two-thirds of the species the males are 
much more brightly colored, and in only 
one species is the female brighter than 
the male. The tail feathers are usually 
brilliant and vary in length and form, be- 
ing square, round, forked or having a 
threadlike shaft with only a es athe 
end. 

The nest is a beautiful ee made 
of fine plant down, lined with spiders’ 
webs and completely hidden by lichens 
which have been cleverly attached to the 
outside. The nest is usually saddled on 
a limb, but it may be attached to sides of 
rocks or to the tip end of leaves. Two 
white eggs are laid. The food consists 
largely of insects and, to a limited extent, 
the nectar of flowers. The tongue of the 
humming bird is divided nearly its en- 
tire length so that it somewhat resembles 
two fingers. When extended from the 
bill, it can reach the nectar in the bottom 
of the flower cup or seize upon insects 
which may be captured within the flower 
or taken upon the wing. 


The young are fed by partially digested 


HUNGARY 


food which the mother raises from her 
stomach and places in their bills. 

Hundred Years’ War, is the name 
of the long conflict between England and 
France lasting with intermissions from 
1337 to 1453, being an attempt on the 
part of England to obtain rule over 
France. Edward III of England claimed 
the throne because his mother was sister 
to Charles IV of France. During this 
long conflict success veered back and 
forth between the two countries. In 
1420 England as the result of the great 
victory at Agincourt (which see) seemed 
to be successful in the conflict since their 
king, Henry V was acknowledged as 
heir to the French King, Charles VI. 
Then came the strange episode of Joan 
of Arc (which see), and England finally 
relinquished her long-standing claim. 
The battle of Creecy 1346 resulting in a 
great English victory is regarded as one 
of the great battles of history. (See 
CREECY, BATTLE OF.) 

The most important effect of this war 
upon England was to increase the power 
of the House of Commons. It also tended 
to awaken a national spirit and to fuse 
the Normans and Saxons into one people, 
the English. 

Hungary. An independent nation of 
Europe bounded on the north by Slo- 
vakia, on the east by Transylvania, on 
the south by Jugo-Slavia, on the west by 
Austria. Its estimated area is about 
58,000 sq. mi. or about that of our state 
of Florida. Its estimated population is 
about 11,000,000. .The boundaries of 
Hungary were arranged by the Treaty of 
Paris at the conclusion of the World 
War, subsequently slightly modified by a 
separate treaty with Roumania. Present 
Hungary includes those parts of the old 
kingdom of Hungary that are distinctly 
Magyar in ethnology. It lost its old 
Slovak counties to the north of the Hun- 
garian plains, Transylvania to the east, 
strongly Roumanian ; and its Slavic prov- 
inces (Croatia and Slovania) to the 
southwest, and a large part of the Bairat 
along the Danube. 

The greater portion of Hungary con- 
sists of two immense plains known re- 


1391 


HUNGARY 


spectively as the Little and Great Hun- 
_ garian Plains. The Little Plain lies along 
both sides of the Danube from Pressburg 
to Gran, where the river suddenly turns 
south. There are large marshes along 
the river. The average elevation is about 
450 feet. The Great Plain of Hungary 
in many respects reminds the traveler of 
the Western Plains of the United States. 
It sweeps from Slovakia on the north to 
the Danube in the south. In area it is 
about 45,000 sq. mi. The average eleva- 
tion is 325 feet. The surface slopes 
slightly to the south. Low hills with 
swampy hollows are the, only variation. 
Trees seldom break the surface line ex- 
cept at villages. The Theiss River tak- 
ing its rise in Slovakia, pursues its lazy 
course across the plain, parallel to the 
Danube, into which it empties when that 
river resumes its eastern flow along the 
southern boundary of Hungary. 

AGRICULTURE. In general, those plains 
are very fertile, and have been celebrated 
in that respect since Roman times. It 
was the lure of this fertile plain that de- 
flected the Hunnish tribes, under the lead 
of Attila and induced them to settle 
there. Their example was followed in 
after centuries by their Magyar kindred 
coming up the Danube and thus explains 
this strange ethnic island in the midst of 
Slavic surroundings. 

Of necessity agriculture is the main 
industry of Hungary. The climate is 
temperate, the rainfall in general suffi- 
cient—though seasons of great drought 
occur—and all the cereal crops of the 
temperate zone flourish, Immense 
herds of cattle, sheep and horses are to 
be found. Reminiscent of tribal customs 
is the immense number of small farms— 
averaging about two and a half acres— 
- with occasional vast estates. It is on the 
Great Plain of Hungary with its level ex- 
panse, its boundless fields and wide 
spreading villages, and the picturesque 
types of peasants, that one finds the real 
Hungary and the real Hungarian people 
rather than in its cosmopolitan capital of 


Budapest. 
History. (See Austria-HUuNGary.) 
Huns, The. A Finno-Altaic people 


and critic, born in Southgate. 


others, 


HUNT 


originally located on the Trans-Caspian — 
In the fourth century of ~ 
our era, they suddenly invaded Europe ~ 
as a resistless desolating barbaric host 
overthrowing civilized people wherever ~ 


plains of Asia. 


they passed, finally settling on the plains 
of Hungary and founding Budas, their 


capital, which city as Budapest, is”still 
the capital of Hungary. This invasion ~ 


marks the beginning of the Dark Ages 
in History. (See Attiza.) (Also Hun- 
GARY. ) | 
Hunt (James Henry) Leigh (1784- 
1859), an English journalist, essayist 
He stud- 
ied at Christ’s Hospital, London, was 
clerk in the war office and later became 
editor of the newspaper, the Examiner. 
His bold attacks on the policies of the 
Tory government led to imprisonment, 
but while serving his two years’ sentence 
he continued to write political and lit- 
erary essays. He met Shelley, Keats and 
Byron, and was induced by the latter to 


go to Italy and manage the Liberal, a. 


political and literary journal; but he re- 


turned to England in 1825. A long — 


struggle with poverty and sickness fol- 
lowed, until he was granted a civil pen- 
sion in 1847, when his relief from care 


and want was reflected in the charming 
His po-— 


volumes that soon appeared. 
etry is bright and animated; his criti- 
cism, appreciative and discriminating. A 


lightness and sweetness about his essays ~ 


make them popular and widely read. He 
wrote Imagination and Fancy, Stories 
of the Itahan Poets, Table Talk, The 
Story of Rimini, Wit and Humour, 
Autobiography, Legend of Florence and 


Stories in Verse. Of his shorter poems, — 


Abou Ben Adhem is still a favorite. 
Hunt, William Holman (1827-1910), 
an English painter. 
some skill in art during leisure hours, 
he opened a studio at the age of 16. 


Having acquired 


A short time afterwards he entered the — 


Royal Academy Schools, and exhibited 
in the Academy in 1846. In the year 


1848 Hunt and Millais, with a few © 


initaited the Pre-Raphaelite 
movement. Hunt occupies a unique place 
among English artists. His idealism is 


1392 


HUNTER 


shown in such works as his Light of the 
World and Isabella and the Pot of Basil; 
others that have won wide recognition 
are The Scapegoat, The Flight ito 
Egypt and the portrait Dante Gabriel 
Rossetti. See MILvats, Sir JoHN Ever- 
ETT. 

Hunter, David (1802-1886), an Amer- 
ican soldier, born in Washington, D. C., 
and educated at West Point. He saw 
service during the war with Mexico, and 
was appointed colonel of cavalry: in May, 
1861. He was seriously wounded at the 
first Battle of Bull Run. As major-gen- 
eral of volunteers he served in Missouri 
under Fremont, whom he superseded, 
and early in 1862 was placed in command 
of the Department of the South. Heim- 
mediately declared martial law in his de- 
_ partment and began to organize regi- 
ments of colored troops. He issued an 
order in April, 1862, abolishing slavery 
in Georgia, Florida and South Carolina. 
But this step was too radical for,’ the 
times, and Lincoln annulled the order. 
Subsequently Hunter served in West Vir- 
ginia and Virginia and was’ brevetted 
major-general in the regular army, re- 
tiring in 1866. 

Huntington, Ind., a city and county 
seat of Huntington Co., 24 m. s.w. of Ft. 
Wayne and 70 m. s.e. of South Bend, 
on the Little River, 1 m. from its en- 
trance into the Wabash, and on the Erie, 
the Wabash and other railroads. It has 
an important trade in farm products and 
in lime. The river affords some water 
power for manufacturing purposes. The 
city has manufactories of pianos, head- 
ings and handles, boots and shoes, rubber 
goods, cement, barrels and wood and 
foundry products. Railroad repair shops 
are located here. Huntington is the seat 
of the United Brethren College. The H. 
S. Building is one of the best in the state. 
There is a public library. Population in 
1920, 14,000. ; 

Huntington, N. Y., a township of 
Suffolk Co., Long Island, on Long Island 
Sound and on the Long Island Railroad. 
The villages of Huntington, Cold Spring 
Harbor, Northport and Centreport, which 
lie along the Sound, are favorite resi- 


brary and several fine hotels. 


HUNTINGTON 


dential suburbs, and there are many fine 
residences owned by New York City 
business men. Northport, the most east- 
erly of the villages, contains a popula- 
tion (1910 census) of 2096. The village 
contains shipbuilding yards, valuable oys- 
ter fisheries and a large law publishing 
house. The New York State Fish Hatch- 
ery, the Biological Laboratory of the 
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 
and a laboratory of the Carnegie Insti- 
tution are located in the village of Cold 
Spring Harbor. Huntington has a large 
summer colony and is a prominent re- 
sort. The southern part of the town- 
ship is largely given over to market gar- 
dening, and the city manufactures in- 
clude brick, pottery and dairy products. 
The first settlement was made in 1653 
and the early settlers were nearly all 
Puritans from England. A huge boulder 
on the shore of Huntington Bay, an in- 
dentation of the Sound, marks the place 
of capture of Nathan Hale by the Brit- 
ish on Sept. 21, 1776. Walt Whitman 
was born near Huntington. Population 
of the township in 1920, 13,893. 
Huntington, W. Va., the county seat 
of Cabell Co., located on the Ohio River 
just below the entrance of the Guyan- 
dotte River and on the Baltimore & 
Ohio, the Chesapeake & Ohio and other 
railroads. Huntington is conveniently 
situated in the center of a magnificent 
lumber, coal and gas region. Hunting- 
ton is built upon a broad plateau along 
the Ohio, and its broad paved streets, 
laid out in regular arrangement, are lined 
with spacious residences or modern busi- 
ness blocks. The city has two amuse- 
ment parks, one of which, Camden Park, 
lies four miles out and includes a large 
lake and natural spots of great beauty. 
Within. the city limits are several parks, 
and space is reserved for a wider park 
system as the growth of the city de- 


Huntington has many handsome 
churches, a large county courthouse, a 
modern Federal Building, a Carnegie li- 
Near the 
city is the West Virginia Asylum, with 
its spacious shaded grounds. Marshall 


- mands it. 


1393 


HUNTSVILLE 


College, which is a state normal and 
an academic school, is located here, as 
also are two Catholic schools, St. Ed- 
ward’s Preparatory College and the 
school of the Sisters of St. Joseph. The 
public school system is an excellent one, 
and the numerous school buildings are 
well equipped. Aside from these there 
are several private schools of high grade. 

Among the manufactures are woolen 
goods, cars, furniture, china, shoes, ag- 
ricultural implements, woodenware, ce- 
ment, leather goods, auto supplies, steam 
boilers, blank: books, stoves, machinery 
and glass. The city was settled and in- 
corporated in 1871. It received its name 
in honor of the late Collis P. Hunting- 
ton, through whose influence the site was 
selected. It has had a phenomenal 
erowth, having become within a decade 
the second city of the state in size and 
commercial importance. It has the com- 
mission form of government. Popula- 
tion in 1920, 50,171. 

Huntsville, Ala. a city and the 
county seat of Madison Co., 111 m. n. 
of Birmingham, on the Southern, the 
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis and 
other railroads. Huntsville is an impor- 
tant market for agricultural produce, and 
in the manufacture of cotton products it 
leads all other cities in this section. Be- 
sides the cotton industry there are nu- 
merous other industries, in connection 
with which are operated saw and plan- 
ing mills, brick plants, machine shops, 
foundries, spoke and handle factories, 
hoop and heading factories, a fiber fac- 
tory and other manufactories. The city 
has an unrivaled water supply, derived 
from a spring which has a flow of 2,500,- 
000 gallons daily. The Central Alabama 
Academy is located here, and at Normal, 
three miles distant, is the Alabama State 
Agricultural and Mechanical College for 
negroes. Huntsville was settled in 1805 
by John Hunt, a soldier of the Revolu- 
tion. In 1819 the convention that framed 
the first Alabama constitution met here. 
It was the first capital of the state. The 
place was chartered as a city in 1844, 
revised in 1897. In the course of the 
Civil War Huntsville was twice seized 


1394 


sure upon air valves or pipes. 


HURON, LAKE 
by Federal forces (1862-63). _Popula- © 
tion in 1920, 8,018. 7 

Hur’dy-Gur’dy, a box-shaped mu- — 
sical instrument of medieval origin. — 
Within the box were four strings which — 
were played upon by a: wheel covered 
with resin, which, when turned from the 
outside by a handle, acted upon the 
strings like a bow; the pitch was regu- — 
lated by a series of keys. The instru- 
ment at present designated as a hurdy- 
gurdy is so constructed that the hafdle — 
is attached to a rotating cylinder, cov-— 
ered with pegs, which strike the strings 
or keys, or produce vibration by pres- 
It is fre- 
quently a combination of piano, hand 
organ and drum. 

Hu’ron. See Wy’ANDOT. 

Huron, S. D., a city and county seat 
of Beadle Co., 119 m. n.e. of Pierre and 
115 m. n.w. of Yankton, on the Great 
Northern and the Chicago & North 
Western railroads. Huron is the seat of 
Huron College (Presbyterian). There is — 
also an excellent system of public schools. 
There are manufactories of flour, brick, 
wagons and carriages and dairy prod- 
ucts. Large railroad repair shops, ma- 
chine shops, packing plants and eleva- 
tors are located here. The city has had 
a rapid growth. Huron is operated un- 
der the commission form of government. 
Population in 1920, 8,302. 

Huron, Lake, the third of the Great 
Lakes in area. It separates the Provy- 
ince of Ontario, Canada, from the Lower 
Peninsula of Michigan, and connects 
with Lake Michigan. by means of the 
Straits of Mackinac, with Lake Superior — 
by means of St. Mary’ s River and with © 
Lake Erie by means of the Detroit and 
St. Clair rivers and Lake St. Clair. Geor- 
gian Bay is a large arm of the lake at 
the east and is separated from it by the 
Manitoulin Islands and the Bruce Penin- 
sula (See GEorGIAN Bay; MANITOULIN — 
IsLANDS). On the western side, Sagi- 
naw Bay forms an important arm 60 mi. 
long and 20 m. broad, extending sonth-— 
westward into Michigan. Lake Huron 
is 270 m. Jong, 105 m. broad aiuaee 
widest part, and its area is approximately — 


HURRICANE 


23,000 sq. m. It is deeper than Lake 
Superior, but not so deep as Lake Michi- 
gan; its greatest depth is 1000 ft.. It 
lies 574 ft. above sea level and is, there- 
fore, 26 ft. below Lake Superior and 4 
ft. below Lake Michigan. The fall be- 
tween it and Lake Erie is a gradual one 
of 10 ft. The shores at the south are 
low, but from Goderich north on the 
Canadian shore the cliffs are high and 
rugged. The water is clear and quanti- 
ties of trout and pickerel are caught. 
The principal American ports are Che- 
boygan, Alpena and Port Huron; the 
principal Canadian ports are Goderich, 
Kincardine and Southampton. The im- 
portant rivers entering the lake are: from 
Michigan, the Saginaw, the Cheboygan 
and the Au Sable; from Ontario, the 
French and the Maganetawan. _ 

Hur’ricane, a violent windstorm 
which usually is accompanied by electric 
manifestations and by hail. Storms to 
which this name is applied are of the 
whirlwind type and generally occur in 
tropical regions; those that occur in the 
West Indies and the China Sea are often 
- spoken of as typhoons and are most fre- 
quent in the months of August, ‘Sep- 
tember and October. The hurricane is 
a windstorm of the strongest force. See 
STORM ; CYCLONE. 

Husband and Wife, a man and woman 
married to each other. The law recog- 
nizes the rights of married persons in 
their relation to each other under per- 
sonal rights and property rights. These 
rights were first fixed by common law, 
which in the United States was long since 
recognized as being unjust to the wife. 
The first modification of common-law 
_ rights of the wife was made by the State 

of New York, in 1848. Other states 
immediately followed the example of 
New York, and in most states the wife 
now has equal rights with the husband. 

PERSONAL Ricuts. The following per- 
sonal rights are generally recognized: 

1. The husband has the right to de- 
termine the place of residence, and the 
wife’s legal residence is identical with 
his. 

2. The husband ts bound to support 


HUTCHINSON 


the wife in circumstances conformable 
to his income and social position. 

3. The wife is bound to care for the 
home, and in so far as services to this 
end are required, they belong to the hus- 
band. 

4. Husband and wife cannot be wit- 
ness in a case where the other is a 
party, except in certain cases brought by 
one against the other. 

5. The husband is liable for civil of- 
fenses committed by the wife after mar- 
riage. 

Property Ricuts. 1. At marriage 
the wife secures a dower interest amount- 
ing to one-third the husband’s estate. 

2. In most states the wife may hold 
and convey property in her own name, 
but she cannot convey her husband’s es- 
tate by will or otherwise. | 

3. The wife cannot make contracts in 
her husband’s name unless acting as his 
authorized agent. 

4. The husband cannot convey real 
estate without the wife’s consent because 
of her dowry in the same. 

5. The wife can contract debts for 
her necessary support, which the husband 
must pay. See Divorce; MARRIAGE. 

Huss, John (about 1370-1415), a Bo- 
hemian reformer. While studying at the 
University of Prague, he became con- 
verted to the doctrines of Wiclif, and 
in 1402, as rector of the university, he 
began to spread these doctrines by 
preaching in the Bohemian tongue. Six 
years later he was forbidden to preach, 
but he was supported by the King of 
Bohemia, and the people regarded him 
as a hero. He was excommunicated in 
1410, and spent his retirement in writ- 
ing his chief work, On the Church. In 
1414 he was summoned to attend the 
Council of Constance, where he was im- 
prisoned and tried for heresy; upon his 
refusal to recant, he was burned at the 
stake in July, 1415. 

Hutch’inson, Anne (about 1590- 
1643), a religious enthusiast of colonial 
times, born in Lincolnshire, England. She 
married William Hutchinson, and in 1634 
came to Boston, Mass., where she was 
soon accused of teaching heresy. She 


1395 


HUTCHINSON 


was publicly examined, excommunicated 
and exiled. With followers she went to 
Rhode Island and founded Portsmouth 
and Newport. Later, Mrs. Hutchinson 
went to Long Island, where she and 
her family, excepting one daughter, were 
massacred by Indians. 

Hutchinson, Kan., a city and the 
county seat of Reno Co., 40 m. w. of 
Wichita, on the north side of the Ar- 
kansas River and on the Missouri Pa- 
cific, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, 
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and 
other railroads. Indian corn, wheat and 
other farm products are extensively 
raised, and there is a large wholesale 
trade. Large deposits of rock salt are 
found in the vicinity and underlie the 
city, and one of the largest salt plants 
in the world is located here, having a 
daily output of about 6000 barrels. Nat- 
ural gas is largely used for fuel. Other 
manufactures include soda ash, flour, 
strawboard, butter and creamery prod- 
ucts, sash, blinds and doors and plan- 
ing-mill products. Among the noteworthy 
buildings are a county courthouse, Fed- 
eral Building, a public library, numer- 
ous churches, banks and substantial busi- 
ness houses. An industrial reformatory 
is maintained here by the state. There 
are several public parks. Settled in 1871, 
Hutchinson was incorporated in 1872 
and in the same year chartered as a 
city. The commission form of govern- 
ment has been adopted. Population in 
1920, U. S. Census, 23,298, 

Hutchinson, Thomas (1711-1780), 
the last royal governor of Massachu- 
setts, born in Boston, and educated at 
Harvard. He early ‘became interested 
in politics, served several terms in the 
Colonial Assembly, became lieutenant- 
governor of the colony in 1758, was made 
chief justice of the state in 1760 and 
was commissioned royal governor in 
1770. A courageous and determined 
Loyalist, he became very unpopular as 
the independence sentiment grew. When 
military law was declared in 1774 he 
went to England to reside. His History 
of Massachusetts Bay is a work of great 
value. 


1396 


HUXLEY 


Huxley, Thomas Henry (1825-1895), © 
a noted English scientist, born in Ealing, © 
a suburb of London. He studied in the © 
Medical School of Charing Cross Hos- © 
pital, and in 1845 graduated at the Uni- — 
versity of London. Entering the medal 
ical service of the navy, he was, ap-~ 
pointed in 1846 assistant surgeon of the — 
Rattlesnake, which was to make surveys ~ 
to the east and north of Australia. The © 
voyage lasted four years, and during — 
this time Huxley devoted himself with 
great enthusiasm to the study of marine ~ 
animals, writing scientific articles home 
to the Linnzan and Royal societies. 
When he returned to London he found — 
himself famous. He was given his time 
with salary for three years to work up 
the material which he had collected dur- 
ing the voyage. The result was his 
famous book, published in 1859, Oceanic 
Hydrozoa.. . 

Meantime he had been elected a fellow — 
of the Royal Society in 1851, and in 1854 
he was made professor of natural his- — 
tory in the Royal School of Mines. His — 
ability as an educator, coupled with his 
success in original research, opened to — 
him important positions and brought him 
many honors. He served as Fullerian 
professor of physiology to the Royal 
Institution; was for seven years exam- 
iner to the University of London; filled — 
the Hunterian professorship in the Royal — 
College of Surgeons; and in 1883 re-— 
ceived the highest scientific recognition 
possible by being elected president of — 
the Royal Society. He was also an hon- — 
ored member of other scientific socie- 
ties, served on ten royal commissions, — 
became lord rector of Aberdeen Uni- 
versity, and in 1892 was made a mem- 
ber of the Privy Council. Because of 
ill health he retired from his various 
positions in 1885 and spent the remain- 
ing ten years of his life in writing. 

While Huxley was an original inves- — 
tigator of unusual ability, yet his serv- 
ices were probably greatest in the direc- 
tion of popularizing the results of sci-— 
ence. He had remarkable facility of 
expression, a style that was clear, force- 
ful and interesting. His writings are 


—s 


HYACINTH 


good science, but good literature also; 
while as a public speaker he was able 
to present scientific topics in a form that 
was understood and appreciated by the 
uneducated. Among his most impor- 
tant writings, aside from his many mag- 
azine contributions, are Oceanic Hydro- 
zoa, Evidence as to Man’s Place in Na- 
ture, Elementary Physiology, Elementary 
Biology (with Martin), Anatomy of 
Vertebrated Animals, Anatomy of In- 
vertebrated Animals, Physiography and 
The Crayfish. 

Hyacinth, H7' a sinth, a cultivated 
member of the Lily Family, which bears 
a stalk of purple, pink or white flowers 
early in spring. The leaves are stem- 
less and rushlike, springing from a bulb; 
the flowers are bell-shaped and heavily 
scented. The grape hyacinth, cultivated 
from Europe, is a small garden or door- 
yard plant, with a closely crowded spike 
of deep blue spherical flowers resembling 
a bunch of grapes. These flowers are 
scentless. 

Hyacinthe, E” a” sant’, Pére. See 
Loyson, CHARLES. 

Hy’acin’thus, a Greek youth whom 


Apollo passionately loved. While play- 
ing quoits together, the discus thrown 


by the god accidentally hit Hyacinthus 
on the forehead. Apollo, grief stricken, 
was unable to save the life of his friend; 
but as the blood flowed from the dying 
boy’s wound and stained the herbage, it 
ceased to be blood and became a flower. 
Apollo had changed it into the beautiful 
purple hyacinth. 

Hyde Park, Mass., a town of Norfolk 
Co., 8 m. s.w. of Boston, on the Nepon- 
set River and on the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford Railroad. The vil- 
lages included within the town limits 
are Clarendon Hills, Fairmount, Read- 
ville and Hazlewood. It is a residential 
suburb for many business men of Bos- 
ton. There are extensive manufactories 
of rubber goods, looms, paper, dyestuffs, 
morocco, cotton and woolen goods, 
curled hair, machinery, tools and chem- 
icals. Hyde Park contains a public li- 
brary. The town was incorporated in 


- 1868. Annexed to Boston in 1912. 


HYDRANGEA 


Hyderabad, Hi” der ah bahda', or Hai- 
darabad, a city of India, capital of the 
state of the same name, situated on the 
Musi River. The chief buildings include 
the Char Minar, or College with Four 
Minarets, the Gosha Mahal Palace, the 
hospital, the Mecca Mosque, the Brit- 
ish residency and several fine palaces in 
the suburbs. In addition to the Nizam 
College are industrial and professional 
schools. Silks, turbans, trinkets and cot- 
ton are manufactured, and the city is 
an important commercial center. Popu- 
lation in 1901, 448,466. 

Hy’dra, a fabulous monster ravag- 
ing about the marsh of Lerna. Its cen- 
tral head was immortal, but when any 
of the other eight was stricken off, twa 
sprang up in its place. The second labor 
of Hercules was to slay this creature. 
By the aid of his servant, Iolaus, he 
seared the mortal heads, for this alone 
checked their growth. The immortal 
head he buried beneath a rock. See 
HERCULES, 

Hydra, Fresh-Water, a family of the 
order Coelenterata, members of which are 
found in ponds and_ slowly-flowing 
streams. They are large enough to be 
seen with the unaided eye and may be 
found clinging to the under edges of 
floating leaves or submerged sticks. 
They are threadlike in form and have 
numerous tiny tentacles, some of which 
contain stiffened darts for wounding 
their insect prey; the other tentacles aid 
in grasping the wounded insect and in 
bringing it to the central mouth cavity. 
One of the peculiarities of the hydra 
is its remarkable power of recovery from 
injury. It has simple muscular and 
nerve cells and reproduces by budding. 

Hydrangea, Hi dran’ je a, a wild or 
cultivated plant of the Saxifrage Fam- 
ily, often planted for ornament on lawns 
and in parks. The common hydrangea 
was introduced from China or Japan 
as a house plant. It is a low shrub, gen- 
erally bushy, but by trimming, easily 
made treelike. The bark is reddish- 
brown and the slender branches bear 
oval, light green leaves, coarse in tex- 
ture and deeply-veined. From the joints 


1397 


HYDRAULIC LIMESTONE 


proceed handsome clusters of white, pur- 
ple or pink flowers. The blossoms of 
each spray are of two kinds: sterile or 
those unable to bear fruit, and fertile, 
or fruit-producing: The sterile are al- 
ways found around the border of the 
cluster, enclosing the fertile, but in the 
most highly cultivated hydrangeas few 
of the flowers are fertile. The fruit, 
when produced, is a little pod. The cul- 
tivated hydrangea is rapidly becoming a 
favorite ornamental shrub, for, though 
its branches are delicate and easily 
broken, the rich bloom well repays care. 
The sprays of flowers are often a foot 
long and form a thick cone whose base 
is from six to eight inches in diameter. 
These splendid sprays dry when picked, 
but retain their color through the entire 
winter- and are often used for decora- 
tive purposes. 

Wild hydrangeas, locally called oak 
hydrangeas, are stout shrubs growing 
along shady river banks from Pennsy]l- 
vania south. These take readily to cul- 
tivation and are easily improved. 

Hydraul’ic Limestone. See LIME- 
STONE. : 

Hydraulic Press. See Hyprostatic 
PRESS. 

Hydraulic Ram, a device for using 
the force of a stream of water to raise 
a portion of the water to a higher level. 
In the figure, 3 represents the reservoir, 
or stream, and 2 the pipe through which 
the water flows by gravity. The pipe 
is turned upward at 1. The flow of wa- 
ter through the opening, 6, is controlled 
by a cone-shaped valve, 7, weighted and 
opening inward. An air chamber, 4, is 
connected to the pipe, 2, and is provided 
with a valve opening outward. When 
the water at first runs through the pipe, 
the valve, 7, is open and allows the wa- 
ter to flow out through the orifice, 6, 
and this flow continues until the force 
of the stream becomes sufficiently great 
to raise the valve and close the orifice. 
When this happens, the flow of water 
in the pipe, 2, suddenly stops, and the 
force of the current is such as to drive 
a portion of the water into the air 
chamber, 4, through the valve just above 


HYDROGEN 


2. As soon as the flow in 2 stops, the 


valve, 7, falls and the flow is again. 
started. Water is forced into the dis- 


charge pipe, 5, and elevated by means” 


of the elastic force of the air in 4. 


As so little water can be elevated in © 
proportion to what is used, rams are not ‘ 


extensively employed. 


Whex 
lia EN 
he 


HYDRAULIC RAM 


Hydraulics. See HyDROMECHANICS. 

Hydrochloric, Hi” dro klo’ rik, Acid. 
See Muriatic ACID. 

Hy”drodynam/’ics. See HypRoME- 
CHANICS, subhead Hydrodynamics. 

Hydrofluoric, Hi” dro flu or’ tk, Acid, 
a colorless, fuming liquid composed of 
hydrogen and fluorine. It is highly poi- 
sonous, and injurious effects result from 
breathing even the diluted fumes. A drop 
of it upon the skin causes very painful 
burns and sores, which act with great 
rapidity in poisoning the blood. Hydro- 
fluoric acid is largely employed in etch- 
ing upon glass, particularly in marking 


; 


c. 


glass measures. The glass to be marked — 


is covered with wax and the design is 
traced deeply enough to remove the wax 
from the portions to be etched. The 


plate is then treated with hydrofluoric- 


acid gas, which cuts the parts not cov- 
ered by wax. 

Hydrogen, Hi’ dro jen, one of the 
most widely distributed elements, a con- 
stituent of water. It was discovered by 
Paracelsus in the beginning of the 16th 
century and called inflammable air. In 


1766 Cavendish ascertained by experi-— 


ment many of its properties, and in 
1783 Lavoisier found it to be one of 
the constituents of water and named it 
hydrogen, meaning water-producing. 
Hydrogen is a colorless, tasteless, odor- 
less gas, which burns with a pale blue 


1398 


HYDROGEN PEROXIDE 


flame and intense heat. It is a good 
conductor of heat and electricity and has 
been liquefied when subjected to a high 
pressure at a temperature of —241° C. 
The liquid is steel-blue in color and boils 
at —253° C. It has also been solidified. 

Hydrogen is rarely found free in na- 
ture, that is, uncombined with other ele- 
ments, but it does so occur in the craters 
of volcanoes and in some gas wells. 

Hydrogen is most easily prepared in 
the laboratory by pouring dilute sul- 
phuric acid upon zinc. The sulphuric 
acid is composed of hydrogen, sulphur 
and oxygen, and the zinc tends to re- 
place the hydrogen, forming zinc sul- 
phate and setting free the hydrogen. 
Since hydrogen is lighter than air, it 
must be collected in an inverted flask, 
from which it soon diffuses if allowed 
to stand. Hydrogen is a supporter of 
neither respiration nor combustion; 
hence an animal surrounded by an at- 
mosphere of hydrogen soon dies, and 
an ordinary flame inserted in a flask of 
the gas is instantly extinguished. 

Being the lightest of all gases, it has 
been used as the standard by which the 
relative weights of other gases were com- 
puted. Hydrogen is a constituent of all 
acids and is a little more than one-ninth, 
by weight, of water, which it produces 
when burned in the presence of oxygen. 
See OxYGEN ; HyDROGEN ; PEROXIDE, 

Hydrogen Perox’ide, a compound of 
hydrogen and oxygen frequently used 
as a bleaching agent. 
’ of the same two elements as water, but 
differs from it by containing 32 parts 
of oxygen and two of hydrogen, while 
water has two parts of hydrogen to 16 
of oxygen. Hydrogen peroxide is very 
unstable and easily gives up one-half 
of its oxygen; thus it changes to water 
and oxidizes whatever substance will take 
up the oxygen. It occurs in small quan- 
tities in the air and in rain water, to 
which it gives its fresh, pungent odor. 
- The hydrogen peroxide on the market 
is very dilute, since in this condition it 
is more stable. In a pure state it is a 
colorless, sirupy liquid having a metallic 
taste and slight odor. If used in small 


It is composed — 


HYDROMECHANICS 


quantities it bleaches the skin, but if ap-. 
plied too often or in too strong a form 
it discolors it and produces an irritat- 
ing burn. It is used to restore the col- 
ors of oil paintings, to bleach feathers, 
ivory and even the teeth, to liberate 
iodine from potassium iodide and to ren- 
der sores and wounds antiseptic. It is 
sold under various trade names, as hy- 
drogen dioxide, dioxide, dioxygen, etc. 
Hydrography, Hi drog’ ra fy, that 
branch of physical geography which 
treats of the surface waters of the globe. 
It is concerned chiefly with the surfaces 
of oceans, lakes and rivers, particularly 
with reference to their importance in 
navigation. In practically every coun- 
try of the world hydrographical depart- 
ments are maintained by the central gov- 
ernment for the purpose of making sur- 
veys and preparing charts of its navi- 
gable waters. These charts show the 
configuration of the coast line, location 
of channels, reefs, rocks and lighthouses 
and indicate the depth of the water. The 
work of the hydrographic offices of mari- 
time countries is one of considerable 
magnitude. That of the United States 
is maintained at Washington, and it ren- 
ders valuable service to navigation. 
Hydromechanics, Hi” dro me kan’ tks, 
the science of the mechanics of fluids 
in general, including both gases and 
liquids, especially water. It is usually 
treated under the two heads, hydrostatics 
and hydrodynamics. | 
Hyprostatics. Hydrostatics treats of 
the properties of fluids at rest, their 
compressibility and elasticity, the pres- 
sures exerted by them, their buoyant 
effect on immersed bodies and all other 
problems regarding fluids in equilibrium. 
Some of the more important laws of 
hydrostatics are here given. The force 
exerted by a fluid at rest against any 
surface is perpendicular to that surface, 
and the force per unit surface is called 
the pressure, measured in pounds per 
square inch or in dynes per square cen- 
timeter. At any point in a fluid at rest, 
either a liquid or a gas, the pressure 
is the same in every direction; and the 
difference in pressure at different levels 


1399 


HYDROMECHANICS 


is equal to the weight of a column of 
the fluid of unit cross section extending 
vertically from one level to the other. 
For example, the water pressure at the 
bottom of an open tank 20 ft. deep is 
62.5x20, or 1250, number of lb. per 
square ‘foot, which equals 8.7 Ib. per 
square inch, the weight of one cubic 
foot of water being 62.5 Ib. 

Pascal's Principle. Pressure is trans- 
mitted equally in all directions through- 
out a fluid at rest, and if the pressure 
at any point is increased, it is increased 
by an equal amount everywhere through- 
out the fluid. One of the most strik- 
ing applications of this principle is found 


in the hydrostatic press. See. Hypro- 
STATIC PRESS, 
Archimedes Principle. A body im- 


mersed, partly or wholly, in a fluid, is 
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight 
of the fluid displaced by the body. A 
boat sinks in the water until it displaces 
a weight of water equal to its own weight. 
A balloon rises in the air until the weight 
of the air it displaces is just equal to 
its own weight (See GRAVITY, SPECIFIC). 
For other laws of hydrostatics, see GAS; 
Gases, LAWS OF; CAPILLARITY; BAROM- 
ETER; and like topics. 

Hypropynamics. Hydrodynamics 
treats of the properties of fluids in mo- 
tion; the practical application of the 
principles of hydrodynamics to engineer- 
ing problems constitutes the science of 
hydraulics. Some of the fundamental 
principles are stated below, together with 
reference to practical applications. 

Torricelli's Theorem. When a jet of 
liquid escapes from a tank, the velocity 
of the issuing jet is equal to the veloc- 
ity which a body would acquire in fall- 
ing from the level of the upper surface 
to that of the opening. This velocity 
is independent of the density of the 
liquid and the direction of the jet, but 
is lessened by any viscosity of the 
liquid. If only the pressure is known, 
then the velocity is given by the equa- 
tion v equals \/ 22, where p is the pres- 
sure in poundals per square foot, d 
the density in pounds per cubic foot and 
v the velocity of the jet in feet per sec- 


HYDROMETER 


ond. This expression holds for liquidsy a 


and gases. 
Energy Due to Pressure. 


be at the expense of the other. 


smaller part of the pipe, its speed must 


necessarily be increased; hence the pres- — 


sure behind it must be creater than that 
ahead of it. 


many other ways. 


WHEEL; 
topics. 


HypRAULIC RAM; 


Hydrom’eter, an apparatus for de- 
termining the specific gravity of fluids, 
Of the various — 
constructions the best known is Nichol- — 


especially that of water. 


son’s hydrometer, which not only meas- 


ures the specific gravities of fluids, but — 
It consists of a hollow 
The in-— 
strument is weighted by a small cup 
which hangs suspended at the bottom — 
of the cylinder which is thus caused ~ 
to float upright in a cylindrical vessel — 
containing the substance to be weighed. — 
The tube is surmounted by a stem, bear- — 
The weight of © 
the instrument having been ascertained — 
and the additional weight required to — 


of solids also. 
brass tube with conical ends. 


ing a graduated scale. 


When a — 
liquid is forced into a vessel against ~ 
pressure, the work done (in foot pound- — 
als) is equal to the product of the pres-— 
sure (in poundals per square foot) by ~ 
the volume (in cubic feet) of the liquid © 
introduced. The total energy of a liquid 
flowing in a pipe is accordingly equal © 
to the sum of its energy due to pressure ~ 
and its kinetic energy due to motion. © 
This leads to the remarkable fact that ~ 
where a pipe is greatly contracted, the © 
pressure of the flowing liquid is less than ~ 
in the larger pipe on either side, since ~ 
the increase of one form of energy must — 
This 
fact seems more reasonable if we con-— 
sider that as the liquid is entering the © 


In going from the smaller — 
to the larger part of the pipe it is slowed — 
down; hence the pressure ahead must be 
greater than that behind. This princi- — 
ple is made use of in ali aspirating 
pumps, in steam-boiler injectors and in 
For practical appli- — 
cations to hydraulics, see PuMP; WATER — 
and like 


sink it in distilled water to a point’ in- — 


dicated on the stem, the specific gravity — 


of any fluid is easily determined by mul- 
1400 , 


HYDROPHOBIA 


tiplying the weight of a volume of wa- 
ter equal to that contained in one sec- 
tion of the graduated tube by the num- 
ber of sections that the liquid allows the 
hydrometer to sink in the tube; that is, 
if the volume of one section weighs .05 
grain and the hydrometer sinks to 
20%2°, .05x20.5, equal to 1.025, is the 
specific gravity of the liquid. 
Hydrophobia, Hi” dro fo’ bia, or Ra- 
bies, Ra’ bi eez, a disease which is com- 


‘municated by the bite of a mad dog or 


other rabid animal, the peculiar poison- 
ous virus in the saliva of the animal’s 
mouth entering the blood of the victim 
through the wound. Treatment should 
be immediate and should begin with ar- 
resting the circulation in the region of 
the wound to prevent the poison from 
being taken up by the blood and car- 
ried into the system. Persons having no 
wounds or sores in the mouth may safely 
suck the poison from the wound, tak- 
ing care to sterilize the mouth after- 
wards and to prevent the virus from 
reaching the throat. Cauterizing with 
an iron at white heat or with such cau- 
terizing agencies as nitrate of silver, if 
thorough, will destroy the germ and pre- 
vent the disease. The Pasteur method 
of treating hydrophobia, which is now 
employed in most large cities, is an al- 
most unfailing preventive. It consists 


. in inoculating the patient with prepared 


virus of successively, higher power until 
all the poison has been absorbed. If 


‘means employed to prevent hydrophobia 
are unsuccessful, symptoms of the dis-. 


ease May appear at any time from 6 
weeks to 18 months after the bite is 
inflicted. The peculiar symptoms are 
nervousness, spasmodic muscular con- 
tractions and difficulty in swallowing. 
The progress of the disease is very rapid, 
and death results about three days from 
the appearance of the first symptoms. 
Hy” drostat’ic Press, or Hydraulic 
Press, a machine for using the power 
of liquids to transmit pressure. It is of 
special value where great force is re- 
quired, and is in common use for press- 
ing cotton into bales, testing cannon and 
raising heavy weights. The press con- 


HYENA 


sists of two pistons, H and P, which 
are fitted by means of water-tight col- 
lars into their respective cylinders. The 
first piston, H, and its cylinder com- 
prise a force pump which pumps water 
from the cistern, A, through the con- 
necting pipe, C, into the cylinder, M. 
The second piston, P, is capped by a 
platform, G, on which the object to be 
pressed, in this case a bale of cotton, 
is placed. The piston, H, held in posi- 
tion by passing through the frame, B, 


i 
ror it PPPs 
CH ee 


PTemn—- 


cA 
Ge aa mec 


HYDROSTATIC PRESS 


forces the water into M, and thus raises 
the piston P. If the piston H has an 
area of one square inch, and the piston 
P, of 100 square inches, every pound of 
force exerted upon H produces 100 Ib. 
of force upon P and consequently upon 
the object on the platform; but the dis- 
tance P moves is only 1/100 as great 
as the distance H is moved. In many 
cases oil is used instead of water. This 
press is an application of Pascal’s Prin- 
ciple. See HypROMECHANICS, 

Hydrostatics. See HyDROMECHANICS, 
subhead Hydrostatics. 

Hyena, Hie’ na, a group of Mam- 
mals belonging to the Hyena Family 
and known only in central Europe, south- 
ern Asia and Africa. The hyena is an 
awkward animal, with a long muzzle, 
prominent, ferocious eyes and long, erect 
ears. The forelegs are the longer and 
give to the body a drooping, humpbacked 
appearance, and to the animal a sham- 
bling gait. The tail is somewhat bushy 
and the coat is of coarse, tawny hair, 
marked with darker stripes or spots. The 


48 1401 


HYGEIA 


two mest marked attributes of the hyena 
are its powerful jaws, which can crush 
with ease the largest bones of the ox, 
and its wild howl, which is frequently 
likened to the laughing shriek of the 
maniac. The home of the hyena is in 
natural or manufactured caverns, whence 
\ it issues, generally at night, to find for 
its food, carrion refused by braver ani- 
mals. The three species of hyena are 
the brown, the striped and the spotted 
hyena, the last of which is the largest, 
the best known and the most courageous. 

Hygeia, Hi je’ ya, Greek goddess of 
health, daughter of /#sculapius, was 
greatly revered among the ancients. She 
was represented as carrying a snake and 
a cup, from which the snake drank. 

Hygiene, Hz’ ji en, the science or art 
of preserving health by preventing dis- 
ease. As the prevention of disease de- 
pends upon a knowledge of the cause 
of disease, hygiene may be regarded as 
a branch of medical science. It may 
be classified as personal, domestic and 
public hygiene. Personal hygiene con- 
sists in taking the proper ‘nourishment 
in the form of digestible diet, sufficient 
pure water and harmless beverages; in 
wearing clothing which will provide the 
proper protection; in taking the neces- 
sary sleep, and sufficient exercise to in- 
sure the normal action of the vital or- 
gans; in keeping the body clean; and 
in controlling vitiating habits which tend 
to undermine health. 

Domestic hygiene concerns the admin- 
istration of the household. It deals with 
the care of young children; the selec- 
tion and combination, in a meal, of food- 

stuffs which supply the needful elements, 
and their preparation for the table; care 
of the sick, and household sanitation in 
general. Public hygiene implies the su- 
pervision of streets, sewerage and build- 
ings in cities, and the maintaining of 
sanitary conditions. This embraces in- 
spection of plumbing arrangements, such 
as drains and closets; ventilation; pro- 
hibition of promiscuous spitting ; disposal 
of refuse in streets and buildings; regu- 
lation of conditions on trains and street 
cars tending to prevent overcrowding, 


HYMENOPTERA 


accumulation of filth, and uncomfortable 
and injurious jarring; prevention of epi- 
demics of infectious diseases by quaran- 
tine and inoculation; and disposal of the 
dead. See QUARANTINE; SANITARY 
SCIENCE. 

Hygrom’eter, an instrument for meas- 
uring the absolute and relative amount 
of moisture in the air. A simple hygrom- 
eter, called the hydroscope, indicates but 
qualitatively changes in the humidity of 
the atmosphere. It can be made of any 
substance which contracts with the in- 
crease of humidity. Twisted cord, cat- 
gut and hair are suitable materials. A 
piece of twisted catgut stretched by a 
light weight will twist and untwist with 
a change in atmospheric humidity, and 
a light pointer attached and moving over 
a scale will indicate the change. The 
wet and dry bulb hygrometer most com- 
monly used in stations of the weather 
bureau consists of two similar delicate 
thermometers fastened side by side on 
a stand. The bulb of one is covered 
with muslin, which is kept wet by a 
wick which extends into a cup of wa- 
ter. If the air is not saturated, evapo- 
ration occurs from the bulb, and this 
reduces the temperature. The difference 
in temperatures in the two thermome- 
ters indicates the relative humidity of 
the atmosphere. 

Hyksos, Hik’ sose. 
head History. 

Hy’men, Greek god of marriage, son 
of Apollo and a Muse, was invoked at 
every nuptial festival. 
sented as crowned with flowers of mar- 
joram, carrying the wedding veil and 
torch and wearing wings and sandals 
of gold. 

Hy”menop’tera, a group of interest- 
ing and intelligent insects, including the 
ants, bees and wasps. The name Hy- 
menoptera means membrane wing and 
is given to this group because the wings 
of these insects have few veins. The 
development from egg to adult embraces 
the four stages of insect life, egg, larva, 
pupa and adult; hence the Hymenop- 
tera are said to undergo complete meta- 
morphosis. In the larval and pupal stages 


See Ecypt, sub- 


1402 


‘ 
9 
4 
, 


He was repre- _ 


HYMN 


they are helpless and are cared for in 
cells skillfully constructed by the adults. 
Their mouths are fitted for biting and 
for sucking. In organization and divi- 
sion of labor the colonies of ants, wasps 
and bees show great advancement. This 
eroup of insects is of great value to 
man, not only in the production of honey 
but in the even greater usefulness of 
fertilizing many of the flowers, which, 
without them, would never reproduce. 


See Cross-FERTILIZATION; BEE; ANT; 


Wasp; INSECTA, 

Hymn, Him, a religious song. More 
particularly, a hymn is a poetic com- 
position, divided into stanzas and de- 
signed for public worship. The hymn 


has been used in some form or another: 


for many centuries, for penitential 
hymns have been found on Assyrian tab- 
lets, and the sacred books of the an- 
cient Persians and Hindus contained nu- 
merous songs of this nature. In Greece 
there was a song to celebrate every event, 
and as early as 700 B. C. Archilochus 
and Callinus wrote hymns. Before the 
Christian Era the highest form of songs 
used in worship were found among the 
Hebrews, notably in the book of Psalms. 
Various other songs of praise occur 
in the Bible, such as that of Miriam in 
Exodus xv and that of Deborah in 
Judges v. 

Hymns were used in the services of 
the early Church, the oldest one extant, 4 
Hymn to Christ the Savior, dating from 
about 200. During the Middle Ages 
many fine hymns were written in Greek 
and Latin, among which are the great 
judgment hymn Dies Ire (Day of 
Wrath) and Stabat Mater (the Mother 
stood). With the Reformation came the 
introduction of hymns in the language 
of the common people. Luther, the great 
hymn writer of that period, left about 
37 songs, best known of which is his 
stirring battle hymn of the Reformation, 
A Mighty Fortress Is Our God. In 1524 
the first evangelical book of hymns was 
issued. During Luther’s time and for 
many years after, Germany produced a 
large number of great hymns. In Eng- 
land, we find such names as George 


HYMNS, NATIONAL 


Wither, John Milton, Henry Vaughan, 
Jeremy Taylor and Robert Herrick in 
the list of early hymn writers; later came 
Isaac Watts, and, still later, Charles Wes- 
ley, the author of 6000 hymns. Other 
famous writers of religious songs were 
Reginald Heber, John Keble, Frederick 
W. Faber and John Henry Newman. 
Among the great hymns of. England are 
two by women—Mrs. Sarah Flower 
Adams’ Nearer, My God, to Thee and 
Miss Charlotte Elliot’s Just as I am with- 
out One Plea, 

America has also produced notable 
hymn writers. Among the great hymns 
by American authors the following are 
representative of the best: One Sweeitly 
Solemn Thought, by Phoebe Cary; My 
Faith Looks Up to Thee, by Ray Pal- 
mer; Battle Hymn of the Republic, by 
Julia Ward Howe; Pass Me Not, O Gen- 
tle Savior, by Fanny Crosby; My Coun- 
try, “Tis of Thee, by Samuel Francis 
Smith; Softly Now the Light of Day, 
by George W. Doane; Ancient of Days, 
by William C. Doane; O Little Town 
of Bethlehem, by Phillips Brooks; I Love 
to Steal Awhile Away, by Pheebe H. 
Brown; Gently, Lord, Oh, Gently Lead 
Us, by Thomas Hastings; J Love Thy 
Kingdom, Lord, by Timothy Dwight. 

Hymn Tunes. Music was composed 
for hymns as early as the fourth cen- 
tury A. D., but it was not until the time 
of the Reformation that rhythmic music 
was used in connection with hymns. Pre- 
vious to this it had been of the nature 
of chants or somewhat somber in char- 
acter. It was Luther who aided most 
in adopting popular airs to sacred words. 
In England, the real history of hymn 
tunes begins with the 18th century, which 
reached their highest point in the music 
written for the hymns of Charles Wes- 
ley. The modern tendency, in America, 
for some time has been to use “catchy” 
music, especially in the Sunday school. 
There is an undercurrent of revolt, how- 
ever, against the cheapening of sacred 
music, which will undoubtedly bear fruit 
in time. 

Hymns, National, the popular songs 
which are expressive of the patriotic sen- 


1403 


HYMNS, NATIONAL 


timents of a nation or people. The term 
includes those songs which are used on 
ceremonial occasions and have received 
recognition ‘as national hymns by legis- 
lative enactment or royal decree, as well 
as songs which have won their way into 
popular favor independent of such rec- 
ognition. Folk songs are the basis of 
national hymns, but differ from them in 
being individualistic, rather than expres- 
sive of the ideas and feelings of a whole 
people. Among American national hymns 
which have become favorites are Yan- 
kee Doodle, The Star Spangled Ban- 
ner, Hail Columbia, Columbia, the Gem 
of the Ocean, Dixie, The Battle Hymn 
of the Republic and My Country, ’Tis of 
Thee. 

YANKEE DoopLe. The tune of Yan- 
kee Doodle was first heard in America 
in 1755, in the camp of General Brad- 
dock, at the beginning of the French 
and Indian War. The miscellaneous as- 
sortment of costumes worn by the colo- 
nial troops assembling in camp was a 
source of great amusement to the Brit- 
ish troops, and one of their number, Dr. 
Richard Shuckburg, remembered an old 
song with which the Cavaliers had 
taunted Cromwell when he rode into Ox- 
ford. The words were: 

“Yankee Doodle came to town, 
Upon a Kentish pony ; 

He stuck a feather in his cap, 
Upon a macaroni.” 

Dr. Shuckburg wrote down the notes 
and words of the old doggerel and be- 
fore long the whole camp was sounding 
with the song, in ridicule of the colonial 
troops. Later, the words which are now 
generally used were written and adapted 
to the tune, and were sung at the Battle 
of Bunker Hill in 1775.. The origin of 
the tune is uncertain. Several European 
nations claim it, among them Hungary, 
Holland, Spain, France and Italy. 

THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER. The 
author of this inspiring hymn was Fran- 
cis Scott Key (1780-1843), of Baltimore. 
In 1814 during the War of 1812, he 
visited the British fleet under a flag of 
truce, to obtain the release of a friend. 
Compelled to remain on a British ship 


HYMNS, NATIONAL 


during the bombardment of Ft. Mc- 
Henry, he remained on deck all night, 
waiting in painful suspense for the out- 
come of the battle. At dawn he turned 
his glass toward the fort, rejoicing to 
see that the Stars and Stripes still floated, 
and while on his way to shore composed 
the poem which is so well known. The 
air is that of an old English song, Anac- 
reon im Heaven. 

Hatt CotumBia. This song was writ- 
ten by Joseph Hopkinson (1770-1842), 
lawyer, congressman and judge of the 
United States District Court, in the sum- 
mer of 1798. At this time America and 
France were on the verge of war. A 
friend of Hopkinson, a young singer, 
desired a patriotic song for a benefit to 
be tendered him at one of the Philadel- 
phia theaters. In the state of public 
excitement, some ringing words to the 
tune of the then popular President’s 
March would bring a full house. Hop- : 
kinson produced the poem beginning 
“Hail, Columbia! happy land.” It imme- 
diately won popularity, especially as it 
appealed to all loyal Americans, regard- 
less of party or faction. The President’s 
March, to which the poem was adapted, 
was composed in honor of President 
Washington. Some dispute exists as to 
its composer. 

CoLUMBIA, THE GEM OF THE OCEAN. 


This popular song was written in 1843 


by a young actor named Thomas a 
Becket, at that time playing in Phila- 
delphia. It was composed to be sung 
on the benefit night of a fellow actor. © 
The melody was also composed by the 
author of the poem. The song became 
very popular in London, being there 
printed under the title Britannia, the 
Pride of the Ocean. | 
Dix1E. Though a Southern song, 
Dixie is a favorite throughout the North. 
It was written in 1860, by Daniel C. 
Emmett, an actor whose specialty was 
negro impersonations. The idea for the 
song was conceived by him several years 
before, when he was traveling through 
the North as a circus man. The expres- 
sion “I wish I was in Dixie’s land” was 
frequently heard on cold days when the 


1404 


HYMNS, NATIONAL 


shivering circus men recalled the sunny 
South. At the time Dixie was written, 
Emmett was singing in a Broadway thea- 
ter. He composed it for his own use, 
and, to quote his own words, “It caught 
on from the first and took the country 
by storm.” The tune is said to have been 
appropriated from an old negro air. 
THE BatTLE HyMN OF THE REPUBLIC. 


Julia Ward Howe, the author of this’ 


magnificent song, was traveling to Wash- 
ington in December, 1861, in company 
with her husband and a few friends. 
They reached the city at night, and the 
gleam of the camp fires and the sounds 
of preparation for war greatly stirred 
Mrs. Howe. During the next few days 
her first impressions were intensified by 
the military atmosphere in which she 
lived and by the enthusiasm of the sol- 
diers who sang, as they marched, John 
Brown’s Body. The words of her fa- 
mous hymn came to her one night after 
she had gone to bed, and it is recorded 
that she wrote them out at once, lest 
she forget them by morning. Mr. James 
T. Fields, editor of the Atlantic Monthly, 
in which the poem was first published, 
gave the song its title. Nearly a year 
later the prisoners in Libby Prison were 
led by Chaplain McCabe in singing this 
splendid battle hymn. 

My Country, ’Tis oF THEE, or AMER- 
IcA. This song was written by Samuel 
Francis Smith, a clergyman and hymn 
writer, in 1832, and was first sung in 
Boston, on July 4 of that year. It is 
the most familiar of American national 
songs. The air is that of the British 
song God Save the King. 

The following list gives the national 
hymns of several important nations: 

Austria, Gott erhalte unsern Kaiser 
(God preserve our Emperor). Music by 
Haydn; words by Haschka. 

Brazil, Hymn of the Proclamation of 
the Republic. Words by Albuquerque; 
music by Miguez. 

France, La Marseillaise, by De Lisle. 

Germany, Die Wacht am Rhein, by 
Schneckenburger. 

Great Britain, God Save the King, 
probably by Carey. 


HYPNOTISM 


Greece, Sons of Greece, Come, Arise. 

Holland, William of Nassau. 

Italy, Air—Royal March, by Gabetti. 

Japan (translated), May the Empire 
ash: 

Mexico, Mexicans at the Cry of War, 


. by Nuno. 


Norway, Song for Norway, by Bjorn- 
son. 

Russia, God Protect the Czar. Words 
by Zhukovsky ; music by Lyoff. 

Spain, Himn de Riego. 

Sweden, Out of the Swedish Heart. 

Hypatia, Hi pa’ shi a,(about 355-415), 
a Greek philosopher. She was the daugh- 
ter of Theon, an astronomer and phi- 
losopher of note in Alexandria. Hypa- 
tia was a woman of unusual beauty and 
chastity, both of mind and body. Her 
father taught her all the accomplish- 
ments and learning of the day, and she 
finally succeeded him as lecturer in phi- 
losophy at Alexandria. Her great suc- 
cess excited the jealousy of some of the 
Church Fathers, some slanderous tongues 
wagged against her, and at last a mob 
led by priests seized her on the way 
home from one of the lectures, and mur- 
dered her. Her tragic story furnishes 
the basis of Charles Kingsley’s Hypatia. 

Hyperion, Hi pe’ ri on, in earliest 
Greek mythology a Titan, the original 
sun god, later identified with Apollo. He 
married Thea, by.whom he was father 
to Aurora, the sun and moon. 

Hypnotism, Hip’ no tiz’m, the induc- 
ing of a state resembling sleep, called 
hypnosis. This state, though superficially 
like sleep, differs from it in many partic- 
ulars, chief among which is that known 
as extreme suggestibility. The subject, 
at the suggestion of the operator, is able 
to perform in a hypnotic state, actions 
which he is not accustomed to perform 
and at least feels unable to perform in 
his normal state. The majority of sub- 
jects, however, cannot without difficulty 
be made to perform actions which are 
contrary to their beliefs and to their nat- 
ural tendencies. Thus, though .a sub- 
ject seems readily willing to stab with 
a pasteboard dagger, he is unwilling to 
do so with a real one. 


1405 


HYPNOTISM 


The hypnotic state 1s seen to differ 
from sleep also in the rapidity of the 
pulse, the shortened respiration, the loss 
of feeling and the capability of produc- 
ing local physical changes, such as the 
dilation of blood vessels, the raising of 
blisters or the functioning of an organ. 
The suggestibility of the subject has led 
to the use of hypnotism in the curing 
of disease, and is practiced, though with 
care, by many physicians. During the 
ordinary hypnotic trance the subject is 
unconscious of his actions and fails to 


recall them after awaking. If, however, 
posthypnotic suggestions are given, they 


are carried out after the hypnosis is 
passed, and by such suggestions the mem- 
ory of the actions during the trance is 
retained. 

Hypnosis is brought about by various 
means: suggestions; downward passes 
over the face and body; pressure upon 
certain muscles, especially those at the 
root of the thumbs or upon the fore- 
head; or requiring the subject to fix his 
eyes upon some bright object and to fix 
his mind, as far as possible, upon va- 
cancy. The method of arousing the sub- 
ject is also by suggestion, that is, merely 
commanding him to “wake up,” or by 
making upward passes over the face and 
body. 

Autohypnotism, that is, the hypnotism 
of one’s self, may be induced by the same 
method as sleep is induced: relaxation 
of the mind and body or fixing the eyes 
and the thought upon one object. In 
the advance of psychological study, the 
value of hypnotism, its processes and re- 
sults are being more studied and better 
understood. No doubt the coming years 
will bring to light much that is at pres- 
ent misunderstood or wholly unknown. 
Hypnotism was formerly called mesmer- 
ism after Friedrich Mesmer, who first 
used it in curing disease. The present 


HYSTERIA 


name was applied in 1842 by James 
Braid, an English surgeon. 

A thoroughly readable book on the 
mental treatment of disease, and one in- 
cluding much valuable information upon 
hypnotism, is that by Hugo Munsterberg, 
entitled Psychotherapy. In James’s Psy- 
chology there is a full treatment of th. 
subject of hypnotism. 

Hyssop, His’ up, a Mediterranean 
herb of the Mint Family having the char- 
acteristic square stems, opposite, aro- 
matic leaves and two-lipped, tubular 
flowers of the class. The plant has been 
naturalized here because of its medic- 
inal properties and its use as a flavor. 
It has a coarse stem with stiff, long 
leaves, pointed at either end. The flow- 
ers, which are of pale violet color, are 
crowded closely in the leaf axils and are 
rather inconspicuous. The plant is found 
growing in waste lands from Maine west 
to the Rockies and as far south as Ten- 
nessee. A European hyssop is a member 
of the Figwort Family. The hyssop 
mentioned in the Bible as being used by 
the priest at the time of sacrifice is not 
the same as either of these, which are 
unknown in Palestine, but is a small leafy 
herb growing throughout the: eastern 
Mediterranean region. 

Hysteria, His te’ ri a, a nervous dis- 
order, affecting not only the brain and 
spinal cord, but the peripheral nerves and 
sympathetic system. Women are more 
commonly affected than men. Predis- 
posing causes of a hereditary nature are 
parental epilepsy, insanity, hysteria or 
alcoholism. . Hysteria is precipitated or 
aggravated by overwork, responsibility, 
worry, mental shock or injury to the 
nerves resulting from accident. The 
chief remedial features are change of en- 
vironment and relief from worry. Some 
cases respond to mental suggestion. See 
HyPNortisM. 


4406 


Pierre le Moyne, SreuR pv’ (1661- 

1706), a French Canadian soldier, 

naval commander and explorer, 
born in Montreal. After a training in 
the French navy he returned to Amer- 
ica, and, in 1686, commanded an explor- 
ing expedition from the. Ottawa to 
James's Bay. Later:he was active in 
King William’s War. In 1699 he sailed 
from France to the Gulf of Mexico in 
search of the mouth of the Mississippi. 
He established Biloxi and Mobile, thus 
becoming the founder of Louisiana. He 
died in France. 

I’bex, a name applied to several spe- 
cies of wild goats, all belonging to the 
Bovine Family and inhabiting Abyssinia, 
Syria and the Himalayas. The ibex is 
a swift, agile animal with huge, curving 
horns connected on the forehead by 
heavy, bony ridges. The Alpine ibex 
is called the steinbok or steenbok, and 
is fast becoming rare except in the lower 
Piedmont regions. 

I’bis, a heronlike bird with a long, 
curved bill. Many species are known, 
living in nearly all parts of the world. 
The sacred ibis of Egypt was venerated 
by the ancients and many mummies of 
them have been found. This bird is 
about 28 inches long; the body is white, 
with bare, black neck and purplish-black 
tertiary feathers falling over the tail like 
a plume. In North America two ibises 
are common: the white ibis, with pinky- 
white plumage, black-tipped wings and 
naked face and chin; and the white- 
faced glossy ibis, with dark chestnut 
plumage, the crown and wings with pur- 
plish and greenish iridescence, a white 
face and the space between the eyes and 
bill red. Both birds are from 19 to 27 
inches in, length. The nest of the lat- 
ter is made of rushes and other water 
plants and is placed among the rushes 
in a marsh. It contains three greenish- 


a ERVILLE De’ ber” veel, 


I 


blue eggs. The habits and food of the 


ibises resemble those of the herons. 


Ib’sen, Henrik (1828-1906), a Nor- 
wegian dramatist, born in Skien. He was 
an apprentice to an apothecary in Grim- 
stad for seven years, and later was a 
student at the University of Christiania. 
After directing the National Theater at 
Bergen he became manager of the Nor- 
wegian Theater at Christiania in 1857. 
His early plays were received with con- 
tempt, and he soon began to write satiric 
attacks on the igitorance and degenerate 
political condition of his country. Fail- 
ure to receive the poet’s pension and 
bitterness because of his circumstances 
in general caused him to leave Norway 
in 1864. He lived in Copenhagen, Dres- 
den, Munich and Rome, returning to 
Christiania in 1891. Brand, published 


1407 


LCARUS 


in 1866, brought him the pension he 
desired and met with enthusiastic re- 
ception. Following Peer Gynt, another 
lyric-dramatic satire, came the prose 
dramas, almost every one urging social 
reform. After 1901 his failing health 
made further mental effort impossible. 
He was a master of dramatic construc- 
tion and dialogue. In several of his 
plays the climax is represented as hav- 
ing occurred before the opening scene, 
the drama itself being concerned with 
the consequences alone. His themes were 
far from popular. Like Carlyle, he 
found society diseased; like him, too, he 
was content to point out the evil without 
proposing a remedy. He analyzed so- 
ciety, but he never posed as a moral 
teacher. Social hypocrisy was the ob- 
ject of his keen and well-directed satire 
time and again. Peer Gynt is Norway 
personified,—Norway with its faults and 
weaknesses; but the hero, as a human 
individual, becomes more than a type. 
This magnificent drama represents some 
of the best Europeon poetry of Ibsen’s 
time. In Brand he makes a brilliant pro- 
test against compromise; and through 
the hero—the priest who tries to live 
like Christ and suffers under the con- 
tempt of his weak and cringing compan- 
ions—the poet touches noble heights. 
Among Ibsen’s other works are The Pil- 
lars of Society, A Doll’s House, Ghosts, 
An Enemy of the People, The Wild 
Duck, Rosmersholm, The Lady from the 
Sea, Hedda Gabler, Lille Eyolf, John 
Gabriel Borkman and When We Dead 
Awaken, | 


Icarus, Jk’ a rus, mythical son of. 


Dedalus. See DapDALUS. 

Ice, water frozen into a solid state. 
Under ordinary conditions pure water 
becomes solid at 32° F. Impurities, 
such as salt in solution and increase of 
pressure upon the surface, tend to lower 
the freezing point. Sea water freezes 
at a lower temperature than fresh wa- 
ter. When water freezes, most of the 
salts held in solution are separated from 
it. Hence pure water can be obtained 
from sea water by freezing. When water 
freezes, it expands; hence ice is lighter 


ICE 


than water. This expansive force is so 
great that it is practically irresistible. 
Not only all glass and earthen vessels 
burst when water in them freezes, but 
iron vessels seem to offer no better re- 
sistance, and even rocks are rent asun- 
der by this force, many of the huge 
rocks lying at the foot of cliffs being 
broken off by water freezing at first in 
small cracks, then in the larger cracks 
formed each succeeding season. 

Ice Harvestinc. Natural ice from 
the lakes, streams and rivers of cold re- 
gions is harvested in winter. The first 
step is to clean off the snow and trash 
by means of a sort of a scraper; after 
this the field is run over by a marker 
drawn by a horse, which cuts parallel 
grooves in the ice about three feet apart; 
then another set of grooves is run across 


the ice field at right angles to the first — 


and about the same distance apart. The 


ice is cut into cakes by a special form of - 


plow, consisting of a steel bar, to which 
is attached a set of knives, one behind 
the other. The plow cuts into the ice 
only a few inches. When the plowing 
is finished, the first cake is cut out by 
a saw; the others are then split off by 
striking a wedge-shaped steel bar into 
the cuts made by the plow. The cakes 
are finally floated to the foot of an ele- 


vator, which takes them to the desired. 


story of the ice house, where they are 
packed in sawdust until needed. 

On the Hudson River, in Maine and 
on the lakes and streams of Wisconsin 
and Michigan, particularly near Chicago, 
many ice houses.of great magnitude are 
erected. Some of these buildings are 
nearly 300 ft. long and five stories high, 
and are equipped with galleries running 
the entire length of the building, which 
are lowered or hoisted, as may be de- 
sired, to.each of these stories for load- 
ing the ice. Special devices are used 
for loading cars from the ice house, and 
a steam power plant furnishes the power. 

MANUFACTURE OF Ice. In localities 
removed from natural ice production, it 
is often cheaper to make ice by arti- 
ficial means than to transport it. There 
are several types of apparatus for mak- 


1408 


4 
3 
4 


ICEBERG 


ing ice, all depending for stccess upon 
the principle that cold is produced by 
the expansion of compressed air, gas 
or a liquefied vapor like ammonia. The 
most commonly used machines are those 
in which anhydrous, or waterless, am- 
monia is employed, and in which there 
is an evaporator or congealer by which 
the ammonia is vaporized. This vapor 
is then compressed by a pump or air 
compressor, and when it is allowed to 
exparid in coils of pipe, produces intense 
cold. The process is made continuous 
and the liquid ammonia is used over and 
over. Cans of distilled water are placed 
in a tank of this liquid, which freezes 
the contents of the can into a block of ice. 
As this ice is free from all impurities, 
it is much preferred to natural ice. Re- 
cent improvements in the art have been 
productive of very low-priced plants on 
such scale as to allow hotels, hospitals, 
asylums, etc,, to install them and make 
their own ice and have means for cold 
storage. _See CoLD STORAGE. 

Iceberg, a very large body of ice that 
has become detached from its parent 
glacier on the shores of the polar regions 
and which floats about in the ocean, 
driven hither and thither by wind and 
current. Icebergs are sometimes several 
miles in-length and rise above the water 
200 to 300 ft. The part above the water 
is estimated at one-eight or one-ninth 
the entire mass. This does not mean, 
however, that icebergs extend eight or 
nine times as far beneath the surface as 
they rise above it. The greater part of 
the mass of the berg is near its base; 
therefore the depth may not exceed or 
even equal the height, as in case of 


those which taper to needlelike pinnacles. - 


However, most icebergs extend to a 
much greater depth, sometimes as far as 
1200:or 1400 ft. They often become 
‘grounded in shallow water, where they 
remain until broken up. 

Icebergs assume many fantastic forms. 
Sometimes they resemble mountain peaks 


or huge masses of rock broken from a . 


cliff. Again they take weird and fanciful 
forms consisting of pinnacles, domes, 
peaks and minarets, until they rival in 


ICEBERG 


beauty and oddity the most fantastic 
castles ever reared in the whimsical brain 
of a fairy princess. Icebergs often con- 
tain outlying spears which project out- 
ward under water and are very danger- 
ous to vessels, because they cannot be 
readily located. Large bergs often contain 
pools of fresh water formed by the melt- 
ing ice. Under the action of the sun and 
warm winds icebergs disintegrate rap- 
idly, often breaking apart by their own 
weight and with a report that sounds like 
the boom of a cannon. 

Fields of ice form on the surface of 
temperate waters in winter and break off 
in spring. A floating mass of field ice is 
called a floe, and an aggregation of floes 
caused by refreezing forms what is 
known as a pack. Icebergs are found in 
both the Arctic and Antarctic regions, 
but because of their danger to navigation 
those found in the vicinity of Greenland 
and floating southward receive the most 
attention... While the bergs move very 
slowly, their enormous weight gives them 
a power sufficient to crush the largest 
ship as though it were an eggshell. 
Therefore, they are greatly feared by 
navigators, and that part of the Atlantic 
in which they are most numerous has 
been the scene of many wrecks, the most 
disastrous occurring on Apr. 14, 1912, 
when the steamship Titanic was sunk by 
collision with an iceberg and over 1500 
persons perished. See Titanic, THE. 

Since most of the vessels plying be- 
tween the United States and Europe pass 
directly through that part of the Atlantic 
most thickly strewn with icebergs, the 
United States Hydrographic Office at 
Washington uses all possible means to 
warn ships of their presence. All ships 
approaching an iceberg or entering fields 
of ice are required to send out wireless- 
telegraph reports of the exact location 
of such bergs or fields. These reports 
reach the office at Washington and all 
ships in the vicinity, provided they carry 
wireless apparatus. Ship commaxders 
are also given directions for detecting 


‘the appoach of icebergs, such as the 


effect of their reflection of light upon 
the sky, the echo of steam whistles or fog 


~ 1409 


ICELAND 


horns and the booming sound given off 
when they fall apart. The near presence 
of a large berg is also usually indicated 
by a sudden drop in temperature. Ma- 
rine signal stations are maintained at 
numerous points on the coast of New- 
foundland, Canada and St. Pierre, from 
which information can be obtained. 
Iceland, a large island about the size 
of the State of Ohio, in the North At- 
lantic Ocean, a dependency of Denmark. 
It is situated about 250 m. from Green- 
land and 600 m. from Norway; its north- 
erly points are touched by the Arctic 
Circle. Of its area of 40,456 sq. m., 
only a small part is inhabited. - The 


ICELAND SPAR 


and dogs are common. The sea and sea- 
shore are dense with cod, flounders, her- 
ring and eider duck. The down of the 
latter is of great commercial value. 
The Icelanders—originally of Scanda- 
navian stock—in their struggle for exist- 
ence against nature, have developed stur- 
diness and endurance, and a quiet earn- 
estness touched with melancholy is their 
prevailing characteristic. They are highly 
intellectual, and illiteracy is practically 
unknown, as the children are early taught 
to read the old Sagas, with which Ice- 
landic. literature is so richly endowed 
(See LITERATURE, subhead Scandinavian 
Literature; Eppa). It is estimated that 


ICEBERG . 


plateaus and highlands are unfit for cul- 
tivation and an area of 5200 sq. m. is 
covered by glaciers. There are immense 
craters filled with water, but no large 
lakes. The snowfields give rise to large 
rivers, the longest of which are the 
Joktlsa, Thjorsa and Oelfusa. The cli- 
mate is not unduly severe, as the lati- 
tude might suggest, but snow falls on 
the interior highlands even in summer. 
The summers are short and cool; the 
winters, long and damp. The vegeta- 
tion is confined principally to the low- 
lands, and even the grass grows only 
within restricted limits. Heather is 
aburdant. Few trees attain other than 
a stunted growth, and no fodder is 
yielded for the cattle until the end of 
July. The fox is the most familiar ani- 
mal, though reindeer, cattle, horses, sheep 


in no other country are there so many 
books and newspapers published and sold 
in proportion to population as in Iceland. 

-The island was discovered by Norse- 
men about 870. One of the early settle- 
ments was Reykjavik, the present capital. 
The country was converted to Christian- 
ity in 1000, under King Olaf Tryggvason 
of Norway. In the 12th and 13th cen- 
turies intercourse with other countries 
was extensive. Iceland was joined to 
Norway in 1262, and in 1380 came under 
the rule of Denmark, becoming a sov- 
ereign state in 1918. The king of Den- 
mark rules Iceland. Pop. in 1910, 85,089. 

Iceland Spar, a transparent variety 
of calcite, so called because the finest 
specimens come from Iceland. It is used 
for optical instruments. See POLARIZA- 
TION OF LIGHT. 


1410 


ICE YACHTING 


Ice Yachting, Yo?’ ing, an American 
sport developed throughout the Northern 
States and Canada since 1790. Tourna- 
ments are held at Poughkeepsie and 
Newburgh on the Hudson River ; at Lake 
Minnetonka, near Minneapolis; Lake 
Winnebago, near Oshkosh, Wis.; on 
Lake Champlain, the St. Lawrence River, 
Lake Ontario and at other places; while 
hundreds of those living near small lakes 
use ice yachts for occasional recreation. 
The ice yacht has usually one large sail, 
and often a smaller jib sail. Races are 
ordinarily five times around a triangle 
measuring one mile on each side. Un- 
der favorable conditions and on a 
straight course, yachts frequently sail at 
the rate of from 40 to 70 m. an hour, 
running away from express trains on 
parallel tracks. The body of the yacht 
is in the form of a cross and is sup- 


ported on runners which are now of the — 


rocker type. One of the runners is 
mounted on a pivot and serves as a rud- 
der. 

Ichneumon, Jk nu’ mon, a small ani- 
mal of the Civet Family found in the 
region of the Mediterranean. Its size 
varies from that of a rat to that of a 
large house cat. In general color the 
ichneumon is brown, though it often has 
a black stripe at the back of the neck 
and a black tail; a southern Egyptian 
_ species has a hairy, white tail. The body 
is long, the legs short, the nose pointed 
and the eyes bright and active. In many 
countries, especially Egypt, it has been 
partially domesticated because of its agil- 
ity and skill in killing dangerous rep- 
tiles and discovering buried nests of croc- 
odile eggs, which it destroys. Under 
care the ichneumon becomes as fully do- 


mesticated as a kitten; it is variously ~ 


called mongoose, mungoos and, in Egypt, 
Pharaoh’s rat. 

Ichneumon Fly, a family of slender, 
bright-colored Insecta of the order Hy- 
menoptera. They have flattened abdo- 
mens, which are of a metallic luster, yel- 
low-banded antennz and yellow and black 
wings. Their life in the adult stage 
is short, lasting but a few days at the 
longest. They lay their eggs either be- 


ICONOCLASTS 


neath the skin of caterpillars or in trees 
which certain caterpillars infest. The tiny 
white cocoons of the ichneumon fly may 
often be seen protruding from the hairs 
upon the back of the caterpillar, and take 
up so much of its host’s vitality that 
the caterpillar seldom survives. Ichneu- 
mon flies are of economic importance 
because they destroy many injurious in- 
sects. See HyMENOPTERA. 

Ichthyosaurus, [k” thi o sor’ us, an ex- 
tinct order of fishlike Reptilia, the fossil 
remains of which occur in the Mesozoic 
rocks of Europe and North America. 
The animal had a round, tapering body, 
covered with thin, smooth skin; the head 
was long, with a long tapering snout, 
the neck short. The teeth were conical 
in shape and very numerous, as many 
as 400 occurring in a single mouth. 
There was one triangular fin in the mid- 
dle of the back and a vertical fin on the 
tail; the feet were broad and shaped 
like paddles. Skeletons of the animal 
found in rocks show evidences of pul- 
monary respiration, indicating that the 
animal lived in the air. 

Iconoclasts, J kon’ o klasts, (image 
breakers), the party in the early Chris- 
tian Church that objected to the presence 
and adoration of images in the house of 
worship. In the sixth century the images 
of martyrs and saints, placed in the 
churches as a remembrance, began to be 
worshiped, incense being offered in their 
honor and lights being burned before 
them. In the eighth century a strong 
sentiment was created against the use of 
images in worship, and a reform party, 
called Iconoclasts, arose, which declared 
that the Christians had fallen into idol- 
atry. Leo III, Eastern Roman emperor, 
was a zealous Iconoclast, and in 726 he 
ordered the people to abstain from the 
worship of images, whose destruction 
he decreed. The Bishop of Rome op- 
posed the royal edict and excommuni- 
cated Emperor Leo, besides cutting off 
from communication with the Western 
Church all Iconoclastic churches. The 
controversy lasted over a century. In 
842 a council at Constantinople sanc- 
tioned the worship of images in the Greek, 


1411 


ICTINUS 


Church. In its present use the term 
refers to one who attacks cherished be- 
liefs or ideas. 

Ictinus, /k ti’ nus, an Athenian archi- 
tect living in the fifth century B.C. He 
was a contemporary of Callicrates, and 
with him designed much of the Parthe- 
non. He also was the architect of the 
Hall of Mysteries at Eleusis and of the 
Temple of Apollo near Phigalia. Though 
little is known of his life, his ability is 
recognized from those of his works that 
remain. 

I’da, a mountain range of Asia Minor, 
extending through Phrygia and Mysia. 
The highest peak is Mt. Gargarus, near 
the plain of Troy, 5748 ft. in height. 
Another Mt. Ida, equally famous, is the 
one in Crete, rising 8000 ft. above sea 
level. In a cave of this mountain—as 
the legend runs—Zeus is once supposed 
to have been nurtured. 

I’daho, THE GEM OF THE MOUNTAINS, 
one of the Mountain States, is bounded 
on the n. by Canada, on the e. by Mon- 
tana and Wyoming, on the s. by Utah 
and Nevada and on the w. by Oregon 
and Washington. 

SizeE, The extreme length from north 
to south is 490 m. The length of the 
northern boundary is 45 m. and that of 
the southern’ boundary is 325 m. The 
area is 84,313 sq. m., of which 534 sq. 
m. are water. Idaho is about the size 
of Minnesota, a little larger than Kan- 
sas, about the size of New York and 
Pennsylvania combined, about twice the 
size of Tennessee and the 12th state in 
area. 

Popu.LaTIon. In 1920 the population 
was 431,866. From 1910 to 1920 there 
Was a gain in population of 106,272, or 
32.6 per cent. There are 5.2 inhabi- 
tants to the square mile and the state’s 
rank in population is 43. 

SuRFACE. Idaho lies between the 
Rocky Mountains on the east and the 
Cascades on the west, and the southern 
part reaches to that section of the United 
- States known as the Great Basin. The 
Rocky Mountains with their extensions, 
the Bitter Root, Coeur d’Alene and Cabi- 
net ranges, form most of the Montana 


_ making canyons rivaling any on the con- 


IDAHO | 


boundary. The northern part of the state 
is a succession of wooded hills and fer- 
tile valleys. To the west and farther 
south is the region of the Palouse Prai- 
ries, a succession of rolling hills; to the 
west of the Palouse region is a moun- 
tainous section, rich in ore. In the cen- 
tral portion of the state is its most 
broken and mountainous region, through 
which flow the Salmon and Snake rivers, 


tinent. In this region are the Seven Dev- 
ils, Yellow Jacket, Salmon River, Lemhi 
and Lost River ranges, some of whose 
peaks are 12,000 ft. in altitude. Bear 
River, Hansel, Black Pine, Goose Creek 
and Owyhee mountains are in a succes- 
sion of ranges across the southern bound- 
ary of the state, the general trend of 
these ranges being north and south. The 
highest mountain range is the Teton, on 


_the Wyoming boundary. The one great 


valley of Idaho is the Upper, Middle 
and Lower Snake River Valley, which 
includes numerous smaller valleys along 
the streams flowing into it. The eleva-— 
tion of the state varies from 7/00 ft. in 
the western part of the Panhandle, along 
the Snake, to nearly 7000 ft. in the ex- 
treme southwestern part, the mean ele- 
vation being less than 4000 ft. 

Rivers AND LAKES. With the excep- 
tion of a section in the southeastern part, 
the entire state is drained into the Co- 
lumbia River. The Kootenai, the Clark 
and the Spokane drain the northern part. 
The Clearwater and Salmon with their 
tributaries, both of which flow into 
the Snake, drain the central part, and the 
Snake with its tributaries drains the 
southern part. The Snake is the most im- ~ 
portant stream, and its chief tributaries 
aside from those already mentioned are, 
from the north, the North Fork, the 
Wood, the Boise, the Payette and the 
Weiser. From the south it receives 
the Raft, the Goose Creek, the Bruneau 
and the Owyhee. In the south-central 
part of the state is a region in which the 
rivers disappear in the earth. Some of 
them reach the Snake by subterranean 
channels. This region constitutes what 
is known as the Lost River drainage 


1412 


IDAHO 


system, of which Big Lost River is the 
most important stream. 

One of the largest inland lakes in the 
country, outside of the Great Lakes, is 
Lake Pend Oreille in northern Idaho, 
with 500 m. of shore line. Bear Lake 
in southeastern Idaho is next in impor- 
tance. Besides these, there are the Pay- 
ette Lakes, Hayden, Coeur d’Alene, Priest 
and many lesser but beautiful lakes of 
central and northern Idaho. 

SCENERY. The sides of the mountains 
are covered with forests and the low- 
lands are green with native grass or with 
the crops of the cultivated farms. Sho- 
shone Falls, on the Snake River, is one 
of the most noted cataracts in America, 
exceeding Niagara in height and rivaling 
that famous cataract in grandeur. Twin 
Falls on the same river are also of more 
than local interest, and Salmon Falls on 
the Salmon River are of equal impor- 
tance. Along the Snake River is a lava 
bed containing numerous geysers and hot 
springs. In Lincoln County is a cluster 
of springs known as the Thousand 
Springs, which discharge a large volume 
of water into the Snake River. 

CLIMATE. The state has a wide range 
of temperature owing to its extent from 
north to south and its many variations 
in altitude. On the plains and in the 
valleys the summers are warm but salu- 
brious, and there are occasional days 
when the temperature may reach 100°. 
In the uplands of the same latitude, how- 
~ ever, the temperature may be much lower. 
In the mountains the winters are severe 
and the fall of snow is heavy. On the 
lowlands the winters are mild and the 
snowfall is light. In many places stock 
grazes throughout the winter. The cli- 
mate of the entire state is modified by 
winds from the Pacific and is more equa- 
ble than in the regions of the same lati- 
tude east of the Rocky Mountains. The 
rainfall is heavy in the northern part, 
being 30 inches or more per year; in the 
central part it ranges from 20 to 25 
inches, and in the south it is less than 
15 inches. 

MINERALS AND Mrininc. Nearly all 
the mountain districts contain immense 


IDAHO 


deposits of gold, silver, copper and other 
ores. In 1921) theyoutput of “gold 
amounted to over $1,552,938; of silver, 
$6,184,989; of lead, $9,559,558; and of 
copper, $13172,;521 hey chien! minmet 
districts are the Coeur d’Alene, the Elk 
City and Oro Grand, the Buffalo Hump 
and Concord in the northern part of the 
state, the Silver City and DeLamar in 
Owyhee County, the Boise Basin dis- 
trict, the Wood River mines in Blaine 
County and the Lemhi County and Cus- 
ter County mines. Shoshone County in 


the northern part of the state produces 


the largest amount of ore. 

Coal is found in a number of places 
and mines’ are in operation in Teton Ba- 
sin and on the Payette River in Boise 
County. In the vicinity of Bear Lake 
are found some of the nation’s great- 
est beds of phosphate rock. Marble is 
found in the southeastern part of the 
state, and good building stone is found 
in practically all parts. 

Forests AND LUMBER. In the moun- 
tain regions in the north and north-cen- 
tral parts of the state are extensive for- 
ests of soft wood, including white and 
yellow pine, red and white fir, cedar, 
hemlock and tamarack. The central coun- 
ties are considered to have the largest 
virgin white pine forests in the world. 
Valuable forests are also found in the 


mountain regions in the: southwestern | 


part of the state. The government has 
established 20 national forest reserves 
within Idaho, covering 37 per cent of 
the state’s area; 19,890,000 acres in 


Idaho are recognized as forest lands.- 


There are within this area over 330 saw- 
mills working up about 650,000,000 board 
feet of lumber annually. 

AGRICULTURE. 
an irrigated fruit-tract area near Lewis- 
ton, irrigation is confined to southern 
Idaho, where the rainfall is less than 20 
inches. In 1910 irrigation had been de- 
veloped so as to include 2,457,000 acres, 
with a total length of irrigation canals 
in operation of 10,490 m. There are 
several United States reclamation proj- 
ects within the state. See IRRIGATION. 

Soil. Inthe mountain regions the soi! 


1413 


With the exception of. 


4 


IDAHO 


is somewhat clayey ; on much of the low- 
iands it is formed largely of decomposed 
lava and is very fertile. | 

Products. In the northern part of the 
state the chief crops are timothy and 
grain, with a limited acreage in fruit and 
potatoes. In the north-central part in 
the Palouse and Camas prairie regions 
small grain is the principal crop, with 
the addition of timothy in the Camas 
Prairie region. The Palouse country of 
Idaho, Washington and Oregon is one 
of the greatest wheat regions of the 
United States. The dry farm lands of 
southern Idaho grow large areas of win- 
ter grain; the irrigated lands, small 
grain, sugar beets, potatoes, alfalfa, veg- 
etables and fruit. Idaho has over 120,- 
OOO acres in fruit. Lewiston and Em- 
mett are well-known grape regions, Pay- 
ette is a great prune district, and many 
regions in northern, central and south- 
ern Idaho grow especially fine apples. 

The mountain sections afford unex- 
celled pasture grounds for live stock and 
here are found large herds of cattle and 
horses and flocks of sheep. The alfalfa 
of the irrigated valleys is encouraging 
the fattening of cattle and sheep and 
raising of hogs, and is aiding the rapid 
development of the dairy industry in 
southern Idaho. 

MANUFACTURES. The streams furnish 
abundant power. It is estimated that 
Shoshone Falls alone can furnish enough 
power to run all the railroads and elec- 
tric lines and provide electricity for light- 
ing and heating purposes for the entire 
southeastern part of the state. Owing 
to these conditions and the demands of 
the local markets, manufacturing indus- 
tries are multiplying at a rapid rate. 
Lumbering is the leading manufacturing 
industry. Next in importance is the 
manufacture of flour and gristmill prod- 
ucts. The production of malt liquors, 
making brick and cement, the manufac- 
ture of beet sugar and canning fruits 
and vegetables are other important in- 
dustries. 

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. The 
Great Northern Railway crosses the ex- 
treme northern county of the state diag- 


IDAHO 


onally. The Spokane International Rail- 
way also crosses this northern portion, 
connecting Spokane and northern Idaho 
with the Canadian Pacific Railway at 
Eastport across the north Idaho line. 
The Northern Pacific main line crosses 
north Idaho, and it has a number -of 
branch lines connecting most of the trade 
centers of north Idaho with each other. 
The main line of the Chicago, Milwaukee 
& Puget Sound Railway crosses north 
Idaho below the main lines of the roads 
already named, from Roland to Plummer. 
The main line of the Oregon Short Line 
crosses the state from the Wyoming line, 
running from Granger, Wyo., to Hunt- 
ington, Ore. A branch line running from 
Salt Lake, Utah, to Butte, Mont., crosses 
southeastern Idaho through Pocatello, 
Blackfoot and Idaho Falls, and extends 
north across to the Montana terminus. 
The Oregon Short Line has many 
branches in south Idaho reaching impor- 
tant farming and mining centers. The 
Payette Valley, the Pittsburg & Gill- 
more, the Idaho Northern and the Pa- 
cific & Idaho Northern railroads are 
short lines connecting several trade cen- 
ters with Oregon Short Line shipping 
points. There are interurban lines con- 
necting the cities of Moscow, Cceur 
d’Alene and intermediate points with 
Spokane, and others connecting Boise 
with Caldwell, Nampa and intermediate 
points. ) 

The commerce of the state consists 
of the shipment of gold, silver, lead and 
other mineral products, wool and live 
stock, lumber, fruit, grain, hay and po- 
tatoes, and the importation of manu- 
factured goods, farm machinery and such 
foodstuffs as are not raised within the 
state. 

GOVERNMENT. The executive depart- 
ment consists of a governor, lieutenant- 
governor, secretary of state, auditor, 
treasurer, attorney-general and superin- 
tendent of public instruction, all elected 
for a term of two years. The Legis- 
lature consists of a Senate of not more 
than 24 members and a House of Rep- 
resentatives of not more than 60 mem- 
bers, the members of both houses being 


1414 


wih @ Se 


IDAHO 


chosen for two years. The sessions are 
biennial and practically limited to 60 
days. ‘The judicial department consists 
of a Supreme Court of three judges 
elected by the people for six years; a 
District Court in each judicial district ; 
and Probate Courts and justice courts. 

EpucaTion. Idaho has an excellent 
system of public education, all State 
educational institutions and public schools 
being under the general direction and 
control of the State Board of Education 
of which the Commissioner of Education 
and State Superintendent of Public In- 
struction are executive officers. The 
schools of each county are in charge of a 
county superintendent. The State uni- 
versity at Moscow is at the head of the 
educational system. State normal schools 
are at Lewiston and Albion. The Idaho 
State Technical Institute is at Pocatello. 
The State School for Deaf and Blind at 
Gooding, and the Industrial Training 
School’ at St. Anthony. The College 
of Idaho is at Caldwell and Gooding Col- 
lege at Gooding. The Intermountain In- 
stitute at Weiser is a secondary school. 

STATE INsTITUTIONS. The hospitals 
for the insane are at Blackfoot and 
Orofino, home for the feeble-minded at 
Nampa, and the soldiers’ home at Boise. 

irinse ’ Phe chief ‘cities. are Boise; 
the capital; Pocatello, Idaho Falls, Mos- 
cow, Lewiston, Twin Falls, Cour d’ Alene. 

History. Idaho is a Shoshone name 
which refers to the brilliant sunlight on 
the state’s mountain peaks. The land 
was first visited by whites when Lewis 
and Clark (1805-1806) made their ex- 
plorations. In 1852 gold was discovered. 
In 1862 the finding of precious metals 
caused Fort Boise to become a flourish- 
ing town. Idaho City and Lewiston be- 
ing shortly established, Idaho was made 
a territory in 1863. It then comprised 
most of Wycming and Montana, and it 
was several years before it was cut down 
to its present dimensions. 

Of late years the attention of Idaho 
has been engrossed with the development 
of its rich resources. From having had 
no white inhabitants in 1860, it had 32,- 
000 in 1880. On July 3, 1890, it en- 


IDEALISM 


tered the Union. The state is rapidly 
increasing in population and wealth. 

GovERNoRS. George L. Shoup, 1890; 
Norman B. Wiley, 1890-1892; William 
J. McConnell, 1893-1897; Frank Steu- 
nenberg, 1897-1901; Frank W. Hunt, 
1901-1903; John T. Morrison, 1903- 
1905; Frank R. Gooding, 1905-1909; 
James H. Brady, 1909-1911; James H. 
Hawley, 1911-1913; John M. Haines, 
1913-1915; Moses Alexander, 1915-1917; 
D. W. Davis, 1917—. 

Idaho, University of, at Moscow 
(1889). The University of Idaho was 
opened in 1892. It offers the usual 
courses in arts and science and maintains 
colleges of agriculture, of engineering, 
and of law, and schools of mines, for- 
estry and education. It receives Federal 
and state support, and has an endowment 
of 286,000 acres of land. In 1922 it re- 
ported about 60,000 volumes in its li- 
brary. It has more than 1,500 students. 

Ide’alism (from Greek idein, to see), 
a term used in many ways. Its essen- 
tial characteristic is that it interprets 
reality as having a meaning or idea 
apart from sense-appearance, or in addi- 
tion thereto. In this inner significance 
is found the ultimate truth of the sub- 
ject under consideration. In philosophy, 
idealism is the doctrine that all reality 
is essentially psychical and has no exist- 
ence apart from consciousness. It may 
merely affirm the dominance of the ideal 
element in reality (Plato, Aristotle) ; or 
it may assert that the intrinsic nature 
and essence of reality is consciousness 
or reason (Hegel). Idealism does not 
necessarily deny the existence of exter- 
nal reality, but regards it as containing 
the same elements of reason and purpose 
that are present in the mind of the in- 
dividual. Many idealists claim that this 
involves the existence of an all-embrac- 
ing consciousness or Absolute Mind as 
the ultimate reality of the universe. 
Idealism is the antithesis of realism and 
materialism. Natural science is primarily 
concerned with the study of practical 
phenomena, as they appear in the world 
of nature, and its attitude toward these 
is necessarily realistic. It is different 


1415 


1DEAS, ASSOCIATION OF © 


with philosophy and religion, which are 


seeking the ultimate nature of things; 
hence the conflict often existing between 
science on the one hand, and philosophy 
and religion on the other. 

In literature and art, idealism is not 
satisfied with mechanical relationships, 
but regards nature and life as ultimately 
rational and purposeful. It attempts so 
to interpret reality as to make these char- 
acteristics apparent. Imagination and 
spiritual value-judgments therefore find 
a large place in idealism, which never- 
theless defeats its own purpose if it is 
untrue to the real. See PHILOSOPHY; 
REALISM, | 

Ide’as, Association of, the linking 
together of ideas, by the mind, in such 
close relationship that the thought of one 
recalls the other. The physiological basis 
of association is that when certain brain 
cells have once acted together, a connec- 
tion is formed between them such that 
the activity of one is transmitted to the 
other and the two will again act together. 
The chances of such connection rather 
than any other depends upon the fre- 
quency of these cells acting together, the 
lateness of their connection, the intensity 
of stimulus in their first working to- 
gether, the scarcity of other connections 
and the general condition of the brain 
at the time of receiving the impulse. 
The mental element of association is very 
similar. When two ideas have been ex- 
perienced together, the reappearance of 
one tends to bring the other with it, de- 
pending, as before, upon the frequency 
of their association, the lateness of their 
connection, the intensity of the stimula- 
tion and the interest in the subject. 

Laws oF AssociaATION. The laws of 
association are four in number: associa- 
tion by contiguity, by succession, by sim- 
ilarity, and by contrast. The first two 
depend upon the association at the time 
the connection was formed; the last two 
depend upon the connection at the time 
of the recall. Association by contiguity 
refers to a relation established because 
two objects were perceived at the same 
time; thus the odor of a certain flower 
recalls a certain person who wore it or 


IDOLATRY 


an event at which these flowers: were 
used. Association by similarity and asso- 
ciation by contrast are much alike. The 
sight of a stranger recalls a friend whom 
he resembles and a hot day reminds us 
of the pleasures of a winter day. Asso- 
ciation by contrast is primarily a modi- 
fied association by similarity, since the 
two have some point of likeness. 

The establishment of right associations 
in youth is important, since, though the 
memory may be good, it acts through 
association, and, in the effort of recall- 
ing, association is the whole foundation. 
Association should be direct as far as 
possible, that is, by objects themselves — 
rather than by pictures ; the word method 
of teaching reading is the product of 
the. psychological knowledge that associa- 
tion should be both as direct and as 
simple as possible. Punishments and re- 
wards to be of value should also be given 
with care. A punishment which fol- 
lows an act at one time but which does 
not follow it at another is not closely 
associated with the act and so loses its 
value, just as the lesson would be lost 
upon us if we sometimes burned our 
hands upon the hot stove and sometimes 
did not. Our various homemade systems — 
of recalling different things to our minds 
are common examples of associations 
which have an element of intellectuality. 
The pain following the touching of the 
stove.gave us an association through the 
senses which needed no further links to 
connect it with the act, but when we 
connect the telephone number of a friend 
with the date of a battle, or the letter 
we are to mail with the string on our 
finger, we have established a connection 
as an aid where our senses might have 
failed us. 

Idol’atry, the worship of an image 
which is looked upon as having in itself 
a supernatural or divine element. Idols 
may be “graven images” representing 
some person or deity, or they may be 
natural objects to which supernatural 
powers -are attributed, as animals. 
Among the Hebrews, idolatry was con- 
sidered to be one of the worst forms 
of sin by which the people were cor- 


1416 


IGNATIUS, SAINT 


rupted. More primitive peoples, how- 
ever, unable to grasp the idea of wor- 
shipmg an unseen God, or to formulate 
abstract principles of religion, used idols 
to express their inborn, though unde- 
veloped, religious sense. 

Ignatius, Jg na’ shi us, Saint. 
Loyo’La, SAINT IGNATIUS OF. 

Ignis Fatuus, /g’ nis Fat’ u us, or 
Foolish Fire, a luminous appearance 
sometimes seen floating over marshy 
places at night. It may be due to some 
gas or gaseous mixture capable of very 
slow combustion or to phosphorescence, 
but it has not yet been satisfactorily ex- 
plained. Other names of the same ap- 
pearance are Will-o’-the-Wisp and Jack- 
o’-lantern. 

Iguana, Jg wah’ na, a name applied 
to a large family of tropical American 
lizards, the largest and most powerful 
of the family. They are generally known 
by their high bodies, strong, flattened 
tails and comblike pouch at the throat. 
The males bear spines upon the head 
and back, but these are only rudimentary 
in the females. Some species of iguanas 
are edible. Their homes are on the 
ground or on trees and their food con- 
sists of insects and juicy herbs. See 
/LIZARD. 

Iguanodon, Jg wan’ o don, an extinct 
lizard, the fossil remains of which occur 
in the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous 
rocks of Europe. It was from 15 to 25 
ft. in length; the head was narrow and 
long; and the jaws heavy and furnished 
with strong, horny anterior beaks and 
numerous teeth. A large spinal bone, 
which rose in a ridge, extended from 
the head to the tail; the pelvic bones 
strongly resembled those of birds. The 
forelegs, which had four toes, were much 
shorter than the three-toed hind legs. 
The animal lived in trees, on the ground 
and in water, and fed upon vegetable 
foods. On the ground it walked on its 
hind legs and used its tail in a manner 
similar to that of the kangaroo. Re- 
mains of the iguanodon have not been 
found in America, but the animal is rep- 
resented by similar existing genera, no- 
tably the iguana, which includes the spe- 


See 


ILLINOIS 


cies popularly known as chameleons and 
horned toads. 

Ik Marvel. 
GRANT. 

Il’iad, a celebrated Greek epic con- 
sisting of 24 books. The authorship of 
the poem is a matter of dispute, but it 
is generally ascribed to Homer, who lived 
about 1000 B. C. The Jliad represents 
the gradual accumulations of singers for 
generations. Pisistratus, tyrant of 
Athens, is said to have first arranged 
the Iliad in the form in which it now 
exists. The action of the poem is con- 
fined to the last year of the siege of 
Troy, so that some knowledge of the 
events connected with the Trojan War is 
necessary to one who reads it. The Jhad 
and Homer’s other great epic, the Odys- 
sey, were looked upon by the Greeks as 
the authority in all matters of religious 
doctrine and early history. These poems 
exhibit in a remarkable way the varied 
powers of their author. In his descrip- 
tions, his portrayal of human character 
or his narration of incident, he is always 
a great master. With all their sublimity 
of language and conception the Iliad and 
Odyssey have a simplicity and tender- 
ness that make them poems of humanity 
tather ‘than of ‘one racevor time ioce 
Homer; TrRoyJAN War; ACHILLES. 

Illinois, Jl” i 01’, THE PRAIRIE STATE, 
one of the East Central States, is 
bounded on the n. by Wisconsin, on the 
e. by Lake Michigan and Indiana, on 
the s. by Kentucky, from which it is 
separated by the Ohio River, and on the 
w. by Missouri and Iowa, from which 
it is separated by the. Mississippi River. 
The Wabash River forms about one-half 
of the eastern boundary. 

Size. The extreme length from north 
to south is 385 m. The greatest breadth 
is 218 m. and the area is 56,665 sq. m., 
of which 622 sq. m. are water. , Illinois 
is almost the exact size of lowa or Wis- 
consin, a little more than one-half the 
size of Nevada, about the size of Eng- 
land and Wales and the 23rd state in 
area. 

PopuLaATION. In 1920 the population 
was 6,485,280. From 1910 to 1920 there 


See MiTcHELL, DoNALD 


49 1417 


ILLINOIS 


was a gain in population of 846,689, or 
15 per cent. There are 115.7 inhabit- 
ants to the square mile, and the state 
is third in population, being exceeded 
only by New York and Pennsylvania. 
Nearly one-half of the population is in 
and around Chicago in Cook County. 

SurFace. With the exception of the 
extreme southern part, Illinois lies wholly 
in the prairie region. Its surface as a 
whole is a great plain sloping gently 
toward the south. In the northern tier 
of counties there is a range Of low hills 
culminating in Charles Mound, 1257 ft. 
high, which is the highest point in the 
state. Along the Mississippi, Rock and 
Illinois rivers there are occasional high 
bluffs and in the northern part of the 
state the surface is rolling. In the cen- 
tral and southern parts, however, it is 
nearly level. The extreme southern part 
of the state is crossed by a spur of the 
Ozark Mountains and is broken and hilly. 
The highest elevation among these hills 
is 1047 ft. 

Rivers AND LAKES. Illinois contains 
over 275 streams, but most of them are 
small. The drainage is divided between 
two river systems, the Mississippi with 
the Illinois, and the Ohio with the Wa- 
bash. The Rock River drains the north- 
western part of the state and the north- 
east is drained by the Kankakee and the 
Des Plaines, which unite to form the 
Illinois. This is the most important 
stream wholly within the state, and its 
basin includes nearly three-fourths of the 
surface. The Illinois has become one of 
the leading fish-producing streams in the 
country. The fishing industry has its 
center at Havana. The chief tributaries 
of the Illinois are the Fox, the Vermilion, 
the Spoon, the Mackinaw and the San- 
gamon. The Kaskaskia drains the south- 
central part of the state directly into the 
Mississippi. The Little Wabash and the 
Embarrass drain the southeastern part 
into the Wabash, thence into the Ohio. 

Illinois has no large lakes, but in the 
northern part of the state are a number 
of small lakes noted for their beauty, 
which are popular summer resorts. Fox 
Lake is the most important. 


ILLINOIS 


ScENERY. Illinois has no towering 
mountains, deep valleys or high water- 
falls, but the state is noted for its beau- 
tiful prairies. The river valleys are ter- 
raced and in some places have high bluffs. 
The Valley of the Illinois is of special 
interest because in a former geological 
age it was through this valley that the 
waters of the Great Lakes found their 
outlet to the sea. Starved Rock in La 
Salle County, one of the highest bluffs 
in the state, rises perpendicularly 125 ft. 
above the water in the river. Deer Park 
and other canyons constitute a state park. 
In Randolph counties and St. Clair coun- 
ties are interesting caves, and at Piasa 
and at Grand Tower on the Mississippi 
are peculiar and interesting rock for- 
mations. 

CLIMATE. Illinois extends through 
51%4° of latitude and there is a marked 
difference between the climate in its 
northern and southern extremities. The 
temperature of the southern counties 
averages about 11° higher than that of 
the northern. The climate of the state 
as a whole is mild temperate, but the en- 
tire state is subject to sudden changes 
in temperature. Extremes of heat and 
cold, however, are of short duration. In 
the southern half but little snow falls 
and it remains but a short time. The 
average rainfall is 38 inches, somewhat 
heavier in the south than in the north. 
Throughout the state the climate is 
healthful. 

MINERALS AND MINING. The area of 
the coal fields of Illinois exceeds three- 
fourths the area of the state. The coal 
lands are south of a line drawn from 
Rock Island to the northern boundary 
of Grundy County and east of a line 
drawn from Henderson County to the 
southern part of Jackson County. Some 
of the veins in these fields are over 15 
ft. thick and the supply of coal seems 
inexhaustible. Wiliimeat Franklin, 
Macoupin, St. Clair, Sangamon and 
Vermillion are the great coal-producing 
counties. The best coal and thickest 
seams are just north of the Ozark Ridge. 
Illinois is one of the leading coal- pro- 
ducing states in the Union, 


1418 


ILLINOIS 


Oil fields 80 m. long are found along 
the Wabash River, chiefly in Crawford 
and Lawrence counties. Some natural 
gas is also found in this region. Lime- 
stone suitable for building purposes is 
found in 30 counties, but the quarries 
in Cook, Kankakee and Will counties 
are the most valuable. Lead and zinc 
occur in Jo Daviess County. Cement 
rock and sand used in making glass are 
found in the Valley of the Illinois River 
in La Salle County. Fluor spar is mined 
extensively in Pope and Hardin Counties. 

ForEST AND LUMBER. ‘There are some 
forest areas along the streams, but for- 
ests containing merchantable lumber are 
chiefly in the southern counties, where 
oak and other hard woods are found. 
There is some lumbering in this part of 
the state, the lumber being used chiefly 
in making crates, fruit baskets and fur- 
niture. 

AGRICULTURE. ‘The entire state north 
of a line joining Alton to Terre Haute 
is covered with deep, fertile soil, making 
the prairies of this section one of the 
richest agricultural regions of the world. 
South of this line, with the exception 
of a fertile strip some 30 m. wide along 
the Mississippi, and the productive bot- 
tom lands along the streams, the subsoil 
is a tight clay impervious to water, which 
makes good crops impossible in unusu- 
ally wet or dry seasons. The farms gen- 
erally are larger than in Ohio and In- 
diana. The greater part of them are 
tilled by their owners. 

Propucts. Corn is the most impor- 
tant crop and in its production Illinois 
leads the Union and the world. About 
10,000,000 acres are devoted to corn 
every year and the crop is between 350,- 
000,000 and 400,000,000 bushels, nearly 
half of which is consumed upon the 
farms. The other important field crops 
are oats, wheat, hay and potatoes. Bar- 
ley and rye are raised to some extent. 
Apples are raised in large quantities in 
Clay, Richland, Marion and Wayne coun- 
ties, and in smaller quantities in other 
parts of the state. In the southern third 
of the state peaches, pears, strawberries 
and other small fruits are raised. 


ILLINOIS 


The farms in Cook and adjoining coun- 
ties are largely devoted to supplying the 
Chicago market with vegetables, poultry, 
eggs and milk. The dairy industry is 
important also throughout the northern 
part of the state and in the region near 
St. Louis. The cultivation of flowers 
and ornamental plants and the produc- 
tion of nursery stock are also thriving in- 
dustries. Douglas, Coles and Moultrie 
counties in eastern Illinois produce more 
broom corn than any similar area in the 
world. Union and Pulaski counties south 
of the Ozark Ridge grow early vegeta- 
bles for the Northern markets. Cattle, 
horses and hogs are raised in large num- 
bers. 

Manuractures. Illinois is the first 
state in the Union in slaughtering and 
meat packing and in the manufacture of 
agricultural implements and _ distilled 
liquors. It is the third state in the total 
value of its manufactured products, be- 
ing exceeded only by Pennsylvania and 
New York. Abundance of fuel and ex- 
cellent transportation facilities afforded 
by Lake Michigan and the many rail- . 
ways of the state have combined to de- 
velop the manufacturing industries at a 
very rapid rate. Nearly three-fourths 
of the manufacturing interests center in 
and about Chicago. Among the leading 
industries aside from those already men- 
tioned are the manufacture of iron and 
steel and their products, of boots and 
shoes, of furniture, of pianos and other 
musical instruments, of soap and fer- 
tilizer and of clothing. Printing and 
publishing are also extensive industries. 
Chicago ranks next to New York in its 
publishing interests. At Elgin and 
Springfield are two of the largest watch 
factories in the country. Elgin is also 
an important butter market. In Moline 
and Canton are extensive works for the 
manufacture of agricultural implements. 
Rockford is surpassed only by Grand 
Rapids, Mich., in the manufacture of 
furniture. East St. Louis has a variety 
of manufactures. Quincy is noted for 
its stoves. Canton has large plow 
works. At Pullman are the larg- 
est factories for the manufacture of 


1419 


ILLINOIS 


railway cars in the world. There are 
large glass factories at Alton, Ottawa 
and Streator. White Hall, Macomb and 
Monmouth make the best quality of 
stoneware, sewer pipe and building tile, 
and Galesburg and Danville have ex- 
tensive manufactories of paving brick. 
Cairo has become the greatest lumber 
market in the state. La Salle leads in 
the smelting of zinc and the manufac- 
ture of cement. Other important manu- 
facturing cities are Joliet, Decatur, De 
Kalb and Bloomington. 

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. The 
transportation facilities of Illinois are not 
surpassed by those of any other state. 
Chicago is one of the most important 
lake ports, and through Lake Michigan, 
connection is made with all the leading 
ports on the Great Lakes. Chicago is 
also the greatest railway center in the 
United States and in the world (See 
Cuicaco). Next to Chicago, East St. 
Louis, Decatur, Peoria, Bloomington and 
Springfield are the most important rail- 
way centers. Many of the main roads 
are now paved with cement and in a few 
years, all will be. 

Electric lines are being extended to 
form systems. The most important of 


these extends from East St. Louis to : 


Springfield, Decatur, Champaign and 
Danville and thence to Indianapolis. 
Branches extend to Bloomington and Pe- 
oria. The Mississippi is navigable the 
entire length of the state and the [Illi- 
nois is navigable as far as La Salle. The 
Hennepin Canal connects the Illinois at 
a point near Spring Valley with the Mis- 
sissippi at: Rock Island. A canal will 
soon connect Mississippi and the Lakes. 

The commerce of the state is very ex- 
tensive. Coal from the Illinois mines is 
sent to all parts of the West and Nortb- 
west. Her agricultural products reach 
all the leading markets in the country, 
and corn and packed meat are exported 
to Europe in large quantities. Her manu- 
factures are also widely distributed. In 
addition to this, Chicago is the great 
distributing center of the country for 
the West and Northwest, and its whole- 
sale trade is next in value to that of 


ILLINOIS © 


shipped more cattle and sheep than from _ 
Iron | 
ore from the Lake Superior region 


any other market in the world. 


is brought here for the steel mills of 


Joliet and South Chicago, and grain from 
other states is brought here for tfans- ~ 


shipment. 
GOVERNMENT. 
tion was adopted in 1870. The execu- 


tive department consists of a governor, ~ 
lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, — 


auditor, attorney-general and _ superin- 


tendent of public instruction, elected for 


four years, and a treasurer elected for 
two years. The treasurer is not eligible 
for reelection. The superintendent of 
public instruction is elected two years 
after the election of the governor. 
Legislature consists of a Senate of 51 
members elected for four years, and a 
House of Representatives of 153 mem- 
bers elected for two years. ‘There are 


three representatives for each senatorial — 


district. The Legislature meets bienni- 
ally and the sessions are unlimited. 


The judicial department comprises a 


Supreme Court of seven judges chosen 


for nine years from the seven judicial — 


a 


New York. From her stockyards are © 


* 


The present constitu- ; 


» 


The | 


districts into which the state is divided; _ 
Appellate Courts, Circuit Courts and 


County Courts. 


are also Probate Courts. Justice courts 


In the larger counties — 


exist in towns and villages and have 


jurisdiction over petty cases. 
EDUCATION, 


The public schools of the ~ 


state are under the general supervision 


of a state superintendent of public in- 
struction. Those. of each county are in 
charge of a county superintendent. Cit- 
ies and larger towns maintain graded 


schools which are usually independent of 


county supervision. The district is the 


unit of administration, and each school — 
is controlled by a local board. A lim- 


ited number of rural schools have been 


consolidated. One or more townships — 


or portions thereof may be organized 
into a district for maintaining a high 
school. 


The state contains more than 


500 of these community high schools. — 


State normal schools are maintained at 
Normal, Carbondale, De Kalb, Charleston 


~ 1420 


ILLINOIS 
and-Macomb. The University of IlIli- 
nois, including the state agricultural col- 
lege, is at Urbana. The annual expendi- 
tures for the schoolsexceeds $100,000,000. 

There are over 40 seminaries and col- 
leges within the state, the most impor- 
tant being: the University of Chicago; 
Northwestern University at Evanston 
and Chicago; Armour Institute at Chi- 
cago; Lake Forest University at Lake 
Forest; McKendree College at Lebanon; 
Illinois College at Jacksonville; Wes- 
leyan University at Bloomington; Knox 
College at Galesburg; Augustana College 
at Rock Island; Monticello Seminary at 
Godfrey; and Rockford College (for 
women) at Rockford. 

StaTE InstiTuTIoNsS. The hospitals 
for the insane are at Kankakee, Elgin, 
Bartonville, Watertown, Jacksonville and 
Anna. The schools for the deaf and the 
blind are at Jacksonville and the insti- 
tute for the feeble-minded is at Lincoln. 
The soldiers’ and sailors’ home is at 
Quincy, the soldiers’ widows’ home is at 
Wilmington and the soldiers’ orphans’ 
home is at Normal. There is a United 
States soldiers’ home at Danville. The 
state penitentiaries are at Joliet and 
Chester, the state reformatory is at Pon- 
tiac, the state homes for delinquent boys 
and girls at St. Charles and Geneva. 

Cities. The chief cities are Spring- 
field, the capital; Chicago, Peoria, East 
St. Louis, Joliet, Aurora, Quincy, Rock- 
ford, Decatur, Bloomington, Elgin, Rock 
Island, Moline, Freeport, Danville, Gales- 
burg, Cairo and Evanston. 

History. Illinois was named from 
the Indians who lived on the bank of 
its principal river, also called, from them, 
the Illinois. Marquette and Joliet sailed 
up the Illinois in 1673. La Salle built 
Ft. Crévecceur at Peoria Lake in 1680 


and Fort St. Louis on the Illinois in 


1682. Kaskaskia was settled in 1695. 
The territory was surrendered to the 
British in 1763. George Rogers Clark 
of Virginia independently captured the 
British forts along the Mississippi and 
at Vincennes, Ind., in 1778-1779.  Illi- 
nois was given to the United States by 
the Treaty of Paris, 1/83, and was in- 


Lowden, 


ILLINOIS 


cluded in the Northwest Territory in 
1787. It became a separate territory 


_ with a capital at Kaskaskia in 1809, and 
-was admitted to the Union in 1818. 


After the insurrection under “Black 
Hawk,” 1832, the Indians left the state. 
The Illinois and Michigan Canal was 
finished in 1848. The first railroad in 
the state was built in 1850. It ran from 
Chicago to Elgin. Illinois, which sent 
nearly 250,000 men to the Federal army 
during the Civil War, was the scene of 
the Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858). In 
1871 occurred the Chicago fire; in 1887 
anarchist riots; in 1893, at Chicago, the 
World’s Columbian Exposition. In 1913 
women were granted the right to vote for 
certain specified offices. 

Besides three constitutions adopted re- 
spectively in 1818, 1848 and 1870, IIli- 
nois has had three capitals, Kaskaskia, 
Vandalia and Springfield. Consult Ma- 
ther’s The Making of Illinois; Smith’s 
Student's History of Illinois. 

GoverNors. Shadrach Bond, 1818- 
1822; Edward Coles, 1822-1826; Ninian 
Edwards, 1826-1830; John Reynolds, 
1830-1834; Wm. L. D. Ewing, 1834; 
Joseph Duncan, 1834-1838 ; Thomas Car- 
lin, 1838-1842 ; Thomas Ford, 1842-1846; 
Augustus C. French, 1846-1853; Joel A. 
Matteson, 1853-1857 ; William H. Bissell, 
1857-1860; John Wood, 1860-1861; 
Richard Yates, 1861-1865; Richard J. 
Oglesby, 1865-1869; John M. Palmer, 
1869-1873; Richard J. Oglesby, 1873; 
John L. Beveridge, 1873-1877; Shelby 
M. Cullom, 1877-1883; John M. Ham. 
ilton, 1883-1885; Richard J. Oglesby, 
1885-1889 ; Joseph W. Fifer, 1889-1893 ; 
John P. Altgeld, 1893-1897; John R. 
Tanner, 1897-1901; Richard Yates, 1901- 
1905; Charles S. Deneen, 1905-1913; 
Edward F. Dunne, 1913-1917; Frank O. 
1917-1921, and Len Small, 
1921—. } 

Illinois, or Illini, a federation of In- 
dian tribes of the Algonquian family, 
once occupying the land now included in 
the states of Illinois, lowa, Michigan and 
Missouri. Among these tribes were the 
Kaskaskians, Michigamis, Peorians and 
Cahokias. These Indians were consist- 


1421 


ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL 


ently friendly with the French during 
the French and Indian Wars, and were 
later, with difficulty, reconciled to the 
advance of the settlers. Less than 200 
of the Illinois Indians now remain in 
the United States, and these are chiefly 
on the reservations west of the Missis- 
sippi. 

Illinois and Michigan Canal, a canal 
which connects Lake Michigan, at Chi- 
cago, with the Illinois River, at La Salle, 
Ill. It is 6 ft. deep, 60 ft. wide at the 
bottom and 96 m. long. There are 17 
locks. Begun in 1836, this canal was 
completed in 1848, at a cost of more than 
$6,000,000. Later, the construction of a 
network of railways made it of less im- 
portance, and it j3; now little used. 

Illinois and Mississippi Canal, also 
known as the Hennepin Canal, a canal 
7 ft. deep, 80 ft. wide and 50 m. long, 
connecting the Illinois River near Hen- 
nepin and Spring Valley, Ill, with the 
Rock River, 27 m. above its confluence 
with the Mis:issinpi at Rock Island, III. 
This is the only boat canal constructed 
in the United States since 1850. It was 
completed in 1907, cost about $7,250,000, 
and is used principally for the transpor- 
tation of coal from the Illinois fields. In 
connection with the Illinois and Michi- 
gan Canal, however, it affords a short 
route for light boats going from Lake 
Michigan to the upper Mississippi. 

Illinois River, a river of the state 
whose name it bears. It is formed in 
Grundy County by the union of the Des 
Plaines and Kankakee rivers, and flows 
in a southwesterly direction until it joins 
the Mississippi 18 m. north of Alton. 
It is navigable for its entire extent, about 
350 m. The Illinois and Michigan Ca- 
nal connects it with the Chicago River 
and so with Lake Michigan, and the 
Chicago Drainage Canal also enters it 
through the Des Plaines. The chief trib- 
utaries of the Illinois are the Fox and 
the Sangamon, and the principal towns 
on its banks are Peoria, Ottawa and La 
Salle. See Cuicaco DRAINAGE CANAL; 
ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN CANAL. 

Illinois, University of, at Urbana 
(1867). The university campus lies 


ILLYRICUM 


partly in Champaign and partly in Ur- 
bana. This, with the adjacent experi- 
mental farm, comprises 1229 acres. 
Opened in 1868, as the Illinois Industrial 
University, it took its present name in 
1885. It includes colleges of liberal arts 
and sciences, agriculture, education, engi- 
neering, law a graduate school, and 
schools of library science and music. The 
colleges of medicine and dentistry and a 
school of pharmacy are located in Chi- 
cago. Connected with the university, 
and at Urbana, are agricultural and engi- 
neering experiment stations, also the 
state geological and water surveys and 
the office of the state entomologist. The 
university has many fine buildings, valu- 
able collections and a library of about 
five hundred thousand volumes. Its 
total annual receipts exceed $5,000,000. 
It enrolls about eleven thousand stu- 
dents, 

Tllit’eracy, the inability of a person 
to read and write. Compulsory educa- 
tion diminishes the percentage of illit- 
erates in a country; hence it is a fair 
test to judge the education, if not the 
intelligence, of a community, by the num- 
ber of illiterates found therein. 
many, Switzerland, Sweden and Norway 
the rate is low; in Spain, Portugal and 
the southern European countries there 
is a high percentage, and in the United 
States the percentage varies for differ- 
ent states, but for the country as a whole 


it is 7.7. In the other large countries 
it varies as follows: 

Germany ....0.11 . Canadaseaeen 10.20 
Sweden ..... 0.11 Belgium ....12.80 
Switzerland... 0.30 - Austria)iiee 23.80 | 
Scotland, ... 3:57. Italy ee 38.30 
Holland,..... 4.00 © Russiayyeeee 61.70 
Frances: 2% 4.90 Spain Vases 68.10 
England ..... 5.80 Portugaleieees 


Illyricum, J] lir' i kum, the name of 
the Roman possessions of varying bound- 
aries, but including the western region 
of the Balkan Peninsula, known as IlI- 
lyria. Southern Illyria came under Ro- 
man power about 168 B. C., and later 
the entire country was subjugated. In 
the time of Constantine the name ap- 
plied to nearly all of the Roman ter- 


1422 


In Ger- — 


IMAGE 


ritory east of the Adriatic, including most 
of the modern divisions of Bosnia-Her- 
zegovina, Dalmatia, Croatia, Montene- 
gro and Albania. The boundaries of 
this prefecture at one time extended 
until they included within their limits 
the cities of Athens and Vienna. The 
name Illyricum gradually ceased to have 
political significance as the Slavic people 
began to settle the Balkan Peninsula; the 
Albanians are held to be the descendants 
of the Illyrians subjected by Rome, but 
sufficiently separated from the tide of 1m- 
migration to maintain a distinct nation- 
ality. Illyria is the scene of Shakes- 
peare’s Twelfth Night. 

Im’age. See Licut; Lens; Mirror. 

Imag”ina’tion, the mental power by 
which new thoughts are brought into 
play. A vivid imagination left to its 
own guidance is apt to become uncer- 
tain and harmful; rightly restrained, it 
is a valuable power that becomes one 
of the richest products of the mental 
life. 

An imagination may be creative, like 
that of the poet and artist; or receptive, 
like that of the person to whom the 
poem or picture makes appeal. It is 
passive when the combining of ideas to 
form new products is unconscious, like 
that of the child who sees the fairies 
in the trees; or active, when the com- 
bination is intentional. The distinction 
between these two is, however, not defi- 
nitely marked. In its use the imagina- 
tion is termed scientific when its aim is 
purely intellectual; inventive, when its 
aim is utility and its purpose mechan- 
ical construction ; artistic, when its pur- 
pose is art and its aim beauty. 

Lack of imagination is generally due 
to repression and not to natural tenden- 
cies. Imaginative literature, fairy tales 
and legends, which were once seriously 
condemned, are now being once again 
welcomed on account of the service they 
do in cultivating an imagination which, 
later in life, accomplishes the inventions 
of the practical world of science and art. 

Im”migra’tion, the entrance into a 
country of settlers from a foreign land. 
Leaving the country for the purpose of 


IMMORTELLE 


residence is emigration; hence immigra- 
tion and emigration denote simply direc- 
tion to and from. Immigration may 
arise from political, economic or religious 
conditions, or from mere love of adven- 
ture. The economic gain of immigra- 
tion to new countries is evident. It adds 
directly to their available labor force, 
that is, to the number of adults erigaged 
in the work of producing wealth. Im- 
migration to the United States far ex- 
ceeds that to any other country. 

The immigration law of the United 
States, as revised by the Fifty-ninth Con- 
gress, provides for a poll tax of $4 for 
every alien entering the United States. 
The money thus collected goes into the 
treasury and constitutes a permanent ap- 
propriation for defraying the expenses 
of regulating immigration. The follow- 
ing classes are excluded from admission 
into the United States: all imbeciles, 
criminals, paupers, the insane and per- 
sons unable to support themselves. By 
the acts of 1882 and 1893 such persons 
are rejected and the steamship companies 
that bring them are compelled to take 
them back, the law clearly stating that all 
such aliens as become public charges 
from causes existing prior to their land- 
ing shall be deported at any time within 
three years after their arrival. Canada, 
the South American countries and Aus- 
tralia have also received a large immi- 
gration. See UNITED STATES, subhead 
Immigration. Consult Hall, Immigration 
(New York, 1906). 

Immortelle, Jm” or tel’, a common 
woodland herb of the Composite Family, 
known from New Jersey west to the 
Mississippi and north. The stems are 
erect and rise from one to two feet 
high, bearing dusty, narrow leaves. The 
clustered blossoms are of two kinds, fer- 
tile, or fruit-producing, at the outside 
and sterile in the center. The separate 
heads are circled with a number of dry 
chafflike appendages, white or yellowish- 
white in color. Immortelle is a familiar 
feature of dry autumn woods, where its 
heads of blossoms seem never to droop 
but to be, as the name implies, ever- 
lasting. 


1423 


IMPEACHMENT 


Impeach’ment, an accusation pre- 
\sented in legal form, imputing improper 
conduct on the part of a civil officer of 
the government and calling him to a de- 
fense before the proper tribunal. In the 
United States the House of Representa- 
tives has the sole power of impeachment 
and the Senate the sole power to try all 
impeachments. As a precaution against 
the use of impeachment for party pur- 
poses a two-thirds vote is required for 
conviction, and in such case the judg- 
ment cannot extend further than “to 
removal from office and disqualifica- 
tion to hold and enjoy any office of hon- 
or, trust or profit under the United 
States.” The whole procedure is con- 
ducted solely to the end that the public 
service may be relieved of dishonest offi- 
cials. The ordinary machinery of the 
law may later be employed to bring to 
justice any one removed from office by 
stich proceedings. 

Should the president be impeached the 
chief justice of the Supreme Court must 
preside. In states of the Union the pro- 
ceeding is practically the same as in the 
United States Government service. The 
House of Representatives brings the 
charges and the Senate tries the accused. 
When the governor is under impeach- 
ment the chief justice of the State Su- 
preme Court presides at the inquiry. Only 
seven times in our history have articles 
of impeachment been voted by the United 
States House of Representatives. These 
cases are: 

(1) William Blount, United States 
senator from Tennessee, in 1/97 was im- 
peached for conspiring with British offi- 
cers to steal Louisiana for the benefit of 
England; he was expelled from the Sen- 
ate. (2) Judge Pickering, of the United 
States District Court of New Hampshire, 
was impeached in 1833 for drunkenness 
and profanity while on the bench; he 
was removed from office. (3) Samuel 
Chase, a justice of the Supreme Court of 
the United States, was impeached in 1804 
for “highly indecent and extra-judicial 
reflections on the United States Govern- 
ment” in a charge to a grand jury; he 
was acquitted. (4) Judge West H. 


IMPRISONMENT 


Humphries, of the United States Dis- © 


trict Court of Tennessee, suffered im- 


peachment in 1862 for joining the Con-— 


federacy without previously resigning 
his office ; his office was declared vacant. 


(5) President Andrew Johnson was im-— 


peached in 1868, charged with violating 
the Tenure of Office Act; he was ac- 
quitted. (6) William W. Belknap, sec- 
retary of war in President Grant's cab- 
inet, was impeached in 1876, for cor- 
ruption in office. He resigned. The trial 
proceeded, but he was acquitted. (7) 
Judge Robert W. Archbald, of the Fed- 
eral Court of Commerce, was impeached 
in 1912 for sustaining improper business 
relations with coal and railway corpora- 
tions which had cases pending before 
his court. He was convicted early in 
1913, his sentence being removal from 
office and disqualification from holding 
further office under the United States. 
Imperialism, a political term applied 


to the policy of a government toward — 


the expansion of national control over 
geographical area greater than that with- 
in national boundaries. The policy, when 
logically carried out, results in the es- 
tablishment, or maintenance of colonies 
or dependencies. Each acquisition, or 
attempted acquisition, of new territory 
by the United States has met with much 
opposition, which was particularly pro- 
nounced at the close of the Spanish- 
American War. 
was employed as a “catchword” in the 
presidential campaign of 1900, especially 
with regard to the purchase of the Phil- 


ippines and the retention of Porto Rico. © 
The Supreme Court decided, however, — 
on Dec. 2, 1901, on the constitutionality — 
of expansion; and that extension of the — 


sovereignty of the United States to new 


territory guarantees liberty, the right to — 
property and the protection of the United ~ 


States to the people. 
Import Duties. See TARIFF. 


The term imperialism — 


: 
. 
. 
| 
¥ 


Impres’sionist, or Naturalist, School 7 


of Painting. See PAINTING, 
Imprisonment, /m priz’ ’n ment, in the 


strictest sense of the term, the legal con- 


q 


finement of a person in a jail or prison — 
provided by law for the purpose. In its 


1424 


IMPULSE 


broadest sense imprisonment means the 
restraint of one’s. personal liberty, 
whether or not he is forcibly detained 
within an inclosure. A person becomes 
a prisoner at the touch or command of 
an officer legally qualified to make ar- 
rests. Imprisonment is the punishment 
most commonly inflicted by courts for 
crime, the term depending upon the na- 
ture of the crime. The sentence varies 
from a few days, or even hours, to life. 
Persons under indictment for crime are 
frequently imprisoned to hold them for 
trial. Indicted persons can usually be 
released on bail. Persons wanted for 
witnesses at a trial are sometimes im- 
prisoned to assure the court of their pres- 
ence when needed. False imprisonment 
consists of illegally detaining one, and 
the person so detained can bring action 
for damages. 

Im’pulse, a tendency to activity 
which comes without the prompting of a 
definite reasoning. The impulses have 
been grouped in three classes: sensation 
impulses, those which cause us to fan 
ourselves to relieve heat, or to rub our 
hands for warmth; perception impulses, 
those which cause us to look up when 
we see others looking up; and imagina- 


tion impulses, those which cause us to’ 


dodge a threatened blow, or to do a 
generous deed. An impulsive action is 
apt to be the result of three kinds of 
impulses successively aroused; for in- 
stance, the simple act of going into a 
restaurant for lunch began with the sen- 
sation of hunger which stopped our read- 
ing; the imagination of satisfying the 
hunger led us to rise; and the sight of 
others entering a certain restaurant 
caused us to follow. 

Many impulses are never analyzed nor 
considered at all peculiar because they 
are common to all people, as the impulse 
to put food into the mouth when the 
body is hungry. Other impulses, how- 
ever, which everyone has in some form, 
if carried to any extent, amount.to mania, 
as the impulse to jump from a lofty 
building, to break fragile articles and to 
step over cracks in the walk. The re- 
straining of these impulses is self-con- 


INCENSE 


trol and results in a strength of char- 
acter not attained by those who always 
give way to their impulses. 

Inca, In’ ka, one of the leading tribes 
of South America, who formerly inhab- 
ited the region comprising Peru, Ecua- 
dor and the northwestern part of Bolivia. 
They were the most advanced in civiliza- 
tion of any of the South American tribes. 
They had a well-organized government 
which was systematically and justly ad- 
ministered. They constructed extensive 
irrigation works and built large grana- 
ries. They had a good system of roads, 
over which posts or public messengers 
traveled at regular intervals. The Incas 
possessed large quantities of gold and 
silver, which they used in decorating 
their temples and palaces, and many de- 
signs in gold and silver at the time of 
their conquest by the Spaniards gave 
evidence of the skill of their workmen. 
Their buildings were also so well con- 
structed that substantial ruins of these 
still remain. The Incas were conquered 
by the Spaniards under Francisco Pi- 
zarro, 1531-1533, but it required 40 years 
completely to subdue the inhabitants. 
Some authorities claim that as workmen 
in metals and engineers they excelled 
their conquerors. See PERu, subhead 
History; PIZARRO, FRANCISCO, 

Incense, Jn’ sens, a perfume whose 
odor is developed by burning. The in- 
cense used at the present time consists 
of some resinous base, mingled with 
sweet-smelling materials, such as oliba- 
num, benzoin, storax and powdered cas- 
carilla bark. These ingredients are placed 
in a censer so as to fall on hot charcoal, 
and their odor is then diffused through 
the building. Both the Greek and Ro- 
man Catholic churches use incense in 
public worship, but it is not generally 
used among Protestants. In the last 50 
years it has been restored to some ex- 
tent in the Anglican Church. The prac- 
tice of burning incense was a part of the 
worship of the sanctuary among the 
Jews, several allusions being made to it 
in the Pentateuch. The ancient Egyp- 
tians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Hindus, 
Greeks and Romans used incense in their 


1425 


INCLINED PLANE 


worship of the gods, and the Buddhists 
still make incense-burning a part of their 
ceremonial. 

Inclined’ Plane, a simple machine 
whereby a small force acting through a 
great distance can do the same work as 
a much greater force acting through a 
smaller distance. It is used commonly 
to raise weights, as when barrels are 
rolled up an inclined plank instead of 
being lifted vertically. Neglecting the 
retarding forces of friction, the general 
law of equilibrium for the inclined plane 
is as follows: To hold an object from 
sliding, the force that must be applied 
parallel to the plane is equal to the weight 
of the object multiplied by the height of 
the incline and divided by the length 
of the incline. If friction is present, as 
is always the case in practice, a some- 
what less force is required to hold the 
body from sliding or rolling down, and 
a somewhat greater force is required to 
move the body up the incline. The wind- 
ing of a road about a hill in its ascent 
to make the grade easier is an example 
of the inclined plane. In all cases, on 
account of friction, more work must be 
done when using the inclined plane than 
when lifting the body directly. 

Income Tax. See TaAx, 
Income Tax, 

In’cuba”tor, a contrivance in which 
artificial heat is used in hatching eggs. 
It consists of a chamber in which an 


subhead 


INCUBATOR 


even temperature is maintained by means 
of heated water surrounding it, and in 
which the eggs to be hatched are placed. 
It is sometimes warmed directly by a 


INDEPENDENCE 


jamp. <A good incubator imitates natu- 
ral conditions as closely as possible by 
making the air moist, as well as by keep- 
ing it at the correct temperature of about 
103°. F., and providing proper means 
for ventilation. The eggs should be fre- 
quently turned during the first few days, 
but later on they must not be touched 
until hatched and the chicks are dried 
out. Incubators range in size from two 
dozen to several hundred eggs’ capacity. 
About 20 per cent is the loss from fer- 
tile eggs in hatching, but great care and 
attention are required in operating an 
incubator and in raising the chickens 
afterwards. See Fowr, DoMEsTICc. 
Independ’ence, Kan., a city and the 
county seat of Montgomery Co., 165 m. 
s.w. of Kansas City, Mo., on the Ver- 
digris River and on the Missouri Pacific, 
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and 
other railroads. Independence is sur- 
rounded by an agricultural district, of 
which it is a center and distributing 
point. Its activities involve the opera- 
tion of flour mills, cotton mills, a win- 
dow-glass factory, planing mills, vitri- 
fied-brick works, paper mills, cracker 
factories, sugar mills, ironworks and 
Portland-cement plants. The vicinity 
abounds in natural gas and oil wells. 
There is a public library in the town, 
also a fine courthouse. The city is ad- 


ministered under the commission form ~ 


of government. Population in 1920, U. 
S. census, 11,920. ) 

Independence, Mo., a city and th 
county seat of Jackson Co., 3 m. s. of 
the Missouri River and about 10 m. e. 
of Kansas City, on the Chicago & Alton, 
the Missouri Pacific, the Kansas City 
Southern and other railroads. Independ- 
ence is connected with Kansas City by 
an electric railway and a fine boulevard. 
It is a stock-breeding center of impor- 
tance. In connection with the several 
industrial activities are operated flour 
and planing mills, scale works and a 
foundry. Independence has a public li- 
brary, a courthouse, surrounded by a 


public square, and is the seat of St. 


Mary’s Academy, under the auspices of 
the Sisters of Mercy. In the course of 


1426 


INDEPENDENCE HALL 


the Civil War two military encounters 
occurred here, the first, in 1862, between 
the forces of Colonel Hughes (Confed- 
erate) and Lieutenant-Colonel Buel 
(Federal); the second, in 1864, with 
General Pleasanton and General Price 
commanding the Union and Confederate 
armies respectively. Settled and incor- 
porated in 1827, Independence was char- 
tered as a city in 1889. Population in 
1920, U. S. census, 11,686. 

Independence Hall, a brick building 
in Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. It was 
erected between 1729 and 1734, and the 
tower was added in 1750. In 1735 it 
was first used as the Pennsylvania State 
House, later it was turned into an office 
building, and during the Revolutionary 
period it became a meeting place for the 
Continental Congress. Here Washing- 
ton became commander-in-chief of the 
American army in 1775, the Declaration 
of Independence was adopted on July 4, 
1776, and the Constitutional Convention 
assembled in 1787. The building is now 
used as a museum for Revolutionary and 
historical relics. 

In’dia, a great peninsula of southern 
Asia, forming, politically, a vast Brit- 
ish possession known as the Empire of 
India. It is bounded upon the n. by Af- 
eghanistan, Chinese Turkestan and Tibet, 
upon the e. by French Indo-China and 
Siam, upon the s. by the Indian Ocean 
and the Bay of Bengal and upon the w. 
by the Arabian Sea, Persia and Afghan- 
istan.. The Hindu Kush, Karakorum and 
Himalaya mountains form a great natu- 
ral boundary on the north, while Burma, 
on the east, and Baluchistan, on the west, 
politically are parts of India, although 
not lying within the peninsula. The Brit- 
ish Parliament considers India as that 
part of this region which is directly or 
indirectly under British rule or protec- 
tion. British India comprises only those 
districts under British law and excludes 
the Native States. In this characteriza- 
tion British India has an area of 1,097,- 
901 sq. m., or about one-third that of 
the United States; the Native States have 
an area of 691,253 sq. m., and the total 
area of India is 1,789,154 sq. m. 


INDIA 


PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. The sur- 
face of India has widely varied features. 
The great wall of mountains at the north 
comprises the highest upon the globe, 
and the passes through them lie at an 
elevation of from 17,000 to 20,000 ft. 
above the level of the sea (See H1npu 
KusH Mountains; KuENLUN Moun- 
TAINS; HIMALAYA MounrtTaAINS). South 
of these lie the plain of the Ganges and 
the Desert of Thar, or Indian Desert. 
The first of these is a level, fertile tract 
following the course of the great river. 
This is the most thickly populated region 
of India. The desert is separated from 
this at the west by a height of land 
which forms a watershed between the 
Indus and the Ganges systems; it is a 
barren tract extending from the foot- 
hills of the Hindu Kush Mountains to 


ethe Rann of Cutch, a northeastern in- 


dentation of the Arabian Sea. Where 
the peninsula begins to narrow between 
the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, 
there is a great interior table-land en- 
closed between the Eastern Ghats on the 
east coast and the Western Ghats on 
the west. The Nerbudda River and the 
Vindhya Mountains form its northern 
boundary, and the Nilgiri Hills, the 
southern. The northern part of the ta- 
ble-land is called Dekkan, and extends 
south to the Kistna, or Krishna River, 
a tributary of the Bay of Bengal; the 
southern part is called the Plateau of 
Mysore. Both have an elevation of from 
1400 to 3000 ft. and have numerous iso- 
lated peaks rising fully 2000 ft. above 
the plain. The slope is generally toward 
the east. 

There are many great rivers in this 
region. The Ganges, with its many trib- 
utaries, chief among which is the Jumna, 
flows across the northern part and 
through a great delta into the Bay of 
Bengal. The Brahmaputra joins the 
Ganges from the northeast. The Irra- 
waddy and the Salwen are rivers of 
Burma, while the Indus, with its afflu- 
ents, the Chenab and the Sutlej, is a river 
of Baluchistan entering the Arabian Sea. 
The rivers of the central part extend 
almost across the peninsula; of these the 


1427 


INDIA 


Godavari and the Kistna flow east and 
the Nerbudda flows west. See GANGES; 
Inpus; BRAHMAPUTRA. 

CLIMATE. Like the physical features, 
the climate of India is greatly diver- 
sified. In the north there are both sum- 
mer and winter rains, and at Cherra- 
pongee, a village in the Brahmaputra 
Valley, the annual rainfall averages more 
than 600 inches; this is the wettest re- 
gion of the globe. On the other hand 
at Sindh, lying upon both sides of the 
Indus, there is no rainy season, and 
sometimes years pass without any rain 
falling. In central India there is a light 
rainfall, and at the extreme south show- 
ers are frequent. This gives ample rea- 
son for the severe famines of some re- 
gions of India, while vegetation grows 
superabundantly in other regions. The 
temperature varies with the elevation, 
and ranges from the tropical heat of the 


coastal plains to the cold of the perpetual © 


snows upon the mountains. 
PRODUCTIONS AND INDUSTRIES. The 
native plants of India are of all types. 
Scattered blossoming plants of Arctic 
nature exist on the mountains; farther 
down the slopes are forests, not so ex- 
tensive as formerly, but now protected 
by the government. Teak, sandalwood, 
blackwood, deodar, cedar and oak are 
found, especially in the central tracts, 
while in the subtropical regions the mag- 
nolia, rhododendron, camphor and fig are 
the most common. At the mouths of the 
rivers and in isolated regions inland oc- 
cur dense jungles, where wild beasts 
make their haunts; apes, tigers, leopards, 
lions, elephants, buffaloes and many birds 
of exquisite plumage are among those 
seen. The bamboo is the useful jungle 
tree and is employed in innumerable ways 
throughout the country. The cultivated 
products include: wheat, raised in Pun- 
jab and the United Provinces; rice, the 
- staple food of Bengal and Burma; cot- 
ton, a product of the central region; 
opium, a government monopoly, raised 
chiefly in the Ganges basin near Benares ; 
tea, grown extensively in Assam, lower 
Bengal, the southern hills and the slopes 
of the Himalayas; coffee and cinchona, 


r 


<= 2 
i 
a 
« 


INDIA 


also southern products; and sugar cane, 
grown throughout the peninsula. Bar- — 
ley, millet, indigo, jute and oil seeds are 
produced in many regions. The mineral 
resources include iron, copper, lead, tin, 
coal, petroleum, salt, precious stones and 
some gold and silver. Of the experts, 
which are chiefly cotton, oil seeds, rice, 
jute, tea, wheat, hides and skins and 
opium, fully one-half go to Great Britain 
and China. : 

Agriculture is by far the leading in- 
dustry. Each province has a department 
of land records and a department of 
agriculture, which collect and dissemi- 
nate statistics, establish experimental and 
seed farms and control the agricultural 
schools and colleges. Manufacturing 
gives occupation to a comparatively small 
per cent of the people. Ee 

PEOPLE AND LancuaGe. India is a 
country inhabited by many races, and 
at least 25 languages are in use. In ~ 
the mountains and in the farther recesses 
of the table-lands live many of the orig- 
inal Indian race, who were driven from 
their homes in the valleys by incoming 
peoples. In the jungles are primitive 
tribes. Along the rivers are people of 
every nationality, but chiefly of the white 
race. All of these may be grouped in 
four well-marked divisions: the non- 
Aryans, or aborigines; the Aryans; a 
mixed race developed from the mingling 
of these two peoples; and the Moham- 
medan invaders. 

From this great mixture of peoples 
wide differences in civilization and po- 
litical status have resulted, and the Hindu 
caste system is an example of its effects. 


A caste is a class descending, or claim- -. 


ing descent, from the same ancestor, all 
members of which follow the same call- 
ing and belong in the same social group. 
The laws of caste have been very defi- 
nite, and marriage or association out of — 
one’s own caste is not only prohibited 
but constitutes an irremediable disgrace. 

RELIGION AND EpucaTIon. The Hindu 
religion, or Brahmanism, claims by far 
the greatest number of followers (See 
BRAHMANISM), Next in numbers are 
the Mohammedans. The Animist re- 


1428 ean | 


THE PRINCE OF WALES VISITS THE MAHARAJAH 


, VICNI YVSLIYNV LLY HTIdWaL NAGTIOO AHL OL AONVALNA 


INDIA 


ligion is the original faith of the aborig- 
ines and is still found among many 
tribes. The Christian religion has about 
~ 3,000,000 followers, and the remaining 
people are Buddhists, Sikhs and Parsees. 

Under English rule education has 
greatly advanced, although India has al- 
ways been an educated nation. There 
are at present nearly 131,000 public edu- 
cational institutions and 40,000 private 
schools. Among these are the five uni- 
versities—of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, 
Allahabad and Punjab. There are nor- 
mal schools in every province, several 
excellent medical schools and technical 
schools of all kinds. Education, how- 
ever, is not compulsory and illiteracy is 
still not uncommon. 


LITERATURE. See LITERATURE, sub- 
head India. 
GOVERNMENT. In 1858 all the territo- 


ries before governed by the East India 
Company came under the control of the 
British sovereign. The secretary of state 
for India is a member of the cabinet, 
and he is assisted by a council appointed 
by him for seven years. At least nine 
of the members must have lived in India 
ten years and not have left it over five 
years before their appointment. The ex- 
ecutive authority is vested in a governor- 
general appointed by the Crown, and his 
term of office is usually five years. The 
capital of the empire since 1912 has been 
~ Delhi. | 

For administrative purposes there are 
ten great provinces and four smaller 
_ ones. In the first group are Madras, Bom- 
bay, Bengal,, United Provinces, the Pun- 
jab, Burma; Berar, Central Provinces, 
‘Assam and North-West Frontier Prov- 
ince; in the second, Coorg, Ajmere-Mer- 
wara, British Baluchistan and Andaman 
and Nicobar islands: Though the prov- 
inces differ in their form of government, 
each has subdivisions and districts and 
each enjoys a degree of independence 
commensurate with its size. The control 
of the Native States varies, but each is 
ruled by a native prince, minister or 
council under the supervision of a resi- 
dent agent. 

There are 29 cities having a population 


INDIANA 


of more than 100,000. The most im- 
portant of these are Calcutta, Bombay, 
Madras, Hyderabad, Rangoon, Lucknow 
and Delhi. : 

History. The Indo-Europeans en- 
tered India in prehistoric times. Their 
sacred books, the Vedas, appeared pre- 
vious to the Christian Era; and Buddha 
lived as early as 500 B. C. Alexander 
the Great, when he invaded India in 326 
Bric. found flourishing independent 
Hindu states. The Mohammedan Em- 
pire was established in 1526, and Agra 
and Delhi attained the magnificence of 
Bagdad. In 1498 India was reached by 
way of the Cape of Good Hope, and 
a new era began. In 1765 many of the 
territories, including Bengal, were for- 
mally ceded to the English East India 
Company. In 1774 Warren Hastings 
became the first governor-general. The 
British Empire took control in 1858, and 
in 1876 Victoria assumed the title of 
Empress of India. Baluchistan was 
added to India at this time, and ten 
years later Burma was conquered and 
annexed. Population of provinces, 244,- 
267,942; of Native States, -70,864, 995; 
total, 315, 132,537: 

India Ink, a kind of black ink made 
originally in China and Japan, ‘errone- 
ously supposed to have come from India. 
It is a true black ink without any hue or 
tinge of color, and is indelible. It is 
made in China of lampblack or soot, 
mixed with a little glue or size and cam- 
phor and pressed together into cakes. 
When water is added to India ink, there 
is formed the ink used by the Chinese 
in writing, painting and drawing. Euro- 
peans and Americans employ a modified 
variety of India ink in fluid form for 
drawing and painting. When the. ink 
is made from the dried pigment from 
cuttlefishes and browned by an alkali, it 
is known as sepia, and is much used ‘by 
artists in drawings of landscapes and 
portraits. 

In’dian’a, THe Hoosier STATE, one 
of the East North Central States, is 
bounded on the n. by Lake Michigan 
and Michigan, on the e. by Ohio, on the 
s. by Kentucky, from which it is sepa- 


1429 


INDIANA 
rated by the Ohio River, and on the 
w. by Illinois. The Wabash River forms 
part of the western boundary, and the 
boundary line in Lake Michigan is 10 m. 
north of the most southern point in the 
lake. 

Size, The greatest length from north 
to south is 277 m. The breadth is 147 
m. and the area is 36,354 sq. m., of which 
309 sq. m. are water. Indiana is about 
the size of Maine and Delaware com- 
bined, a little more than one-third the 
size of Wyoming, a little larger than 
Scotland and the 37th state in area. 

PopuLaTION. In 1920 the population 
was 2,930,390. From 1910 to 1920 there 
was a gain in population of 229,514, or 
8.5 per cent. There are 81.3 inhabit- 
ants to the square mile and the state 
ranks 11th in population. 

SurFAcE. Indiana lies in the great 
prairie region of the Mississippi Basin 
and its surface is generally level or 
slightly rolling. In the northeast corner 
is a low plain which in places reaches 
an altitude of 1200 ft., and in the east- 
central part is another plain extending 
westward to a point near Indianapolis. 
In its highest point this plain has an 
altitude of 1285 ft. Along the Wabash 
River the surface is_a plain with little 
variation. South of Lake Michigan the 
land is low and swampy, but when 
drained, this land is very fertile. Bor- 
dering the lake is a row of sandhills, or 
dunes, which are of great interest to 
geologists and nature lovers. 

South of the Wabash the surface is 
rolling prairie until the four southern 
tiers of counties are reached. Here the 
surface is broken by deep valleys. This 
is a limestone region and contains nu- 
merous caverns. Wyandotte Cave, which 
is next to Mammoth Cave in size, is 
celebrated for its beautiful formations 
(See WYANDOTTE CAVE). 

Rivers AND LAKES. The Maumee 
drains the northeastern section and the 
Kankakee the northwestern. The prin- 
cipal river is the Wabash, which crosses 
the central part of the state and with 
its tributary, the White, drains most of 
the area. The White is formed by the 


INDIANA 


East Fork and the West Fork. The 
other streams are short and small. | 
In the northern part of the state there 
are a number of small lakes which are 
popular summer resorts. The largest are 
English, James, Crooked, Turkey, Tip- 
pecanoe and Maxinkuckee. BS 

CLIMATE. Indiana has a mild tem- 
perate climate. The average tempera- 
ture for winter is 31° and for summer 
76°. The southern part of the state has 
a warmer climate than the northern, and 
here in summer the thermometer may 
occasionally reach 100°, but the periods 
of excessive heat are of short duration. 
The average rainfall is 43 inches. The 
climate is healthful and the state is prac- 
tically free from drouths and destructive 
storms. 

MINERALS AND Mininc. The coal 
fields of Indiana are located in the west- 
ern and central parts of the state and 
have an area of 7000 sq. m. Bituminous 
and block coal are mined in large quan- 
tities. Block coal is of especial value 
because it can be used for smelting iron 
ore without first being made into coke. 
Over 17,000,000 short tons of coal are 
mined yearly, and the industry gives 
employment to about 13,000 men. 

Natural gas was discovered in the east- 
central part of the state in 1886. The 
gas field extends over Hancock, Henry, 
Hamilton, Tipton, Madison, Grant and 
Delaware counties. 
dance of gas led to the location of many 
manufactories in this part of the state, 
but a portion of the supply has been 
exhausted. Some wells that have ceased 
to yield gas when bored deeper yield 
petroleum. There are oil fields in Adams, 
Jay, Blackford, Wells and Grant coun- 
ties. From these fields large quantities 
of petroleum are obtained. Limestone 
and sandstone of excellent quality occur 
in the’southern part of the state. Bed- 
ford limestone found in Monroe and 
Lawrence counties is extensively quar- 
ried. Clay suitable for brick and pottery 
is widely distributed, and cement rock oc- 
curs along the Ohio River and in the 
northern part of the state. The state con- 
tains a number of mineral springs. The 


1430 - 


For a time the abun- - 


INDIANA 


French Lick and West Baden springs are 
widely known for their medicinal prop- 
erties. 

Forests AND LUMBER. Formerly the 
southern part of the state was covered 
with forests of hard. wood, but much of 
this region has been cleared and brought 
under cultivation. However, sufficient 
forests still remain to make lumbering 
and the manufacture of lumber products 
one of the leading industries of the state. 

AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is by far 
the most important industry, and fur- 
nishes occupation to the largest number 
of people. 

Soil. In the northeastern part of the 
state the soil is mostly a clay loam, with 
some level, dark loamy areas and nu- 
merous small peaty depressions. There 
are considerable areas of sandy and of 
flat and marshy land in the northwestern 
part of the state, much of which is still 
too wet for general cultivation, but drain- 
age operations are proceeding rapidly. 
The Wabash Valley is generally roll- 
ing, with a rich loamy soil inclining to 
be clayey along the eastern side. The 
southern part of the state, with the ex- 
ception of the river valleys, is hilly, es- 
pecially the three southern tiers of coun- 
ties, and the soil is almost all clayey and 
often lacking in fertility. The prairie 
regions of the state are practically con- 
fined to the northwestern corner. 

Products. The leading field crops are 


corn, wheat, oats, potatoes and hay; ap-. 


‘ples, peaches, pears and small fruits are 
raised all over the state, and the re- 
claimed swamp lands in the north are 
largely devoted to garden vegetables for 
the Chicago market. Large numbers of 
cattle and sheep are raised in the south- 
ern portion of the state, which affords 
excellent pasture for them. Horses and 
mules are a source of much income to 
the state. Dairying is one of the impor- 
tant branches of agriculture, and yields 
an income of nearly $16,000,000 a year. 
The income from poultry and eggs nearly 
equals that from the dairies. 
MANUFACTURES. There are important 
cat-packing plants at Hammond, and 
-aughtering and meat packing is one 


INDIANA 


of the leading industries. At Gary are 
the largest steel mills west of Pittsburgh. 
East Chicago also has steel mills, and 
the output of iron and steel of all these 
mills is large. Lumbering and the man- 
ufacture of lumber products is the third 
industry in point of value. The saw- 
mills are small and distributed through- 
out the forest region, but their com- 
bined output is important. The manu- 
facture of cotton and woolen goods and 
of knit goods, of machinery, of auto- 
mobiles and of carriages and wagons are 
also important industries. At South 
Bend is the largest carriage factory in 
the world. The manufacture of glass, 
though still important, has declined with 
the diminishing supply of natural gas. 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE. The 
state has about 7000 m. of railway and 
more than 1000 m. of electric lines. Rail- 
ways extend in all directions, and with 
the exception of the two southern tiers 
of counties the state is amply supplied 


with railway facilities. Some of the most 


important systems are the Pennsylvania, 
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the 
Big Four, the Grand Trunk, the Wabash 
and the Baltimore & Ohio. Indianapolis, 


Fort Wayne, South Bend, Logansport — 


and Lafayette are the chief railway cen- 
ters. Electric lines have in some local- 
ities been combined into systems cover- 
ing long distances. Indianapolis is the 
most important center of these systems. 
The Ohio is the only navigable river. 
Michigan City, Gary and East Chicago 
are important lake ports. 

The commerce of the state is exten- 
sive. Agricultural produce, live stock, 
iron and steel, carriages, automobiles and 
other manufactured articles are shipped 
in large quantities to the great commer- 
cial centers, and raw material for manu- 
factures and such foodstuffs and manu- 
factured goods as cannot be produced 
with profit within the state are imported. 

GOVERNMENT. The present constitu- 
tion was adopted in 1851 and the Aus- 
tralian ballot was adopted in 1889. The 
executive department consists of a gov- 
ernor, lieutenant-governor, clerk of the 
Supreme Court, elected for four years, 


1431 


INDIANA 


and other state officers, chosen for two 
years. The Legislature, known as the 
General Assembly, consists of a Senate 
of 50 members elected for four years and 
a House of Representatives of 100 mem- 
bers elected for two years. Sessions are 
held biennially. Regular sessions are lim- 
ited to 60 days and special sessions to 
40 days. 

The judicial department comprises a 
Supreme Court of five judges elected by 
districts for six years; an Appellate 
Court and Circuit Courts and minor 
Criminal Courts and County Courts. 

There are local legislative bodies in 
every township and county, that regu- 
late expenditures and the levying of 
taxes, and there is a uniform system of 
city government throughout the state. 

EpucaTIon. Indiana has an excellent 
system of free public schools. The edu- 
cational system is under control of a 
superintendent of public instruction who 
is elected for two years, and a state 
board of education, part of which is ap- 
pointed by the governor. The township 
is the unit for administration afid the 
schools in each township are in charge of 
one trustee. The township trustees of a 
county elect the county superintendent. 
There are also county boards of education. 
Township trustees have power to issue 
school bonds. Graded schools and high 
schools are found in all cities and larger 
towns. There are also central high 
schools in many of the townships having 
only rural schools. There is a state nor- 
mal school at Terre Haute, and the nor- 
mal schools at Valparaiso, Angola, 
Marion and Danville are accredited 
schools, as is also the teachers’ college 
at Indianapolis. Purdue University at 
Lafayette and the University of Indiana 
at Bloomington are at the head of the 
educational system of the state. The 
state agricultural college and agricultural 
experiment station at Lafayette are con- 
nected with Purdue University. 

The leading educational institutions 
not under control of the state are De 
Pauw University at Greencastle; Butler 
College at Indianapolis ; Earlham College 
at Richmond; Franklin College at Frank- 


INDIANA 


lin; Hanover College at Hanover; In- 
dianapolis University ; the University of 
Notre Dame at Notre Dame; Wabash 
College at Crawfordsville; Vincennes 
University ; and Rose Polytechnic Insti- 
tute at Terre Haute. Vie 

STATE INsTITUTIONS. The hospitals 
for the insane are at Indianapolis, Evans- 
ville, Logansport and Richmond. The 
school for the deaf, dumb and blind is. 
at Indianapolis. The state soldiers’ home 
is at Lafayette and the soldiers’ orphans’ 
home at Knightstown. The penitentiary 
is at Michigan City and the state re- 
formatory at Pendleton. 

Cities. The chief cities are Indian- 
apolis, the capital; Evansville, Fort 
Wayne, Terre Haute, South Bend, Mun- 
cie, New Albany, Anderson and Rich- 
mond. 

History. Indiana is connected with a 
most interesting period of American his- 
tory. The French explorer, La Salle, ex- 
plored its northern borders as early as 
1680, and French voyageurs, coming into 
the state by way of the Maumee Portage, 
worked their way up and down its rivers; 
Vincennes was an outpost station of 
France founded in 1724. It remained 
French territory until the Treaty of Paris 
in 1763 transferred it to Great Britain. 
During the Revolutionary War it was 
taken by General Clark as a part of his 
notable activities that secured for the 
United States that vast and fertile North- 
west Territory lying west and north of 
the Ohio River to the head waters of the 
Mississippi. Indiana was the second state 
carved from that territory in accordance 
with the Ordinance of 1787, coming into 
the Union as a free state in 1816. (See 
Northwest Territory). 

While yet a part of that territory, and 
thus on our western frontier, it was the 
scene of the great Indian battle of Tippe- 
canoe in 1811. The early settlers reached 
Indiana by way of the Ohio River and the — 
Cumberland Road and thus the southern 
part of the state was the first settled. 
After its admission to the Union the state 
entered on an era of quiet development 
characteristic of Indiana. 


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